Professional Documents
Culture Documents
*FM 5-424
Theater of Operations
Electrical Systems
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations.............................................................................................................. xiii
Tables .................................................................................................................................. xiii
Figures ................................................................................................................................ xiv
Preface.................................................................................................................................. xvii
*This publication supersedes TM 5-760, 23 August 1968, and FM 20-31, 9 October 1987.
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Installation............................................................................................................................... 4-2
Cable Support .................................................................................................................... 4-2
Damage Protection ...................................................................................................... 4-2
Bending ........................................................................................................................ 4-2
Box Connection .................................................................................................................. 4-2
Procedure ..................................................................................................................... 4-2
Cutting Cable ............................................................................................................... 4-2
Unwrapping Paper ...................................................................................................... 4-3
Attaching Antishort Bushing ...................................................................................... 4-3
Attaching Cable to a Box............................................................................................. 4-4
Additions to Existing Wiring .................................................................................................. 4-5
Circuiting ........................................................................................................................... 4-5
Cable Connections ............................................................................................................. 4-5
Armored-Cable Additions.................................................................................................. 4-5
Exposed ........................................................................................................................ 4-5
Concealed ..................................................................................................................... 4-5
Section II. Nonmetallic-Sheathed Cable Wiring ......................................................... 4-5
Advantages and Uses .............................................................................................................. 4-5
Materials .................................................................................................................................. 4-6
Cable................................................................................................................................... 4-6
Support............................................................................................................................... 4-6
Boxes and Devices ............................................................................................................. 4-6
Installation............................................................................................................................... 4-7
Cable Support .................................................................................................................... 4-7
Damage Protection ............................................................................................................ 4-7
Cable Bending.................................................................................................................... 4-7
Box Connection .................................................................................................................. 4-7
Entering Boxes .................................................................................................................. 4-7
Metal Boxes.................................................................................................................. 4-7
Nonmetallic Boxes ....................................................................................................... 4-8
Additions to Existing Wiring Circuiting ................................................................................ 4-9
Cable Connections ............................................................................................................. 4-9
Type NM Cable Additions ................................................................................................. 4-9
Exposed ........................................................................................................................ 4-9
Concealed ..................................................................................................................... 4-9
Section III. Cable Fishing with Access .......................................................................... 4-9
Section IV. Cable Routing Without Access ................................................................. 4-10
Routing Behind a Baseboard ................................................................................................ 4-10
Adding a Light and a Switch ................................................................................................ 4-10
Routing Cable Along a Wall.................................................................................................. 4-11
Routing Cable Around a Doorway ........................................................................................ 4-11
Routing Cable Through Back-to-Back Devices .................................................................... 4-11
Section V. Finishing Up ................................................................................................. 4-11
Mounting Boxes ..................................................................................................................... 4-11
Plain Box with Brackets.................................................................................................. 4-11
Plain Box Without Brackets............................................................................................ 4-11
Cut-In Box........................................................................................................................ 4-11
Ceiling Box on Hanger Bar ............................................................................................. 4-12
Ceiling Box with Offset Hanger...................................................................................... 4-12
Ceiling Box with Flange .................................................................................................. 4-12
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List of Illustrations
Tables
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Table B-14. Standard loads for branch circuits and feeders and demand factors
for feeders ...........................................................................................................................B-15
Table B-15. Requirements for branch circuits..................................................................... B-15
Table B-16. Voltage drop table (based on 3% drop)............................................................. B-16
Table B-17. Support for rigid metal conduit runs ...............................................................B-17
Table B-18. Radius of conduit bends .................................................................................... B-17
Table B-19. Minimum size (inches) of conduit of electrical metallic tubing to contain
a given number of 800-volt conductors .............................................................................B-18
Table B-20. Size conduit of electrical metallic tubing for combinations of conductors
(percentage of cross-sectional area of conduit or tubing) ................................................B-18
Table B-21. Dimensions and percent of area of conduit and tubing for combinations ......B-19
Table B-22. Dimensions of rubber-covered and thermoplastic-covered conductors ..........B-19
Table B-23. Characteristics of wire ......................................................................................B-20
Figures
Figure 1-1. Typical wiring diagram ............................................................................................ 1-3
Figure 1-2. Solderless connectors ............................................................................................... 1-5
Figure 1-3. Wire attachment to terminals ................................................................................... 1-6
Figure 2-1. Multimeter connection ............................................................................................. 2-5
Figure 2-2. Underwriter’s knot ................................................................................................. 2-12
Figure 3-1. Motor switch ............................................................................................................ 3-5
Figure 3-2. Circuit balancing ...................................................................................................... 3-6
Figure 3-3. Methods of grounding .............................................................................................. 3-9
Figure 3-4. Bell and buzzer wiring ........................................................................................... 3-11
Figure 3-5. Two-push-button system ........................................................................................ 3-11
Figure 3-6. Three-way switch wiring ........................................................................................ 3-11
Figure 3-7. Four-way switch wiring ......................................................................................... 3-12
Figure 3-8. Push-pull rotary switch .......................................................................................... 3-12
Figure 3-9. Typical wiring combinations ................................................................................. 3-14
Figure 3-10. Tapping stranded copper wire .............................................................................. 3-15
Figure 4-1. Armored-cable bend ................................................................................................. 4-2
Figure 4-2. Cutting and attaching cable ...................................................................................... 4-3
Figure 4-3. Cable connection to box with internal clamps ......................................................... 4-4
Figure 4-4. Installing a grounding clip ....................................................................................... 4-6
Figure 4-5. Removal of sheathing ............................................................................................... 4-8
Figure 4-6. Ceiling-mounted light .............................................................................................. 4-9
Figure 4-7. Method of fishing long run with access ................................................................. 4-10
Figure 4-8. Ceiling box with flange .......................................................................................... 4-12
Figure 4-9. Method of wiring into a receptacle ........................................................................ 4-13
Figure 4-10. Method of wiring into a switch ............................................................................ 4-13
Figure 4-11. Method of wiring into a light ............................................................................... 4-14
Figure 4-12. Method of wiring into a junction box .................................................................. 4-14
Figure 5-1. Rigid conduit and fittings ......................................................................................... 5-2
Figure 5-2. Bending rigid conduit ............................................................................................... 5-4
Figure 5-3. Attachment of fish wire ............................................................................................ 5-6
Figure 5-4.Thin-wall conduit and fittings ................................................................................... 5-9
Figure 5-5. Thin-wall conduit bender ....................................................................................... 5-10
Figure 5-6. Flexible conduit and fittings .................................................................................. 5-12
Figure 7-1. Open-type disconnect switch and components ........................................................ 7-1
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Figure 11-14. Entrance head below the roof line ...................................................................... 11-6
Figure 11-15. Typical underground service .............................................................................. 11-7
Figure 11-16. Typical overhead service .................................................................................... 11-8
Figure 12-1. Belt-in method ...................................................................................................... 12-2
Figure 12-2. Proper climbing position ...................................................................................... 12-3
Figure 12-3. Gaff positions ....................................................................................................... 12-3
Figure 12-4. Inverted-J method ................................................................................................ 12-4
Figure 12-5. Proper position for ascending a pole .................................................................... 12-4
Figure 12-6. Proper position for descending a pole .................................................................. 12-5
Figure 12-7. Lineman’s knot .................................................................................................... 12-6
Figure 12-8. Rescue position .................................................................................................... 12-8
Figure 12-9. Rescue-line position ............................................................................................. 12-8
Figure 13-1. Sample tag ............................................................................................................ 13-4
Figure 13-2. Proper use of a safety strap while working from a ladder .................................... 13-6
Figure 13-3. Methods of lowering equipment with a hand line................................................. 13-9
Figure 13-4. Climbers ............................................................................................................. 13-10
Figure 13-5. Method of protecting open manholes at night ................................................... 13-12
Figure 14-1. Continuity tester ................................................................................................... 14-4
Figure 14-2. Cause of a short circuit ....................................................................................... 14-10
Figure A-1. Basic circuiting symbols ........................................................................................ A-1
Figure A-2. General outlet symbols ........................................................................................... A-2
Figure A-3. Convenience outlet symbols .................................................................................. A-2
Figure A-4. Switch outlet symbols ............................................................................................ A-2
Figure A-5. Panels and circuits .................................................................................................. A-3
Figure A-6. Miscellaneous symbols .......................................................................................... A-3
Figure A-7. Fuse pullers ............................................................................................................ A-4
Figure A-8. Wire grip and splicing clamp ................................................................................. A-4
Figure A-9. Thin-wall conduit impinger .................................................................................... A-4
Figure A-10. Multimeter ............................................................................................................ A-4
Figure A-11. Steel electrical boxes and covers .......................................................................... A-5
Figure A-12. Special-situation boxes......................................................................................... A-6
Figure A-13. Typical box mountings......................................................................................... A-7
Figure A-14. Cable and wire connectors ................................................................................... A-8
Figure A-15. Straps and staples ................................................................................................. A-8
Figure A-16. Receptacles........................................................................................................... A-9
Figure A-17. Surface metal raceways ...................................................................................... A-10
Figure A-18. Attachment plugs ............................................................................................... A-11
Figure A-19. Switches and covers ........................................................................................... A-11
Figure A-20. Service switch box ............................................................................................. A-12
Figure A-21. Circuit breakers .................................................................................................. A-12
Figure A-22. Lamp holders and sockets .................................................................................. A-13
Figure A-23. Lamps, signal equipment, and reflectors ............................................................ A-14
Figure A-24. Braces, bolts, and washers .................................................................................. A-15
Figure A-25. Eyebolts, nuts, and clevises ................................................................................ A-16
Figure A-26. Clamps, pins, thimble-eyes, and clevises........................................................... A-17
Figure A-27. Guy-wire equipment ........................................................................................... A-18
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Preface
Field Manual (FM) 5-424 is intended for use as a training guide and reference
text for engineer personnel who are responsible for planning and executing
theater of operations (TO) construction. The five parts of this manual provide
practical information for military personnel in the design, layout, installation,
and maintenance of exterior and interior electrical wiring and power-genera-
tion systems. Figures and tables dealing with electrical parts and equipment
are contained in Appendix A; figures and tables dealing with electrical data
are contained in Appendix B.
Technical Manuals (TMs) 5-301 (1-4 series), 5-302 (1-5 series), and 5-303
present the Engineer Functional Components System, which is based on the
wiring techniques described in this manual. Future revision of the Engineer
Functional Components System will change the wiring systems that are cur-
rently used to more modern methods of cable and conduit wiring.
Acknowledgement
This publication contains copyrighted material that is used with permission
from Basic Home Wiring, copyright © 1987, Sunset Publishing Corporation,
Menlo Park, California 94025.
xvii
FM 5-424
CHAPTER 1
Fundamentals
This manual emphasizes the constructional aspects of electric wiring. The
term phase is used when referring to the angular displacement between two or
more like quantities, either alternating electromotive force (EMF) or alternat-
ing current (AC). It is also used for distinguishing the different types of AC
generators. For example, a machine designed to generate a single EMF wave
is called a single-phase alternator, and one designed to generate two or more
EMF waves is called a polyphase alternator.
USAGE
Power generators produce single- or three- The most common electrical system is the
phase voltages that can be used for electri- three-phase system. The generated EMFs
cal power systems at generated voltages or are 120 degrees apart in phase. As shown in
through transformer systems. Single-phase Table B-1 (C, D, E), three-phase systems
generators are normally used only for small may be carried by three or four wires. If con-
nected in a delta (∆), the common phase
lighting and single-phase motor loads. If the
voltage is 240 volts. Some systems generate
generated voltage is 120 volts, a two-wire
480 or 600 volts. If the delta has a grounded
system is used (see Table B-1[A], page B-1). center-tap neutral, then a voltage equal to
In this situation, one conductor is grounded half the phase voltage is available. If the
and the other is ungrounded, or hot. The phases are Y-connected, then the phase volt-
generated single-phase voltage can be 240 age is equal to 1.73 times the phase-to-neu-
volts. This voltage is normally used for tral voltage. The most common electrical
larger single-phase motors. To provide system found in the military is the three-
power to lighting loads, the 240-volt phase is phase, four-wire, 208/120-volt system.
center-tapped to provide a three-wire, sin-
gle-phase system (see Table B-1[B]). The Single-phase, three-wire systems and three-
center tap is the grounded neutral conduc- phase, four-wire systems provide voltages
for both lighting and power loads. If the load
tor. The voltage is 120 volts from this
between each of the three phases or between
grounded conductor to either of the two
the two ungrounded conductors and their
ungrounded conductors. This is half of the grounded center-tap neutral are equal, a
total phase value. The voltage between the balanced circuit exists. When this occurs, no
two ungrounded conductors is 240 volts. current is flowing in the neutral conductor.
This system provides power for both lighting Because of this, two ungrounded conductors
and single-phase, 240-volt motors. and one grounded neutral may be used to
Fundamentals 1-1
FM 5-424
feed two circuits. Thus, three conductors connected in parallel between the constant-
may be used where four are normally potential lines. The three-wire system pro-
required. vides twice the potential difference between
the outside wires as it does between either of
Electric lamps for indoor lighting in the the outside wires and the central or neutral
United States (US) generally operate at 100 wire. This system makes it possible to oper-
to 120 volts from constant-potential circuits. ate large motors at 240 volts, while lamps
Two- and three-wire distribution systems, and smaller motors operate at 120 volts.
either direct current (DC) or single-phase When the load is unbalanced, a current in
AC, are widely used for lighting installa- the neutral wire corresponds to the differ-
tions. ence in current taken by the two sides. A
balance of load is sought in laying out the
wiring for lighting installations.
These systems of distribution are capable of
handling both lamp and motor loads
1-2 Fundamentals
FM 5-424
60 W 60 W 60 W
40 W 40 W 40 W
60 W 60 W 60 W
Dry-cleaning
Tailor collection Laundry
Bulk storage 60 W 60 W 60 W
40 W 40 W 40 W
25 W 25 W
Passage
Store
A2
A1, A2
B2
Administration Barber shop
B1, B2 A6
A3, A4 A3
A5, A6
CB Panel B
CB Panel A
3-#8 Service
ELECTRICAL PLAN
Scale No 1
Graphic Scale
0' 5' 10' 15' Electrical Notes
Connected Load
No 1
Lighting 5.15 kW
Recp est 1.2 kW
Total 6.35 kW
1. Unless otherwise noted on plan, all lamps to
be 100 W.
2. All 40-, 60-, and 100-W lamps to have 8″ con-
ical shades.
Fundamentals 1-3
FM 5-424
You may encounter drawings in which the or follow the installation standards
lines indicating the wiring have been described in Chapter 3.
omitted. This type of drawing shows only
fixture and equipment symbols, and the DRAWING NOTES
electrician must determine the location of A list of drawing notes is ordinarily provided
the actual wiring. Electrical drawings do not on a schematic wiring diagram to designate
show any actual dimensions or dimension special wiring requirements and to indicate
lines. Location dimensions and spacing building conditions that alter standard
requirements are given in the form of notes installation methods.
COLOR CODING
Standard color coding requires that a and used in that order in two-, three-, or
grounded or neutral conductor be identified four-wire circuits, respectively. All circuit
by an outer color of white or neutral gray for conductors of the same color must be con-
No 6 wire or smaller. Larger conductors can
nected to the same hot feeder conductor
be identified either by an outer identifica-
throughout the installation. A grounding
tion of white or neutral gray or by white
markings at the terminals. The ungrounded conductor, used solely for grounding pur-
conductors of a circuit should be identified poses, should be bare or have a green cover-
with insulation colored black, red, and blue ing.
SPLICES
A spliced wire must be as good a conductor Follow the steps below to connect a wire nut:
as a continuous conductor. Splices should be
avoided whenever possible, but they are per- Step 1. Strip off about 1 inch of insulation
mitted anywhere if they are located inside from the ends of the wires that you are going
an electrical box. The best wiring practice to join. Twist the stripped ends clockwise at
(including open wiring systems) is to run least one and one-half turns.
continuous wires from the service box to the
outlets. Step 2. Snip 3/8 to 1/2 inch off the twisted
wires so that the ends are even.
SOLDERLESS
Connectors (Figure 1-2) are sometimes used Step 3. Screw the wire nut on clockwise.
in place of splices because they are easier to
install. Since heavy wires are difficult to
splice and solder properly, split-bolt connec-
tors are commonly used for wire joints. Sold-
erless connectors, popularly called wire nuts,
DANGER
are used for connecting small-gauge and fix-
Under no conditions should
ture wires. One design consists of a funnel-
shaped, metal spring insert that is molded splices be pulled through con-
into a plastic shell; the other type has a duit. Splices must be placed
removable insert that contains a setscrew to in appropriate electrical boxes
clamp the wires. In either design, the plastic so that the hot wire will not
shell is screwed onto the insert to cover the come into contact with the
joint. grounding system.
1-4 Fundamentals
FM 5-424
Split-bolt connector
Wire nut
SOLDERED TAPED
When a solderless connector is not used, the Use plastic tape to insulate splices for tem-
splice must be soldered before it is consid- porary or expedient wiring. On a two-
ered to be as good as the original conductor. conductor cable, separate the two legs.
The primary requirements for obtaining a Secure the tape on one leg, tape the first leg,
good solder joint are a clean soldering iron, a close the legs together, and tape the wire
clean joint, and a nonacid flux. These splice past the end. Adequately cover all
requirements can be satisfied by using pure bare copper. Apply three layers for voltages
rosin on the joint or by using a rosin-core up to 600 volts. Half lap the tape (overlap by
solder. To ensure a good solder joint, apply half the width of the tape) for padded
the electric-heated or copper soldering iron mechanical protection.
to the joint until the joint melts the solder
by its own heat.
Fundamentals 1-5
FM 5-424
Right Wrong
JOB SEQUENCE
SCOPE the wire, cable, or conduit will expedite the
The installation of interior wiring is gener- job.
ally divided into two major divisions called
roughing-in and finishing. Roughing-in is
Step 3. Pulling wires in conduit between
the installation of outlet boxes, cable wire,
boxes. This step, which can be included as
and conduit. Finishing includes the installa-
the first step in the finishing phase, requires
tion of switches, receptacles, covers, and fix-
care in handling of the wires to prevent mar-
tures and the completion of the service.
ring the finished wall or floor surfaces.
Other trades use the interval between these
two work periods for plastering, enclosing
walls, finishing walls, and trimming. FINISHING
Step 1. Splicing the joints in the outlet and
ROUGHING-IN junction boxes and connecting the grounding
Step 1. Mounting outlet boxes. This step can wires. This step ensures the proper installa-
be expedited if the locations of all boxes are tion of leads to the terminals of switches,
first marked on the studs and joists of the ceiling and wall outlets, and fixtures.
building. Some boxes have special brackets
for mounting on the building members. All
boxes that are to be concealed must be Step 2. Attaching the devices and their
installed so that the forward edge or plaster cover plates to the boxes. This step ensures
ring of the boxes will be flush with the fin- that the service-entrance cable and fusing or
ished walls. circuit-breaker panels are connected and the
circuits are fused. The fixtures are generally
supported by the use of special mounting
Step 2. Circuiting and installing wire, cable,
brackets called fixture studs or hickeys.
or conduit. This involves drilling and cutting
the building members to allow for the pas-
sage of the conductor or its protective cover- Step 3. Testing for proper circuiting. The
ing. For surface-type wiring, this includes final step in the wiring of any building
installing conduit, cable, and surface-type requires the testing of all outlets by insert-
boxes and covers on a finished wall. The pro- ing a test prod or test lamp, operating all
duction-line method of first drilling the switches in the building, and loading all cir-
holes for all runs (installations between cuits to ensure that the proper circuiting has
boxes) at one time and then installing all of been installed.
1-6 Fundamentals
FM 5-424
CHAPTER 2
PLIERS
Pliers have either insulated or uninsulated
handles. Long-nosed pliers are used for close
CAUTION
work in panels or boxes. Side-cutter pliers are Although insulated-handle pliers
used to cut wire and cable to size. Slip-joint are always used when working
pliers are used to tighten locknuts, small on or near hot wires, they must
nuts on devices, and conduit bushings and not be considered sufficient
fittings. Round-nosed pliers are used for protection alone. Other
precautions must be taken.
making screw loops and working in limited-
space areas.
FUSE PULLER
The fuse puller shown in Figure A-7(1), page The second type of fuse puller (Figure A-
A-4, is designed to eliminate the danger of 7[2]) has the same general configuration but
pulling and replacing cartridge fuses by hand. is made of molded plastic. Encased in the
It is also used for bending fuse clips, adjusting handle is an electrical circuit that is similar
loose cutout clips, and handling live electrical to a voltmeter, except that the indicating
parts. device is a neon-glow tube. Test probes are
attached to the handle and may be used to
determine if voltage is present in a circuit.
SCREWDRIVERS
Screwdrivers come in many sizes and tip screwdrivers to attach electrical devices to
shapes. Those used by electricians should have boxes and attach wires to terminals. One vari-
insulated handles. Electricians generally use ation of the screwdriver is the screwdriver bit,
which is held in a brace and used for heavy- slot and keep the tips square and properly
duty work. For safe and efficient operation, tapered.
select a screwdriver that matches the screw
WRENCHES
Adjustable open-end wrenches (commonly crescent, open-end, closed-end, or socket
called crescent wrenches) and open-end, wrenches can be used. Pipe-wrench con-
closed-end, and socket wrenches are used on struction will not permit application of
hexagonal and square fittings such as heavy pressure on square or hexagonal
machine bolts, hexagon nuts, or conduit material, and continued misuse of a pipe
unions. Pipe wrenches are used for pipe and wrench will deform the teeth on the jaw
conduit work and should not be used where faces and mar the surface of the material.
SOLDERING EQUIPMENT
Electricians use a standard soldering kit An alcohol or propane torch can be used in
consisting of— place of a blowtorch.
DRILLING EQUIPMENT
Drilling equipment is required to drill holes in • A joist-drilling fixture.
building structures for the passage of conduit or • An extension bit for drilling into and
wire in new or modified construction. High- through deep cavities.
speed drills are used to drill holes in sheet-
metal cabinets and boxes. Carbide drills are • An adjustable wood bit.
used for tile or concrete work. Electric power
drills aid in this phase of an electrician's work. • A standard wood bit.
Standard drilling equipment consists of— • A ship auger, which is used with an elec-
• A brace. tric drill.
WOODWORKING TOOLS
Electricians use wood chisels and cross-cut They are also used to construct wood-panel
or keyhole saws to remove wooden struc- mounting brackets. The keyhole saw may be
tural members that are obstructing a wire or used to cut openings in walls of existing
conduit run and to notch studs and joists for buildings where boxes need to be added.
conduit, cable, or box-mounting brackets.
METALWORKING TOOLS
Electricians use cold chisels and center or enlarge a hole in a steel cabinet or outlet
punches, as well as several other types of box. The hacksaw is usually used for cutting
metalworking tools, when working on steel conduit, cable, or wire that is too large for
panels. The knockout punch is used to make wire cutters. A light, steady stroke of about
40 to 50 times a minute is best. Always having 18 teeth per inch. A blade with 32
insert a new blade with the teeth pointing teeth per inch is best for cutting thin mate-
away from the handle and tighten the ten- rial. The mill file is used to file the sharp
sion wing nut until the blade is rigid. Hack- ends of cutoffs as a precaution against short
saw blades have 14, 18, 24, or 32 teeth per circuits.
inch. The best blade for general use is one
MASONRY DRILLS
An electrician should have several sizes of for drilling holes in brick or concrete walls to
masonry drills in his tool kit. These drills, anchor apparatus with expansion screws or
which are normally carbide-tipped, are used allow the passage of conduit or cable.
INSULATION-STRIPPING TOOLS
Knives and patented wire strippers are used terminals, gauge wire, and cut small bolts.
to bare the wire of insulation before making The cable cutter may be used instead of a
connections. Scissors are used to cut the hacksaw to remove the armor from electrical
insulation and the tape. The multipurpose conductors at the box entry or when cutting
tool is designed to cut and skin wires, attach cable to length.
HAMMERS
Hammers are used with other tools, such as claw hammer and a machinist's ball-peen
chisels, or for nailing equipment to building hammer advantageously.
supports. Electricians can use a carpenter's
TAPE
Various types of tape are used to replace RUBBER OR VARNISHED
insulation and wire coverings. CAMBRIC TAPE
Rubber or varnished cambric tape may be
FRICTION TAPE used as an insulator when replacing wire
Friction tape is made of cotton and impreg- covering.
nated with an insulating adhesive com-
pound. It provides weather resistance and PLASTIC ELECTRICAL TAPE
limited mechanical protection to a splice Plastic electrical tape has adhesive on one
that is already insulated. face. It has replaced friction and rubber tape
in the field for 120- to 600-volt circuits.
Because it serves a dual purpose in taping
joints, it is preferred over the former methods.
FISH TAPE
Fish tape is used primarily to pull wire through require a fish-tape grip or pull to obtain ade-
conduit. Many pulls are quite difficult and quate force on the wire. Fish tape is made of
tempered spring steel, is about 1/4-inch wide, bending under normal operation but can eas-
and is available in different lengths to suit ily be pushed or pulled around bends or con-
requirements. It is stiff enough to preclude duit elbows.
DROP CHAIN
When pulling wire and cable in existing links attached to a lead or iron weight. It is
buildings, an electrician will normally used only to feed through wall openings in a
employ a fish wire or a drop chain between vertical plane.
studs. A drop chain consists of small chain
EXTENSION LIGHT
An extension light normally includes a long when normal building lighting has not been
extension cord and is used by electricians installed or is not functioning.
not need to be hooked into the circuit. When Power is measured by a multimeter (Figure
measuring AC amperage, electricians clamp 2-1). This instrument is connected so that
only one wire at a time. The multimeter is the current in the measured circuit flows
capable of measuring voltage, current, resis- through the stationary field coils in the mul-
tance, and continuity. timeter and the voltage across the measured
circuit is impressed upon the multimeter-
The basic unit of measurement for electric
armature circuit, which includes movable
power is the watt. In the power ratings of
electric devices used by domestic consumers coils and a fixed resistor. The power factor is
of electricity, the term watt signifies that the automatically included in the measurement
apparatus will use electricity at the specified because the torque developed in the multim-
rate when energized at the normal line volt- eter is always proportional to the product of
age. In AC circuits, power is the product of the instantaneous value of current and volt-
three quantities: the potential (volt), the cur- age. Consequently, the instrument gives a
rent (amperage), and the power factor (per- true indication of the power, or rate, at which
cent). energy is being used.
Panel box
Hook multimeter on
ungrounded conductor.
Many different wiring systems currently in use vary in complexity from the
simple-to-install open wiring to the more complex conduit systems. These sys-
tems contain common components.
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS
Although copper is the best and most com- • The size of the wire decreases as the
monly used metal for conductors, aluminum numbers become larger.
and copper-clad aluminum are also used.
Because aluminum is not as efficient a con- • The sizes normally used have even num-
ductor as copper, aluminum or copper-clad bers, such as 14, 12, and 10.
aluminum wire must be larger than copper • No 8 and 6 wires, which are furnished
wire to conduct the same amount of electric- either solid or stranded, are normally
ity. To assure a good connection when using used for heavy-power circuits or as ser-
No 6 or larger aluminum conductors, electri- vice-entrance leads to buildings. Wire
cians smear an oxide inhibitor on the end of sizes larger than these are used for
the conductor first, then tighten the termi- extremely heavy loads and for pole-line
nal. They go back the next day and tighten distribution. Tables B-3 through B-6,
the terminal once again. Electrical codes pages B-5 through B-8, show the allow-
take the guesswork out of conductor selec- able current-carrying capacity for copper
tion by prescribing wire use. and aluminum conductors. Table B-7,
page B-9, shows the percent of reduction
Wires or conductors are initially classified in current capacity if more than three
by the type of insulation applied and the conductors are in a cable or a raceway.
wire gauge. The various types of insulation,
in turn, are subdivided according to their MULTICONDUCTOR CABLES
maximum operating temperatures and the In many types of electrical wiring installa-
nature of use. Table B-2, pages B-2 through tion, the use of individual conductors spaced
B-4, lists the common trade classification of and supported side by side becomes an ineffi-
wires and compares them as to type, temper- cient and hazardous practice. Multiconductor
ature rating, and recommended use. cables have been designed and manufactured
for such installation. Multiconductor cables and can be run through masonry, between
consist of the individual conductors as out- studding, or in damp locations.
lined above, arranged in groups of two or
more. An additional insulating or protective Plastic-Sheathed Cable
shield is formed or wound around the group Type UF (underground feeder) is similar to
of conductors. The individual conductors are Type NMC except that it has added water
color-coded for proper identification. The protection and is designed for direct ground
description and use of each type are given contact.
below.
Lead-Covered Cable
Armored Cable
Lead-covered cable consists of two or more
Armored (Type BX) cable can be supplied rubber-covered conductors surrounded by a
either in two- or three-wire types and with lead sheathing that has been extruded
or without a lead sheath. The wires in around it to permit its installation in wet
armored cable, matched with a bare bonding and underground locations. Lead-covered
wire, are initially twisted together. This cable can also be immersed in water or
grouping, totaling two or three wires with installed in areas where the presence of liq-
the bonding wire, is then wrapped in coated uid or gaseous vapors would attack the insu-
paper and a formed self-locking steel armor. lation on other types of cable.
The cable without a lead sheath is widely
used for interior wiring under dry condi- Service-Entrance Cable
tions. The lead sheath is required for instal-
Service-entrance (Type SEC) cable normally
lation in wet locations and through masonry
has three wires, with two insulated and
or concrete building partitions where added
braided conductors laid parallel and wound
protection for the copper conductor wires is
with a bare conductor. Protection against
required. Metal-clad (Type MC) resembles
damage for this assembly is obtained by
armored cable and has a ground wire
encasing the wires in heavy tape or armor,
enclosed in the cable. It is used primarily in
which serves as an inner cushion, and cover-
industrial wiring.
ing the whole assembly with braid. Though
the cable normally serves as a power carrier
Nonmetallic-Sheathed Cable
from the exterior service drop to the service
Nonmetallic-sheathed cable is manufac- equipment of a building, it may also be used
tured in two types—NM and NMC. Type in interior wiring circuits to supply power to
NM consists of two or three thermoplastic- electric ranges and water heaters at volt-
insulated wires, each covered with a jute- ages not exceeding 150 volts to ground if the
type filler material that acts as a protective outer covering is armor. It may also be used
insulation against mishandling. The cable is as a feeder to other buildings on the same
lightweight, simple to install, and compara- premises and under the same conditions, if
tively inexpensive. It is used quite exten- the bare conductor is used as an equipment
sively in interior wiring but is not approved grounding conductor from a main distribu-
for use in damp locations. tion center located near the main service
switch.
Type NMC is a dual-purpose, plastic-
sheathed cable with solid copper conductors CORDS
and can be used outdoors or indoors. It Many items using electrical power are pen-
needs no conduit, and its flat shape and gray dant, portable, or vibration type. In such cases,
or ivory color make it ideal for surface wir- the use of flexible cords is authorized for
ing. It resists moisture, acid, and corrosion power delivery. These cords can be grouped
and designated as lamp, heater, or heavy-duty cords. Flexible cord is used to connect appli-
power cords. Lamp cords are supplied in many ances, lamps, and portable tools to outlets. It
forms. The most common types are the single- can never be used as a permanent extension
paired, rubber-insulated, and twisted-paired of fixed wiring.
ELECTRICAL BOXES
Outlet boxes are simply connection points connections. For this reason, the allowable
for joining wires or connecting to outside minimum depth of outlet boxes is limited to
devices such as receptacles, switches, and 1 1/2 inches in all cases except where build-
fixtures. They bind the elements of a conduit ing-supporting members would have to be
or a cable system into a continuous cut. In this case, the minimum depth can be
grounded system. Electrical boxes provide a reduced to 1/2 inch.
means of holding the conduit in position,
space for mounting such devices as switches SELECTION
and receptacles, protection for the device, The selection of boxes in an electrical system
and space for making splices and connec- should be made according to Tables B-9 and
tions. Regardless of general trade terminol- B-10, page B-13, which list the maximum
ogy, most boxes are used interchangeably. allowable conductor capacity for each type of
For example, with appropriate contents and box. In these tables, a conductor running
covers, the same box could be used as an out- through the box is counted along with each
let box, a junction box, or a switch box. conductor terminating in the box. For exam-
ple, one conductor running through a box and
DESIGN two terminating in the box would equal three
The variety of sizes and shapes corresponds conductors in the box. Consequently, any of
to variations in wiring methods, the type the boxes listed would be satisfactory. The
and number of devices attached to the box, tables apply for boxes that do not contain
and the number of wires entering it. One receptacles, switches, or similar devices. Each
important factor is that boxes come in both of these items mounted in a box will reduce
metallic and nonmetallic versions. Outlet the maximum number of conductors allowable
boxes are manufactured in sheet steel, por- by one, as shown in the tables.
celain, bakelite, or fiberglass and are round,
square, octagonal, or rectangular. The fabri- OUTLET BOXES FOR RIGID AND THIN-
cated steel box is available in a number of WALL CONDUIT AND ARMORED CABLE
different designs. For example, some boxes Steel outlet boxes (Figure A-11, page A-5)
are of the sectional or gang variety, while are generally used with rigid and thin-wall
others have integral brackets for mounting conduit or armored cable. The steel boxes
on studs and joists. Moreover, some boxes are either zinc- or enamel-coated; the zinc
have been designed to receive special cover coating is preferred for conduit installation
plates so that switches, receptacles, or light- in wet locations. All steel boxes have knock-
ing fixtures can be installed easier. Other outs. These knockouts are indentations in the
designs facilitate installation in plastered side, top, or back of an outlet box, sized to fit
surfaces. the standard diameters of conduit fittings or
cable connectors. They can usually be removed
Each box has a certain volume in cubic with a small cold chisel or punch to facilitate
inches that determines how many wires of a entry into the box of the conduit or cable.
certain size may be brought into it. Boxes designed specifically for armored cable
Regardless of the design or material, they all use also have integral screw clamps located in
should have sufficient interior volume to the space immediately inside the knockouts
allow for splicing conductors or making and thus eliminate the need for cable
connectors. This reduces the cost and labor of eled corners and internal cable clamps sim-
installation. Box covers are normally plify the procedure (Figure A-12, page A-6).
required when it is necessary to reduce the
box openings, provide mounting lugs for ATTACHMENT DEVICES FOR OUTLET
electrical devices, or cover the box when it is BOXES
to be used as a junction. The antishort bush-
Outlet boxes that do not have brackets are
ing is inserted between the wires and the
supported by wooden cleats or bar hangers
armor to protect the wire from the sharp
as shown in Figure A-13, page A-7.
edges of the cut armor when it is cut with a
hacksaw or cable cutter.
Wooden Cleats
OUTLET BOXES FOR NONMETALLIC- Wooden cleats are first cut to size and nailed
SHEATHED CABLE AND SURFACE WIRING between two wooden members. The boxes
are nailed or screwed to these cleats through
Steel holes provided in their backplates.
Steel boxes are also used for nonmetallic
cable and surface or open wiring. However, Mounting Straps
the methods of box entry are different from
If the outlet box is to be mounted between
those for conduit and armored-cable wiring,
studs, mounting straps are necessary. The
because the electrical conductor wires are
ready-made straps are handy and accommo-
not protected by a hard surface. The connec-
date not only a single box but also a 2-, 3-, 4-,
tors and interior box clamps used in nonme-
or 5-gang box.
tallic and surface or open wiring are formed
to provide a smooth surface for securing the
cable rather than being the sharp-edged Bar Hangers
type of closure normally used. Bar hangers are prefabricated to span the
normal 16- and 24-inch joist and stud spac-
Nonmetallic ings and are obtainable for surface or
recessed box installation. They are nailed to
Nonmetallic outlet boxes are made of plastic the joist or stud-exposed faces. The supports
or fiberglass, and they are used with open and for recessed boxes are normally called offset
nonmetallic-sheathed wiring. Cable or wire bar hangers.
entry is generally made by removing the
knockouts of preformed, weakened blanks in
Patented Supports
the boxes.
When boxes have to be installed in walls
that are already plastered, several patented
Special
supports can be used for mounting. These
When adding an outlet or doing remodeling obviate the need for installing the boxes on
work, it is sometimes necessary to install an wooden members and thus eliminate exten-
outlet box in a finished wall. Boxes with bev- sive chipping and replastering.
RECEPTACLES
APPLICABILITY wiring and helps prevent accidental shock.
To eliminate the possibility of plugging a
Portable appliances and devices are readily
120-volt appliance into a 240-volt recepta-
connected to an electrical supply circuit by
cle, higher-voltage circuits use special recep-
means of an outlet called a receptacle
tacles and matching attachment plugs. The
(Figure A-16, page A-9). For interior wiring,
receptacles are constructed to receive plug
these outlets are installed either as single
prongs either by a straight push action or
or duplex receptacles. Safety standards
by a twist-and-turn push action. Fixtures
require that all receptacles for 15- or 20- are similar to receptacles but are used to
amp, 120-volt branch circuits (most of the connect the electrical supply circuit directly
circuits in homes) must be the grounding to lamps inserted in their sockets.
type. Receptacles previously installed, as
well as their replacements in the same box, CONDUIT AND CABLE
may be two-wire receptacles. All others Like switches, all receptacles are rated for a
must be the three-wire type. The third wire specific amperage and voltage. Receptacles
on the three-wire receptacle is used to pro- marked CO-ALR can be used with either cop-
vide a ground lead to the equipment that per or aluminum wire. Unmarked receptacles
receives power from the receptacle. This and those marked CU-AL may be used with
guards against dangers from current leak- copper wire only. The receptacles commonly
age due to faulty insulation or exposed used with conduit and cable installations are
constructed with yokes to facilitate their that are an integral part of the outlet. Recep-
installation in outlet boxes. In this case, they tacle covers made of brass, steel, or nonme-
are attached to the boxes by metal screws tallic materials are then attached to box and
through the yokes. Wire connections are receptacle installations to afford complete
made at the receptacle terminals by screws closure at the outlets.
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Circuit breakers (Figure A-21, page A-12) just far enough under a specified current to
are devices resembling switches that trip or trip the breaker and open the circuit.
cut out the circuit in case of overamperage.
They perform the same function as fuses A magnetic circuit breaker responds to
and can be obtained with time-lag opening changes in the magnitude of current flow. In
features similar to the special fuses dis- operation, an increased current flow will cre-
cussed earlier. Based on their operation, ate enough magnetic force to pull up an arma-
they may be classified as thermal, magnetic, ture, opening the circuit. The magnetic circuit
or thermal-magnetic reaction. breaker is usually used in motor circuits for
A thermal circuit breaker has a bimetallic closer adjustment to motor rating, while the
element integrally built within the breaker circuit conductors are protected, as usual, by
that responds only to fluctuations in temper- another circuit breaker.
ature within the circuit. The element is
made by bonding together two strips of dis- The thermal-magnetic circuit breaker com-
similar metal, each of which has a different bines the features of the thermal and mag-
coefficient of expansion. When a current is netic types. Practically all of the molded-
flowing in the circuit, the heat created by case circuit breakers used in lighting panel
the resistance of the bimetallic element boards are of this type. The thermal element
expands each metal at a different rate, caus- protects against overcurrents in the lower
ing the strip to bend. The element acts as a range, and the magnetic element protects
latch in the circuit as the breaker mecha- against the higher range usually occurring
nism is adjusted so that the element bends from short circuits.
Circuit breakers are preferred over fuses hand are required to open all the branch circuit
because they can be manually reset after breakers. However, if more than six movements
tripping, and fuses must be replaced. Also, of the hand are required, a separate disconnect-
fuses can easily be replaced with higher- ing main circuit breaker is required ahead of
capacity ones that do not protect the circuit, the branch circuit breaker. Each 120-volt cir-
but this is difficult to do with circuit break- cuit requires a single-pole breaker that has
ers. Circuit breakers combine the functions its own handle. Each 240-volt circuit requires
of a fuse and a switch. When tripped by a double-pole breaker to protect both
overloads or short circuits, all of the ungrounded conductors. However, you can
ungrounded conductors of a circuit are place two single-pole breakers side by side
opened simultaneously. Each branch circuit
and tie the two handles together mechani-
must have a fuse or circuit breaker protect-
cally to give double-pole protection. Both
ing each ungrounded conductor. Some instal-
handles could then be moved by a single
lations may or may not have a main breaker
that disconnects everything. movement of the hand. A two-pole breaker may
have one handle or two handles that are
As a guide during installation, a main breaker mechanically tied together, but either one
or switch is not required ahead of the branch requires only one movement of the hand to
circuit breaker if less than six movements of the break the circuit.
SIGNAL EQUIPMENT
The most common components in interior are connected by open-wiring methods and
wiring signal systems (Figure A-23, page A- are used as interoffice or building-to-build-
14) normally operate at voltages of 6, 12, 18, ing signal systems.
or 24 volts, AC or DC. As a general rule, they
INCANDESCENT LAMPS
The most common light source for general higher-voltage application from a power
use is the incandescent lamp (Figure A-23, source will increase its intensity. Although an
page A-14). Though it is the least efficient incandescent light is economical, it is also
type of light, its use is preferred over the flu- inefficient because a large amount of the
orescent type because of its low initial cost, energy supplied to it is converted to heat
ease of maintenance, convenience, and flexi-
rather than light. Moreover, it does not give
bility. Its flexibility and convenience is
readily seen by the wide selection of wattage a true light because the tungsten filament
ratings that can be inserted in one type of emits a great deal more red and yellow light
socket. Further, since its emitted candle- than does the light of the sun. Incandescent
power is directly proportional to the voltage, a lights are normally built to last 1,000 hours
lower-voltage application will dim the light. A when operating at their rated voltage.
FLUORESCENT LAMPS
Bulb for bulb and watt for watt, a fluores- older-type fluorescent fixtures have starters
cent light provides more light for the money that assist the ballast in the initial starting
than an incandescent light does. For exam- process.
ple, a 40-watt fluorescent tube produces
almost six times as much light as a 40-watt The two most common types of fluorescent
incandescent bulb, and a fluorescent tube light fixtures for homes are rapid-start and
will last about five times longer than an preheat. It is easy to distinguish between
incandescent bulb. them because the starter mechanism of the
rapid-start type is built right into the bal-
Unlike the simple principle of an incandes- last, whereas each tube on the preheat type
cent bulb, which glows when current flows has a visible starter unit. The starters,
through the filament, an intricate electrical which look like small aluminum cylinders,
process takes place before a fluorescent tube tend to burn out as often as the bulbs do. A
gives light. Because a fluorescent tube does third type, less commonly used in the home,
not have a filament, a ballast (also called a is the instant start. This type has no starter
transformer) is necessary to set up voltage and is distinguished by a tube with a single
within the tube. In addition to ballasts, pin on each end.
GLOW LAMPS
Glow lamps are electric-discharge light light. The lamp must be operated in series
sources that are used as indicator or pilot with a current-limiting device to stabilize
lights for various instruments and on con- the discharge. This current-limiting device
trol panels. Because these lamps have rela- consists of a high resistance that is usually
tively low light output, they are used to contained in the lamp base.
indicate that circuits are energized or that
electrical equipment installed in remote A glow lamp produces light only when the
locations is in operation. voltage exceeds a certain striking voltage.
As the voltage is decreased somewhat below
A glow lamp consists of two closely spaced this value, the glow suddenly vanishes.
metallic electrodes sealed in a glass bulb When the lamp is operated on AC, light is
that contains an inert gas. The color of the produced only during a portion of each half
light emitted by the lamp depends on the cycle, and both electrodes are alternately
gas; for example, neon gas produces a blue surrounded with a glow. When the lamp is
operated on DC, light is produced continu- the advantages of small size, ruggedness,
ously and only the negative electrode is sur- long life, and negligible current consump-
rounded with a glow. This characteristic tion; and it can be operated on standard
makes it possible to use the glow lamp as an lighting circuits.
indicator of AC and DC. The lamp also has
TRANSFORMERS
The transformer is a device for changing AC ments. For example, the transformer used to
voltages into either high voltages for effi- furnish power for a doorbell reduces 115-volt
cient power-line transmission or low AC to about 6 to 10 volts. This is accom-
voltages for consumption in lamps, electrical plished by two primary wire leads that are
devices, and machines. Transformers vary in permanently connected to the 115-volt circuit
size according to their power-handling rat- and two secondary screw terminals from the
ing. Their selection is determined by input low voltage side of the transformer.
and output voltage and load-current require-
POLE-LINE HARDWARE
Pole-line hardware includes bolts, nuts, according to specifications of the American
washers, braces, eyebolts, anchor rods, lag Society for Testing Materials (ASTM). Fig-
screws, pole steps, guy clamps, guy clips, guy ures A-24 through A-27, pages A-15 through
hooks, guy plates, thimble-eyes, and steel A-18, illustrate many items of pole-line
pins. To increase the life of the material, hardware.
electricians should use hardware galvanized
CHAPTER 3
TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION
The electrical power load in a building can- If only two wires enter the building, the ser-
not be properly circuited until the type and vice is either DC or single-phase AC. The
voltage of the central power-distribution voltage is determined by an indicating volt-
system is known. The voltage and the num- meter. When three wires enter a building
ber of wires from the power lines to the from an AC distribution system, the service
buildings are normally shown or specified can be single-phase, three-phase, or two
on the blueprints. However, the electrician ungrounded conductors and a neutral of a
should check the voltage and type of distri- three-phase system (V-phase).
bution at the power-service entrance to If the service is single-phase, two of the con-
every building in which wiring is to be done. ductors are hot, and the third is ground. A
This is especially necessary when he is voltmeter reading between the two hot con-
altering or adding circuits. Voltage checks are ductors will be twice as great as the reading
usually made with an indicating voltmeter at between either hot conductor and the neu-
the service-entrance switches or at the dis- tral or ground conductor. If the service is
tribution load centers. The type of distribu- three-phase, the voltage between any two of
tion is determined by a visual check of the the conductors is the same. Normally, one of
number of wires entering the building the conductors is grounded to establish a
(Table B-1, page B-1). ground reference voltage for the system.
A V-phase system is the most common ser- between the neutral conductor and each of
vice for TO construction. The distribution the three conductors should all be the same.
system is described below. The voltage The voltage readings between any two of
between the two hot conductors will be these three wires are similar and should
1.732 times greater than the voltage equal the neutral-to-hot wire voltage multi-
between either hot conductor and the neu- plied by 1.732. Common operating voltages
tral or ground. for this type of service are 120 and 208 volts
or 277 and 480 volts.
Four-wire distribution denotes three-phase
and neutral service. When tested, voltages
list any special or appliance loads, the fol- area of the building to be wired is computed
lowing general rules apply: from the outside dimensions of the building.
• For heavy-duty outlets or mogul-size This square-footage area is then multiplied
lamp holders, the load per outlet should by the standard watts-per-square-foot
be figured at 5 amperes each. requirement, based on the type of building
to be wired. Table B-14, page B-15, lists
• For all other outlets, both ceiling and these constants along with a feeder-demand
wall, the wattage drain (load per outlet) factor for various types of building occupan-
should be computed at 1.5 amperes per cies. This table gives planning loads based
outlet. on lighting and appliance needs. Large
The total outlet load may also be deter- appliance loads (those in excess of 5
mined on a watts-per-square-foot basis. In amperes each) should be added to this stan-
this load-determination method, the floor dard load figure.
additional circuits are used over the mini- the range hood, the breakfast bar, and
mum required, the number of outlets per general counter-top work space. Mount
circuit can be reduced, therefore making the switches at convenient locations.
electrical installation more efficient. This is
true because the voltage drop in the system • Hallways require a switch at each door-
is reduced, allowing the apparatus to oper- way leading into the hall. Switches
ate more efficiently. should be mounted on the latch side of
the doorway.
The following industry standards are estab-
lished to ensure that adequate electrical • Stairways should be provided with at
power, switches, and receptacles are avail- least one switch-controlled lighting out-
able for modern demands. In TO construc- let. Switches should be located at each
tion, you may not always meet these landing where a doorway is provided for
standards due to the unavailability of equip- access.
ment, the time required for installation, or
the short period of time facilities will be RECEPTACLE OUTLETS
occupied.
• Each kitchen, family room, dining room,
living room, library, den, bedroom, or
SWITCH OUTLETS
similar room will have receptacle outlets
• Wall switches are usually located on the
every 6 feet and near the ends of walls
latch side of doorways or the traffic side
where possible. Unless otherwise speci-
of arches or other wall openings. They
fied, receptacle outlets should be placed
are mounted approximately 48 inches
approximately 12 inches from the floor.
from the floor.
• Areas that have more than one entrance • Each kitchen, pantry, breakfast room,
will be equipped with a multiple-control dining room, or similar room should
wall switch at each principle entrance, have two or more 20-amp appliance cir-
unless this requires placing switches cuits that serve all receptacle outlets.
within 10 feet of each other. Outlets in other rooms are not to be con-
nected to these circuits. In kitchens and
• At least one switch-controlled lighting dining areas, a receptacle outlet will be
outlet must be provided for each dining installed along counter-top space every 4
area that is combined with another feet. Counter space separated by a range
room, such as a breakfast nook. The top, a refrigerator, or a sink is considered
lighting outlet is normally placed over a separate counter. Outlets will not be
the probable location of the dining table. installed in a face-up position in the
counter top. Any receptacle outlet within
• At least one ceiling light outlet in each
6 feet of a sink must be protected by a
major room should be wired for a ceiling
ground-fault circuit interrupter (GFCI).
fan. This is accomplished by running an
extra conductor between the light and • Bathrooms will have at least one wall-
the controlling light switch. mounted receptacle outlet at each basin.
• Provide for switched lighting on both All receptacles must be protected by a
sides of mirrors and at least one GFCI.
switched light in the ceiling in bath-
• Install at least one receptacle outlet on
rooms and dressing rooms.
the front and one on the back of each
• Kitchen areas require more lighting building. All receptacle outlets within
than other areas of a house. Plan for grade-level access will be protected by a
switch-controlled lights over the sink, GFCI.
• Laundry areas will be provided with at not more than 20 amperes at 125 volts
least one receptacle outlet. If the laun- or less or 15 amperes at 600 volts or
dry equipment is located in the base- less, if each does not exceed 1 horse-
ment or the garage, at least one power in rating and each does not
additional receptacle outlet must be pro- have a full load rating in excess of 6
vided. The laundry receptacle will be amperes. Two or more motors of any
wired for 20-amp service and no other rating, each with individual overcur-
outlets will be connected to this circuit. rent protection (provided integral
with the motor start switches or an
• Hallways that are 10 feet long or longer
individual unit), may be connected
will have at least one receptacle outlet.
on one branch circuit if each motor
NOTE: Hallway length is deter-
controller and motor-running over-
mined along the centerline without
current device is approved for group
passing through a doorway.
installation, and the branch circuit
Motors that are used on portable appliances fusing rating is equal to the rating
are normally disconnected from the power required for the largest motor plus an
source either by removal of the appliance amount equal to the sum of the full
plug from its receptacle or by operation of an load ratings of the other motors.
attached built-in switch. Some large-horse-
power motors, however, require a perma-
nent power installation with special
controls. Motor switches (Figure 3-1) are
rated in horsepower capacity. In a single-
motor installation, a separate circuit must
be run from the fuse or circuit-breaker panel
to the motor, and individual fuses or circuit
breakers must be installed.
For multiple motor installations, the National
Electrical Safety Code requires that—
Two or more motors may be connected
to the same branch circuit, protected at Figure 3-1. Motor switch
Toaster,
Radio, 100 watts 50 watts 400 watts
5 amperes
110 volts
220 volts
0 current in neutral
5 amperes
110 volts
WIRE SIZE
Wire sizes No 14 and larger are classified voltage drop for both feeder and branch cir-
according to their maximum allowable cur- cuit does not exceed 5 percent. Table B-16,
rent-carrying capacity based on their physi- page B-16, which is based on an allowable 3
cal behavior when subjected to the stress percent voltage drop, lists the wire sizes
and temperatures of operating conditions. required for various distances between sup-
No 14 wire is the smallest wire size permit- ply and load at different amperages. This
ted in interior wiring systems. table may be used for branch circuits origi-
nating at the service entrance. This is the
The size of the conductor used in feeder and
common house or small building circuit. Use
branch circuits depends on the maximum
Table B-15, page B-15, to determine the
allowable current-carrying capacity and the
proper wire size
voltage drop coincident with each wire size.
The size of the conductor for branch circuits The minimum gauge for service-wire instal-
(that portion of the wiring system extending lation is No 8. The service-wire sizes are
beyond the last overcurrent device protect- increased because they must not only meet
ing the circuit) should be such that the volt- the voltage-drop requirement but also be
age drop will not exceed 3 percent to the inherently strong enough to support their
farthest outlet for power, heating, or lighting own weight, plus any additional loading
loads. The maximum voltage drop for feed- caused by climatic conditions such as ice or
ers is also 3 percent, provided that the total branches.
example, the equipment ground wire of a are used as adjusting screws to properly
receptacle (the green wire) is connected to locate the receptacle. In this case, a wire
the bonding circuit through the two screws must be placed between the box and the
fastening the receptacle to the box. If the equipment ground terminal of the receptacle.
box is recessed to obtain a flush receptacle, Proper bonding prevents shocks from metal
the connecting screws are not tightened but surfaces of an electrical system.
No 6 copper wire
No 6 copper wire
1 ft
8 ft 8 ft minimum
Pipe electrode
Rod electrode
Water pipe
No 6 copper wire
No 6 copper
wire
Moisture level
BATTERY OPERATION
Early installations of low-voltage signal sys- batteries were added in series to offset the
tems were powered by 6-volt dry cells. For voltage drop. Though this type of alarm or
example, two of these batteries were announcing system is still being used in
installed in series to service a 12-volt sys- some areas, it is a poor method because the
tem. If the systems involved a number of batteries used as a power source require
signals over a large area, one or more periodic replacement.
TRANSFORMER OPERATION
Most present-day buzzer and bell signal sys-
tems operate from a transformer power
source. The transformers are equipped to be
mounted on outlet boxes and are con- Bell
Box-mounted
structed so that the 120-volt primary-wind-
transformer
ing leads normally extend from the side of Button
the transformer adjacent to the box mount-
ing. These leads are permanently attached 120 V
to the 120-volt power circuits, and the low- 8V
voltage secondary-winding leads of the
transformer are connected to the bell circuit
(Figure 3-4). If more than one buzzer and
push button are to be installed, they are
paralleled with the first signal installation.
A typical wiring schematic diagram for this Figure 3-4. Bell and buzzer wiring
type of installation is shown in Figure 3-5.
SPECIAL SWITCHES
THREE-WAY SWITCHING terminal that is normally color-coded darker
A single-throw switch controls a light or a than the other terminals and located alone
receptacle from only one location. When at the end of the switch housing. A schematic
lights have to be controlled from more than wiring diagram of a three-way switch with a
one location, a double-throw, commonly three-wire cable is shown in Figure 3-6. In
called a three-way switch, is used. Three- the diagram, terminals A and A1 are the
way switches can be identified by a common common terminals, and the switch operation
White
Push button B Red B1
Audio
device Black Black A1
A C C1
3-way switch 3-way switch
Transformer Black
White
Push button
Light
FOUR-WAY SWITCHING
Occasionally, it is necessary to control an out-
let or light from more than two locations. Two
Black
three-way switches plus a four-way switch will White
provide control at three locations as shown Red
in Figure 3-7. The switches must be Light
installed with the four-way units connected
between the two three-way units and the
three-wire cable installed between the Figure 3-7. Four-way switch wiring
switches.
VARIABLE-CONTROL DEVICES
Electrical dimmers provide a full range of
light from bright to dim for incandescent
lighting. Special electronic dimmers exist
for use with florescent lighting. A turn of the
dial adjusts the brightness level, and a push-
knob switch turns the light on or off without
changing the brightness setting (Figure 3-8).
Another type of dimmer switch has a high-
low control that provides two levels of
illumination: full brilliance at the top position
and approximately half brilliance at the bot-
tom position. Variable-control devices are also
used as speed-control devices that control the
speed of tools and equipment using standard
AC or DC motors. Some variable-control
devices are electronic in nature since their con-
struction uses solid-state circuitry and
switches. Figure 3-8. Push-pull rotary switch
provided in the local fuse or circuit-breaker panel. In this case, the preferred method of
panel, a new circuit is installed. This is also providing service to the circuit is to install a
done if the new outlet or outlets are so new load center at a location that is close to
located that a new circuit can be installed the circuit outlets. This installation must
more economically than an existing circuit not overload the incoming service and ser-
extension. Moreover, the installation of a vice-entrance switch. Should such an over-
new circuit will generally decrease the volt- load be indicated, the service equipment
age drop on all circuits, resulting in an should also be changed to suit the new
increase in appliance operating efficiency. requirements. Sometimes, this can be
accomplished in two-wire systems by pulling
NEW LOAD CENTER in an additional wire from the power line.
In many wiring installations, no provisions This changes the service from two-wire to
are made for spare circuits in the fuse or three-wire at 120 to 240 volts. In these
breaker panel. Moreover, the location of the cases, the fuse box or the circuit-breaker
new circuit required is often remote from panel should also be changed and enlarged to
the existing fuse box or circuit-breaker accommodate the increased circuit capacity.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS
Figure 3-9, page 3-14, shows some typical should help in planning circuit arrange-
arrangements for switches, fixtures, and ments. Before you do any wiring, check with
receptacles. Although many other combina- the supervisor to find out if there are any
tions are also possible, these drawings specific equipment requirements.
WIRE
Wire sizes should be selected according to nor- possible, expedient wiring installations should
mal installations. The wire should be laid over be fastened to joists or studs at least 7 feet
the ceiling joist and fastened by nails driven above the floor. This prevents accidental dam-
into the joist and bent over the wire. The nails age to the system or injury to personnel. The
should exert enough force to firmly grip the wires should be supported in accordance with
wire without damaging the insulation. If normal installation.
Continuous white
Source
Black
All black
3-wire cable 2-wire cable
White
White
Source
Red
Black Black
Black
White
White 3-wire
2-wire cable
Black cable White
Source
Black
White Red
Black
Black
3-wire
White 3-wire Red cable Black
cable
Source
Red
Black
Red
Black White
Source
Black 3-wire
cable Black
Red
White
Red
Red
3-wire White
cable White
Black
SUPPORTS
JOINTS, SPLICES, TAPS, AND CORDS OR NONMETALLIC-
CONNECTIONS SHEATHED CABLE
Joints, splices, taps, and connections are made Figure 3-10 shows how to tap a two-conductor
as outlined in Chapter 1. In expedient wiring, cord or nonmetallic-sheathed cable in an expe-
use electrical tape as a protective covering on dient wiring installation. Remove the outer
the connection and to provide additional pro- rubber or sheathing at the point of fixture
tection where nails are bent over the wire. attachment, and tap the fixture leads to the
conductor with a Western Union splice, pur-
FIXTURE DROPS posely maintaining the separation between
Fixture drops, preferably pigtail splices, are taps as shown. Then, individually tape each
installed by taping their leads to wires and tap.
taping the taps. The sockets are supported by
the tap wires.
CHAPTER 4
Cable Wiring
Cable systems are used where cost is a factor. They can be installed easily, and
the material required is less expensive than that used for other systems. The
absence of protection against mechanical injury and the fact that it is only
moisture-resistant tend to restrict the areas where the cable system can be
used. Temporary and expedient-wiring cable systems are ideally suited for the
TO.
MATERIALS
CABLE SUPPORT
Armored-cable construction consists of two Armored cable may be fastened to wooden
or three rubber- or thermoplastic-covered building members with a one- or two-hole
wire combinations encased in flexible steel mounting strap formed to fit the contour
armor. Cable is obtained from the manufac- and size of the cable or by staples made spe-
turer as Type AC (without a lead sheath) cifically for armored cable. The cable is nor-
and Type ACL (with a lead sheath under the mally supported at the box entry either by
armor). Type AC cable has a copper or alu- integral armored-cable clamps built into the
minum bonding strip. boxes or by armored-cable connectors.
One of the conductors of armored cable is BOXES AND DEVICES
always white. Because of this color coding, Chapter 2 details boxes and devices recom-
the white wire in a switch installation (for mended for use with armored-cable wiring.
both armored cable and nonmetallic- Electrical boxes with integral cable clamps
sheathed cable) can be used as a hot wire and attached mounting brackets are used
and be connected to a black wire. for quick installation.
INSTALLATION
CABLE SUPPORT less than five times the cable diameter. Fig-
Whenever possible, run armored cable ure 4-1 illustrates an acceptable armored-
through holes centrally drilled in the build- cable bend at the box entry.
ing structural members and ensure that the
holes are at least 1/8 inch oversize to facili-
tate easy pull-through of the armored cable.
Avoid the flush-type mounting of armored
cable accomplished by notching the joists
and studs if possible because this type of
installation exposes the armored cable to
possible short circuits (by locating the cable Radius ≥
in a position where it could be accidentally 5 × cable
pierced by nails) and materially weakens diameter
the structural member.
Box
When running armored cable between joists
and studs, ensure that it is supported by
staples or straps at least every 4 1/2 feet
along the length of the cable run. These sup-
ports must also be installed within 12 inches
of each box entry, unless the support inter-
feres with installations that require extreme Figure 4-1. Armored-cable bend
flexibility. This requirement assures the
continuance of a satisfactory box connection BOX CONNECTION
by relieving the strain on the splices and the
Procedure
connection within the outlet box. When
Armored cable may be spliced or connected
installing cable runs across the bottom of
to devices only in standard junction or outlet
ceiling joists and stud faces at least 7 feet
boxes. Therefore, you must cut all cable long
above the floor, ensure that runs are sup-
enough to run from box to box. To prevent
ported on each joist or stud. You may also
cutting the cable too short, first thread the
install cable runs on running boards similar
armored cable through the mounting holes
to those used in open-wiring installations.
drilled in the joists or studs and attach the
Damage Protection cable to one box. Take the slack out of the
When installing armored cable on the top of cable by using just enough force to maintain
ceiling joists or studs in accessible locations the proper bends. Keeping this tension, cut
(such as attics and temporary buildings) at the cable from the roll and connect it to the
a distance of less than 7 feet from the floor, box. Figure 4-2 shows the procedure for pre-
you must install guard strips at least as paring and attaching the cable to a box.
high as the cable.
Cutting Cable
Bending Though armored cable can be cut with an
When installing armored cable, avoid bend- armored-cable cutter specifically designed
ing or shaping the cable in a manner that for the job, most electricians use a hacksaw.
damages the protective armor. This type of When making an outlet connection, cut the
installation damage may occur in drilled cable about 8 inches longer on each end than
holes for armored cable, in corner runs, or is required for the run. When removing the
when locating boxes on studs and joists. To armor from the wire, cut the armor approxi-
prevent this, follow the rule that the radius mately 8 inches from the cable end so that
of the inner edge of any bend must not be ample wire will be inserted in the box for
Bond wire
Armor
Paper
Bushing
damage, you must insert a tough fiber bush- knockout at the point of entry. Next, loosen
ing, commonly called an antishort bushing, the clamp-holder screw, insert the cable
between the armor and the wire. through the knockout opening, and thread
the leads through the clamp (Figure 4-3).
Attaching Cable to a Box
Then, force the armor snugly against the
When using an armored-cable connector,
clamp end and retighten the clamp screw,
first insert the cable in the connector and
forcing the clamp into the ridges of the
then tighten the holding screw, securely con-
cables.
necting the cable and connectors. Then,
insert the armored-cable connector through The bonding wire runs the entire length of
the box knockout opening, and secure it to the cable and must be bonded to the enclo-
the box with the locknut threaded on the sure on the other receptacle into which the
connectors from inside the box. cable is entered. Bend the wire back over
the cable before installing the connector or
When using the cable with a box having
attaching it to a box with an internal clamp.
internal cable clamps, first remove the
Knockouts
Conductors
Box
Integral clamp
Clamp holding
screw 2-conductor armored
cable
A newer nonmetallic-sheathed cable, Type gray or ivory color make it ideal for surface
NMC, is a dual-purpose, plastic-sheathed wiring. It resists moisture, acid, and corro-
cable with solid-copper conductors. This sion and can be run through masonry and
cable needs no conduit, and its flat shape and between studding.
MATERIALS
CABLE this type of installation because of possible
Type NM cable consists of rubber- or ther- cable damage.
moplastic-covered wires in two- or three-
BOXES AND DEVICES
wire combinations, with a bare copper wire
The boxes and devices used in Type NM and
used for bonding. These wires are individu-
NMC cable wiring are similar to those used
ally wrapped with a spiral paper tape for
with conduit. They are made of metal or
damage protection. The local codes in some
nonmetallic materials and come with built-
areas also require the addition of a bare,
in clamps or knockout holes for the connec-
uninsulated conductor in Type NMC cable.
tors. Use metal boxes with internal clamps
This bare wire provides the same type of
when possible to assure a safe, efficient
equipment ground or bonding at the outlet
installation. In exposed Type NM cable wir-
boxes as the armor in armored-cable installa-
ing, you may use insulated switches, outlets,
tion. The bare wire is attached to the outlet
and lamp-holder devices without boxes. The
box by using a grounding clip (Figure 4-4).
cable entry holes of these devices must
SUPPORT clamp the cable securely, and the device
Types NM and NMC cable are generally must fully enclose the section of the cable
mounted on wooden building members with from which the outer sheathing has been
one- or two-hole mounting straps or staples. removed. Because no splicing is possible in
Armored-cable staples are not approved for these devices and all wires must be
connected to terminals, limit the use of or other areas in which only a small number
these devices to installation in rural areas of outlets and switches are required.
INSTALLATION
CABLE SUPPORT smaller for the same wire-gauge combina-
Nonmetallic-sheathed cable should be sup- tions.
ported in a manner similar to that outlined
BOX CONNECTION
for armored cable (Section I). You can install
Cable runs must be continuous from outlet
cable on running boards, in holes drilled in
to outlet because wire splices are only per-
the center of the joists, or on the sides of mitted inside a box. Type NM cable is pre-
joists and studs. When using running pared for box connection in the same
boards or the sides of joists and studs, manner as that outlined for armored cable.
ensure that straps support the cable at dis- When removing the protective sheathing
tances not greater than 4 1/2 feet, and from the conductors for connection, use an
attach a cable strap within 12 inches of a electrician's knife instead of a hacksaw.
box. When you are making the cable run at When removing the covering, cut a slit in
an angle in an overhead installation and the sheathing parallel to the wires without
supporting it on the edge of the joists, you touching the individual wire insulation. A
must install the cable on running boards. cut approximately 8 inches long for cable
Assemblies containing two No 6 or three No entry to ordinary boxes is satisfactory but
8 conductors may be secured directly on the can be increased to suit entry to panels.
bottom of the joist. Then, use the knife to remove the slitted
sheathing.
DAMAGE PROTECTION
If you install the cable across the top of a You should also remove the moisture-pre-
floor or floor joist, protect it with guard ventive paper from the wires. Figure 4-5,
strips that are at least as high as the cable. page 4-8, illustrates the slitting of a cable
When the wire installation is in a location end and shows a special tool called a cable
not normally used, such as an attic or a stripper that can be used instead of a knife
crawl space, damage-protection devices such to remove the sheathing from Type NM
as guard strips are required only within 6 cable, lead-covered cable, and portable
cords. The stripper is inserted over the
feet of the entrance. If possible, do not
cable, squeezed together, and then pulled off
install concealed cable near baseboards,
the conductor. This action rips the outer
door and window casings, or other possible
sheathing quickly and efficiently. The use of
locations of trim or equipment because of
a stripper instead of a knife for outer
damage from building nails. If you are install- sheathing removal is recommended since it
ing thermal insulation where cable is in place, cannot damage the wire insulation.
use only noncorrosive, noncombustible, non-
conductive insulation. While installing the ENTERING BOXES
insulation, avoid adding additional strain on When wiring with nonmetallic-sheathed
the cable, its supports, or its terminal con- cable, you may use either metal or nonmetal-
nections. lic boxes. It would be difficult to recommend
one type over the other because both have
CABLE BENDING advantages. Several aspects of wiring, such
To prevent accidental damage to the sheath- as grounding and connecting cable to boxes,
ing on Type NMC cable, the minimum vary, depending on the kind of box used.
allowable radius of bends is five times the
Metal Boxes
cable diameter. Though this bend limit is
Cable must be secured to a metal box. You
similar to that for armored cable (Section I),
may do this by using either a box with built-
nonmetallic-sheathed cable can be bent in a
in cable clamps or a separate cable
smaller arc because the cable diameters are
connector. Either way, remember to leave 6 Since nonmetallic boxes do not conduct elec-
to 8 inches of cable extending into the box tricity, they need not be grounded. When
for connections. using nonmetallic boxes, treatment of the
As with most other terminal connectors, a grounding wire is based on whether the box
grounding screw or clip is equipped to holds a receptacle, a switch, or a light fix-
receive only one wire. When you install a ture.
switch, a self-grounding receptacle, or a Receptacles. Attaching a receptacle to a non-
light fixture in the last box of a circuit run, metallic box is a simple process. If the box is
attach the grounding wire of Type NM cable at the end of a circuit, attach the grounding
directly to the box. wire to the grounding screw of the recepta-
When you install a box that is not at the end cle. If the box is in the middle of a circuit
of a circuit or a receptacle that is not self- run, join the cable grounding wires with a
grounding, you must make one or more grounding jumper from the receptacle.
grounding jumpers. For the grounding Switches. Many switches are now equipped
jumper, use wire that is the same size as the with grounding terminals, which are treated
circuit wires. Twist all grounding wires and as those on grounded receptacles. When
jumpers together, and crimp them with a using such a switch and it is in a nonmetal-
compression ring or secure them with a wire lic box in the middle of a run, join the cable
nut. grounding wires. If the switch is at the end of
Nonmetallic Boxes a circuit, hold the grounding wire between the
Cable knockouts in nonmetallic boxes are switch bracket and the box with the mount-
held in place with thin webs of plastic. ing screw.
Break out a knockout wherever Type NM Light Fixtures. To install a light fixture, use
cable will enter a box. Ensure that the cable an octagon-shaped fixture box with a metal
is supported within 8 inches of the box, the grounding bar. If the fixture is at the end of
sheathing extends into the box at least 1/4 a circuit, attach the cable grounding wire to
inch, and the cable is secured to the box. the bar (Figure 4-6). If the fixture is in the
When you are fishing cable behind walls, middle of a circuit, make a grounding
above ceilings, or under floors, you are not jumper to join the grounding bar to the cable
required to support cable, but you must grounding wires. The light fixture will auto-
clamp the cable to the box. Nonmetallic matically be grounded when attached to the
boxes are available with built-in cable grounded box. NOTE: Some chain-hung
clamps. fixtures have a separate grounding wire.
Join it to the circuit grounding wire
and a jumper.
8″ approximately Sheathing
Jute
filler
ADDITIONS TO EXISTING
WIRING CIRCUITING
The factors pertinent for additions to exist- the cable is fished through the wall and fed
ing wiring systems are the same as those for to the device at the point of entry.
Type NM cable wiring.
CABLE CONNECTIONS
Connection additions for nonmetallic-
sheathed cable are the same as connection
additions for armored cable outlined in Sec-
tion I. Due to copyright
TYPE NM CABLE ADDITIONS restrictions, this graphic
Exposed
The installation of exposed Type NM cable is unavailable
additions to existing wiring must conform to
the same requirements outlined for original
electronically. You must
installations. If a wiring system other than
nonmetallic-sheathed cable is to be
refer to the hard copy
extended with nonmetallic-sheathed cable, of this product to view
you must use a junction box to couple the
systems. You may use existing boxes that this graphic.
have available spare conductor capacity.
Concealed
Additions to concealed nonmetallic-
sheathed cable are similar in method and
procedure to those for armored cable except
that insulated receptacles, switches, and Figure 4-6. Ceiling-mounted light
light fixtures may be installed without boxes
on the wall surfaces. In these installations,
Section III. Cable Fishing With Access
Fishing cable where you have access Step 1. Make a hole for the box in an open
requires some fishing gear. Fish tapes are space between studs.
the tools to use for long cable runs. For
Step 2. Using a 3/4-inch spade bit, drill a
shorter distances, you can use straightened
hole up through the sole plate from the
coat hangers or lengths of No 12 wire with
basement or down through the top plates
one end bent into a tight, blunt hook.
from the attic. Drill until you hit open space;
Ensure that whatever you use is long
you may have to use an extension bit.
enough to span the entire distance plus 2
feet. You need an open space to fish through. Step 3. To install a wire from the basement,
If you are going to attempt fishing more run a fish tape through the box hole and
than a foot or so, you need a partner to down through the drilled hole. Attach the
accomplish the following steps (Figure 4-7, cable as shown in Figure 4-7 and draw it
page 4-10): into the box hole. To ensure that the passage
is clear, have someone shine a flashlight in
the box hole while you peer into the drilled
Section V. Finishing Up
MOUNTING BOXES
To mount a box, screw a cable connector to the tabs over the sides of the box and secure
the box (or use a box with internal clamps them with needle-nose pliers.
that make fitting the box in the hole easier)
PLAIN BOX WITHOUT BRACKETS
and thread the cable through. Leave 6 to 8
Check the box for proper fit in the hole. If
inches of cable sticking out of the box for
necessary, adjust the ears so that the front
connections. For information on stripping
edge of the box will be flush with the fin-
and preparing the wires in the box, see Sec-
ished wall. Mark the screw placements on
tions I and II. How you mount the box will
the lath at the top and bottom of the hole.
depend on its type.
Remove the box and drill pilot holes for
PLAIN BOX WITH BRACKETS screws. Screw the box to the stud. On
Check the box for proper fit in the hole. If wooden walls, screw the ears to the wall sur-
necessary, adjust the ears so that the front face. The faceplate will hide the ears and
edge of the box will be flush with the fin- screws.
ished wall. Put the two brackets in the wall,
CUT-IN BOX
one on either side of the box, and pull the
Mounting this box is a one-time proposition.
bracket tabs toward you so that they are
Once inside the wall or ceiling, the side
snug against the back side of the wall. Bend
teeth flare away from the box, making it
difficult to remove. Tightening the screw at CEILING BOX WITH OFFSET HANGER
the back of the box simply pushes the teeth This box works well where you do not have
into the backside of the wall surface. access from above. Screw the offset hanger
Because you cannot remove the box, ensure bar to the bottom edges of two joists.
that the cables are in place and the box fits
CEILING BOX WITH FLANGE
the hole before you mount it. To test the fit,
If you do not have access from above, you
remove the metal spring ears from the box.
will have to cut out a rectangle from the ceil-
CEILING BOX ON HANGER BAR ing material. Nail or screw the flange to a
If you do not have access from the attic, you joist (Figure 4-8).
must cut out the ceiling material between
PANCAKE BOX
the two joists. Screw the hanger bar to the
Simply screw this box to a joist or beam.
sides of the two joists.
Position the box so that it will hide the hole
that was drilled for the cable. Do not make
cable junctions in this kind of box.
CHAPTER 5
Conduit Wiring
Conduit wiring provides mechanical protection and electrical safety to persons
and property and provides convenient and accessible ducts for the conductor.
A well-designed electrical raceway system has adequate capacity for future
expansion and is readily adaptable to changing conditions.
MATERIALS
Though the materials used in rigid conduit inches. Larger sizes (up to 6 inches) are avail-
wiring have been outlined in detail in Chap- able for special use in certain commercial
ter 2, the following discussion will review and factory installations.
the advantages of these standard materials
Though conduit is made in dimensions simi-
as well as their limitations.
lar to water pipe, it differs from water pipe in
Rigid conduit (Figure 5-1, page 5-2) has the a number of ways. It is softer than water pipe
same size designations as water pipe. Con- and thus can be bent fairly easily. In addi-
duit smaller than 1/2 inch can only be used in tion, the inner surface is smooth to prevent
finished buildings where extensions are to damage to wires being pulled through it, and
be made under plaster. In these installations, the finish is rust-resistant. Black-enamel
5/16-inch conduit or tubing is permitted. The conduit is used for dry and indoor installa-
size of conduit is determined by the inside tions, and galvanized conduit is used in out-
diameter. For example, 1/2-inch conduit has side installations to provide moisture
an inside diameter of approximately 1/2 inch. protection for the conductors. For wiring
installations in corrosive atmospheres, alu-
Standard conduit sizes used in interior wir-
minum, copper-alloy, or plastic-jacketed con-
ing are 1/2, 3/4, 1, 1 1/4, 1 1/2, 2, and 2 1/2
duit is available.
Conduit Unions. Conduit unions are conduit run. By using unions, conduit may
installed to permit the opening of a conduit be started from two outlets and joined
at any point without sawing or breaking the together at any convenient place in the run.
PROCEDURES
MAKING BENDS tools are not available, you can make bends
Bends in rigid conduit must be made with- using the lever advantage between two fixed
out collapsing the conduit wall or reducing posts or building members.
the internal diameter of the conduit at the
The following procedure (illustrated in
bend. Electricians make most bends as an
Figure 5-2) is one method of making a right-
integral part of the installation procedure.
angle bend in a length of 1/2-inch conduit. If
These are called field bends. The radius of
you are making a 90-degree bend in a length
the curve on the inner edge of any field bend
of conduit at a distance of 20 inches from
must be at least six times the internal diam-
one end, you must—
eter of the conduit for rubber-, braid-, or
thermoplastic-covered conductors and at • Mark off 20 inches from the end of the
least 10 times the internal diameter of the conduit.
conduit for lead-covered conductors. Table • Place the hickey 2 inches in front of the
B-18, page B-17, shows the minimum radii 20-inch mark and bend the conduit
for field bends. A maximum of four quarter about 25 degrees.
bends can be placed in a conduit run
between two openings. Moreover, a 10-foot • Move the bender to the 20-inch mark
length of conduit should have no more than and bring the bend up to 45 degrees.
three quarter bends. • Move the bender 1 inch behind the 20-
Factory-made bends are available as an inch mark and bring the conduit up to 70
option rather than bending conduit on the degrees.
job. However, these bends are not commonly • Move the bender back 2 inches behind
used because of the increased costs inherent the 20-inch mark and bring the bend up
in the additional cutting and threading that to 90 degrees.
is required and the additional couplings
that must be used. You can make conduit bends more accu-
rately if you use chalk to draw the contour
Conduit up to and including 3/4 inch is usu- of the bend on the floor, and then match the
ally bent with a hand conduit bender called bend in the pipe with the chalk diagram as
a hickey as shown in Figure 5-2, page 5-4. you form the bend. You will usually use a
This hickey can be slipped over the conduit. hydraulic bender to bend conduit in excess
Conduit-bending forms are also available as of 1 inch.
built-in units of pipe-vise stands. If these
Hickey
Steps in making a
90 ° bend
20”
Offset bend
30 ° Place
arrow
opposite
6” 30 ° your
marks.
3”
30 °
30 ° 3”
Step 4. Screw the bushings tightly onto the For efficient and safe operation, wire pulling
conduit ends in the boxes. (Bushings have is generally a two-man procedure. One
smooth surfaces on their inside diameter to electrician pulls the conductors through the
ensure damage-free conductor installation.) conduit, while the other feeds the conduc-
tors into the conduit. In this operation, take
Step 5. Tighten the locknuts against the
care in feeding and pulling the wires so that
boxes so that the teeth will dig into the
they maintain their same relative position
metal sides of the boxes. You can do this by
in the conduit throughout the run length,
driving a drive punch against one of the
thus avoiding insulation injury. For ease of
locknut lugs and forcing the locknut to move
operation, you may rub a wire lubricant,
on the threaded conduit against the box.
such as powdered soapstone, on the conduc-
Step 6. Fasten the box securely to the build- tors or blow the lubricant into the conduit.
ing after you have made all the box connec- In intricate runs, you may perform wire
tions. pulling in sections between boxes. This pro-
cedure requires a large amount of additional
PULLING WIRE splicing to be made in the boxes and
When installing boxes and conduit runs, pull requires that you take more time in wiring.
the conductor wires into the conduit. For The preferred practice in wire pulling is to
short runs with few wires, you can pair con- pull the conductors from the source through
ductors and push them through the conduit to the last box in the conductor run. Make
run from box to box. When the conduit run loops that extend about 8 inches from the
has several bends and more than two con- box openings for each conductor that is to be
ductors, you must use a fish tape to pull wire. tapped or connected to a device in the box. If
After baring the conductor ends of insulation, conductors are not to be tapped, pull them
connect them to the fish tape. Tape the conduc- directly through the box to their connection.
tor junction to the fish tape to preclude damag-
ing the conduit interior and existing USING SPLICES
conductors in the conduit. Taping also Wire splices in conduit installations are not
compacts and strengthens the joint to ensure under tension; therefore, you can use a
easier pulling. (See Figure 5-3.) simple pigtail splice that is carefully made
to obtain a good electrical joint. Do not make
any wire splices that will be concealed in the conduit and could easily be a source of elec-
conduit runs. This requirement is necessary trical failure.
because splices reduce the pulling area in a
CIRCUITING
LAYOUT the ends of the wire insulation may be
Follow the directions and procedures in painted to obtain proper color coding when
Chapter 3 for layout and circuiting of the colored insulation is not available. They
devices in a conduit installation. The avail- may also be identified by the use of wire
ability of different sizes of conduit, along code markers.
with their varying conductor capacities,
makes the wiring installation for conduit CONDUIT CAPACITY
somewhat different from that of the open or Cable wiring, described in Chapter 4, is nor-
cable type. For example, where cable instal- mally limited to two or three standard combi-
lation requires several runs in a particular nations of wire sizes. Conduit, however, has
location, a conduit installation would use a the capacity to accommodate several conduc-
single conduit with multiple conductors. tors in one run. Table B-19, page B-18, lists
Consequently, conduit layouts and runs the maximum number of conductors of a cer-
should be planned to use the minimum tain gauge that can be inserted in the vari-
amount of conduit possible and also to keep ous sizes of conduit used in interior wiring.
the conductor runs to each outlet short For example, the table shows that six No 14
enough to maintain a low voltage drop. wires would require the installation of a 3/4-
inch conduit run. In many installations, it is
CONDUCTOR CONNECTION necessary to use more than one wire size in a
No exceptions to the standard color coding conduit run. In such cases, the conductors
of wires, as outlined in the other systems, cannot have a combined or cross-sectional
are permitted in conduit wiring. All load uti- area equal to more than the allowable per-
lization devices (fixtures and receptacles) cent of cross-sectional area of conduit as
operating at line-to-neutral voltage in a shown in Table B-20, page B-18.
grounded neutral system must be connected
Table B-21, page B-19, lists the percent of
to both a white and a black (or substitute
conduit cross-sectional area in square inches
color) wire. The white wire is always the
available for conductor use. For example, if
grounded neutral wire. Black wires are the
three No 10, Type R, and four No 8, Type R,
hot leads that are fused and connected to
conductors are to be inserted in a conduit,
the switch when controlling power to a lamp
their combined cross-sectional area obtained
holder or an outlet. Red, blue, and orange
from Table B-22, page B-19, is 0.4420 square
insulated wires can be used as substitutes
inch (3 x 0.0460 + 4 x 0.0760). The proper size
for black wire when wire combinations are
of conduit for this installation is 1 1/4 inches
combined in a conduit or a circuit. Never
per Table B-21. You can find this by first
connect the white wire to a black or substi-
looking for the total area in column 7. You
tute-color wire. You must not fuse or switch
will see that 0.4420 lies between 0.34 square
the white wire except in a multipole device
inch (for 1-inch conduit) and 0.60 square
that opens all conductors of the circuit simul-
inch (for 1 1/4-inch conduit). The 1-inch con-
taneously. A green insulated conductor
duit is too small, so you would use the 1 1/4-
denotes a wire used to provide an auxiliary
inch size.
equipment ground. As an expedient measure,
BENDS
Use extreme care when bending metallic that you can use to check the depths of offset
tubing to avoid kinking the pipe or reducing bends.
its inside area. When using thermoplastic-
covered conductors, the radius of the curve OPERATION
of the inner edge of any field bend must be at When making a 90-degree bend, place the
least six times the internal diameter of the conduit on a level surface and hook the end
tubing. When using lead-covered conductors, of the proper-size tube bender under the
it must be at least 10 times the interior diame- conduit's stub end. Using a steady and con-
ter of the tubing. Table B-18, page B-17, tinuous force, firmly hold the conduit and
shows the minimum radii for field bends. bender (with the bending groove over the
conduit), push down on the handle, and step
CONSTRUCTION on the footstep to bend the conduit to the
The thin-wall conduit bender (Figure 5-5) desired angle. To make a 45-degree bend in
has a cast-steel head that is attached to a this manner, move the bending tool until the
steel pipe handle that is approximately 4 handle is vertical. For accurately bending
feet long. It is used in the field to form thin- conduit stubs, place the bender at a prede-
wall conduit into standard and offset bends. termined distance from the end of the con-
Benders are made for each size of conduit; duit. This distance is equal to the required
therefore, use them only on those sizes for stub dimension minus an amount commonly
which they are designed. Each size bends called a take-up height. The take-up height
the conduit to the recommended safe radius. is based on a constant allowance determined
Use the projection on the head of the bender, by the bending radii for various-size con-
sometimes called a foot step, to steady the duit. The take-up height is 5 inches for 1/2-
bender in operation and reduce the pressure inch conduit, 6 inches for 3/4-inch conduit,
required on the handle. The numbers cast and 8 inches for 1-inch conduit.
on the bender shaft are inch measurements
Lip or hook
18” stub
Bender arrow
Footstep
Take-up
mark
Bender
star
INSTALLATION
You may cut thin-wall conduit with a hack-
saw or a special thin-wall cutter. As with DANGER
rigid conduit, you should also ream the
Avoid loosening the conduit from
sharp edge in thin-wall tubing after cutting
to prevent premature wire damage. Exposed
the fittings because it could cause
thin-wall conduit is supported in a similar a loose connection, a short circuit,
manner and with the same type of supports or an electrical fire at the point of
used with rigid conduit. Since there is no wire and conduit contact. A
positive link between the couplings, box mechan-ically loose conduit joint
connectors, and thin-wall conduit, ensure will not maintain the ground
that each conduit joint is electrically and continuity required in all electrical
mechanically secure. Insert all conduit ends wiring installation. This could also
into the fittings until they touch the inner create an operating hazard for
limiting edges. Then, firmly tighten the fit- Army personnel.
tings so that they securely grip the conduit
walls.
MATERIALS
Flexible metal conduit, generally called deteriorative effect on the wire insulation.
Greenfield, resembles armored cable in This metal conduit has a thermoplastic
appearance but is more adaptable than cable outer-sheath covering similar to that used
because various sizes and numbers of wires on Type T wire, the characteristics and uses
can be pulled into it after it is installed. You of which are detailed in Table B-2, pages B-2
may use plastic-covered Greenfield when the through B-4. Figure 5-6, page 5-12, shows
internal conductors are exposed to oil, gaso- flexible conduit and the various fittings
line, or other materials that have a available.
INSTALLATION
Flexible conduit installation is similar to separate grounding wire along with the cir-
that for thin-wall conduit except that Green- cuit conductors.
field must be supported more frequently. Its
prohibitive cost limits its use to connections BENDING AND SUPPORTING
between rigid wiring systems and movable Despite its flexibility, runs of flexible con-
or vibrating equipment such as motors or duit between boxes and fittings must not
fans. It may also be installed where the con- bend more than the equivalent of four quar-
struction requires a conduit bend that is dif- ter turns. This conduit must be supported
ficult or impossible to make. with a conduit strap within 12 inches of
every box or fitting and at intervals no
GROUNDING longer than 4 1/2 feet.
Because of restrictions, you must ground
most flexible conduit systems by running a
USES
Many types of nonmetallic conduit are avail- try to substitute PVC irrigation pipe for
able, but schedule 40 polyvinyl chloride schedule 40 PVC conduit; look for the insig-
(PVC) is the one most electricians use. It is a nia of an electrical materials testing labora-
rigid, heavy-walled, flame-retardant, heat- tory. You can use nonmetallic conduit with
and sunlight-resistant conduit. It may be metal or nonmetallic boxes, but the
used in wet or dry locations, in walls, in ceil- nonmetallic boxes are not the same as those
ings, and above or below the ground. Do not used with Type NMC cable.
WIRING
Nonmetallic conduit does not constitute a separate grounding wire with the circuit
grounded system, so you must run a conductors.
TRIMMING
After cutting PVC, trim the ends inside and edges that might damage conductor insula-
out with a pocketknife to remove any rough tion.
BENDING
Bends in PVC are made by heating the con- your runs so that no piece of conduit
duit in a special infrared heater until it is between fittings bends more than the equiv-
soft. Do not try to heat PVC with a torch alent of four quarter turns.
because you will char the conduit. Design
JOINING
PVC comes in 10-foot lengths, each one with cement. Male and female adapters are avail-
a coupling. Glue the conduit together with able for transitions to other types of conduit
gray conduit cement; do not use water-pipe and for box connections.
CHAPTER 6
Foreign Systems
Most foreign wiring systems are not installed according to prescribed stan-
dards, so they do not conform to the rigid safety limitations and practices fol-
lowed in the US. This fact may be attributed largely to material shortages in
most foreign countries that have dictated the use and employment of materi-
als at hand. In many instances, these materials would be considered below
standard or expedient substitutes in the US. These limitations have been
advantageous in some areas, such as the Scandinavian countries, because
they have provided an incentive for electrical development that has resulted
in more rapid advancement. This chapter acquaints electrical personnel with
the major differences to be found and the precautions to be taken when mak-
ing wiring installations or using equipment purchased or procured in a for-
eign country. To properly illustrate and discuss the major differences in
foreign wiring, US standards are reviewed when necessary.
TYPE OF WIRING
The wiring system generally in use in most requirements. Other types of installations,
foreign countries is similar to open wiring outlined in the preceding chapters, are
installations because of the low material being installed in urban areas.
VOLTAGES
DOMESTIC FOREIGN
The US uses nominal voltages that range Since many countries employ voltages other
from 120 to 240 volts for single-phase AC than those we accept as standard, the elec-
low-voltage distribution. Though these volt- trical equipment in use during occupancy or
ages are considered to be standard voltage wartime must be converted, modified, or
ratings because of their prevalent use, some operated inefficiently when powered by for-
locations and areas throughout this country eign electrical installations. FM 5-422
still have DC systems or use AC systems includes frequency and voltage charts for
with nonstandard voltages. different parts of the world.
FREQUENCY
The standard frequency of AC distribution but US Army personnel could also encounter
in the US is 60 cycles. In most foreign lands, such frequencies as 25, 40, 42, and 100
50-cycle frequency generation is common, cycles.
MATERIALS
BACKGROUND in size and usage from those given in this
The wiring materials commonly used in for- manual. Table B-23, page B-20, gives the
eign countries are usually peculiar to the standard and metric diameter of standard
territory's manufacture. In recent years, AWG sizes.
however, the large export of electrical goods
from Germany, England, and the US has DEVICES
been increasingly reflected in the estab-
lished wiring patterns. The receptacles, switches, and plugs used in
foreign wiring systems are also peculiar to
WIRE the installations found in a particular area
The US employs the AWG system, which is and normally cannot be mated or used with
peculiar to our installations. However, most similar types of receptacles manufactured in
foreign wire that Army personnel use differs the US.
PROCEDURES
During occupancy or wartime in a foreign determined largely by the immediate cir-
territory, the Army may commandeer and cumstances, the Army electrician or unit
use all or part of a foreign electrical installa- commander will make this decision based on
tion. Though the decision of employment is the availability of supplies and time.
SUPPLY
Since the electrical components of a foreign and use of foreign power equipment should
and domestic electrical system cannot be be compared to the necessary modification
interchanged, the problem of supply is a of US electrical items to meet the standards
major factor. The problems of installation required in the foreign territory.
MODIFICATIONS
If time is a factor, consider using standard this method usually results in decreased
electrical items made in the US and modify operating efficiency, the ease of adaptability
the plugs or connections so that they may be and abundance of supply usually outweigh
used with the foreign installation. Though the reduction in performance.
operating ranges of 110 to 240, 199 to 216, fans, is usually manufactured to operate
or 220 to 250 volts will cause uncertain with a permissible voltage variation of
starting, short lamp life, and reduced 10 percent within their prescribed rat-
lighting efficiency. ing. The combined voltage and frequency
variation is also limited to 10 percent.
• When incandescent lamps are used and
Higher voltages give increased torque,
operated at voltages higher than their
efficiency, and starting temperature. A
normal ratings of 115, 120, and 125
lower operating voltage results in
volts, they have a shortened lamp life
decreased torque, decreased efficiency,
and their light output is increased. Con-
and increased running temperature.
versely, if the line voltage of operation is
Operation at voltages differing from the
below standard, the life of the lamps is
rated voltage by more than 10 percent
increased and the lighting efficiency is
may be permitted only in an extreme
reduced approximately 3 percent for
each 1 percent drop in rated voltage. emergency because the equipment could
be damaged or destroyed by such opera-
• Rotating equipment, such as motors and tion.
that have no adverse effects are available This compound protects the connection
specifically for connection to copper or alu- against excess surface oxidation because,
minum. These new materials are marked for unlike copper oxide, the oxide of an alumi-
easy identification. If aluminum is used exclu- num conductor adds a high contact resis-
sively in a system, a special joint compound tance to the wire.
must be applied to all connections or joints.
CHAPTER 7
DISCONNECTS
Disconnect switches are generally used in a feeder circuits and to prevent winding burn-
primary circuit where opening the circuit is outs from open-circuit windings.
necessary under voltage with little or no
load current. They must interrupt only the
charging or exiting current of lines or appa-
ratus connected. These switches are ordi-
narily used to disconnect branch lines, off-
circuit breakers, and transformers where
the load current may otherwise be broken.
TYPES
Disconnect switches are available in various
Disconnect switch
types, ratings, and classes. The switch
shown in Figure 7-1 is used at switch struc-
tures and out on the line. If the mounting
height is not too great, the switch can be
operated from the ground with a long-
Single crossarm Double crossarm
handled switch stick. The switches shown in
hanger hanger
Figure 7-2, page 7-2, are used for line sec-
tionalizing. They are generally installed on
the crossarms carrying the primary circuit
and are operated by a switch stick that can
be fastened to the lineman's belt.
7,500-V 15,000-V
BYPASS SWITCHES insulator unit insulator unit
Bypass switches may be used at booster and
regulator installations to provide a quick,
reliable means of taking such apparatus in
and out of service without de-energizing the Figure 7-1. Open-type disconnect
switch and components
Porcelain-housed, dead-hinge
Porcelain-housed, quick-break
disconnect switch
disconnect switch
3¼″ × 4¼″
to 4″ × 5″ 7 ³/8 ″
crossarm
5½”
15 ¾″
8 ¾″
preventing the arc from reestablishing itself gle-phase installation, including a bypass
after an early current zero. The butt-type switch and a lightning arrester. The use of
contacts automatically compensate for bypass switches is optional. Some types of
burning caused by repeated operation. They breakers include internal lightning protec-
can be replaced if renewal eventually tive devices so external lightning arresters
becomes necessary. Figure 7-3 shows a sin- are not required.
Source Load
Oil circuit
recloser
The bypass fuse
Lightning is normally open.
arrester
3 1/4” x 4 1/4” to
4” x 5” crossarm
11/16” x 1 1/
2” slot
5 5/16”
C
B D
11/16” square
hole
Pole-mounting hanger
Voltage A B C D E
CHAPTER 8
Generators
The demands for electricity in military field operations are numerous and var-
ied. Electricity powers equipment ranging from rock crushers to missile
launchers. It services aircraft, ships, and land vehicles. Electricity is required
for command and control operations, medical support, and other facilities. The
Department of Defense (DOD) uses a family of generator sets to produce the
electrical power needed by military field units. This family was developed in
the 1960s to reduce the variety of generator sets and repair parts required by
all services. This chapter describes the generators in this family and provides
instructions for their use.
Generators 8-1
FM 5-424
used much of the time, loads with specific volt- trucks. Sets that produce more than 60
age, frequency, and power requirements may kilowatts of power must be transported in 5-
use up to 400-cycle AC. Radar, fire-control ton trucks. Therefore, a field unit may make
sets, communication controls, and guided- parallel connections between several 60-
missile systems are examples of equipment kilowatt generator sets to produce an amount
that require 400-cycle AC. Some equipment of power equivalent to one large set.
can operate with either 60- or 400-cycle AC.
Small
AC generator sets are designed to operate at Small AC generator sets are driven by gaso-
various voltages, frequencies, and power lev- line engines and produce 0.5 or 1.5 kilowatts
els. To meet a particular power demand, an of electricity. The output is delivered in 120
operator must choose a set with the proper or 240 volts, with a single-phase distribution
characteristics. If a large set is needed but is system, at a frequency of 60 cycles. Sets that
unavailable, several small sets, each located produce 0.5 kilowatts are available at a fre-
near the load to be supplied, may be used. quency of 400 cycles; sets that produce 1.5
Additional operators and maintenance per- kilowatts are available at a frequency of 60
sonnel may be required if several small sets cycles.
replace a large one.
The 1.5-kilowatt, 60-cycle generators are the
Mobility is a factor in selecting generator most versatile and widely used small sets in
sets for field use. Sets that produce 60 kilo- the DOD inventory. They satisfy the commu-
watts of electricity are often used in the field nications and lighting needs of small field
because they can be transported in 2 1/2-ton units.
50 ft
X X
50 ft
Electrical
distribution cable
(50 ft minimum)
Auxiliary fuel line
(25 ft or length of
fuel line)
Key
Engineer tape
“No smoking” signs
“Noise area” signs
X Fire points
8-2 Generators
FM 5-424
Generators 8-3
FM 5-424
8-4 Generators
FM 5-424
loads. These generators are usually mounted • Alternator Data Plate. Specifies the alter-
on skids to increase mobility. nator ratings for 50-, 60-, and 400-cycle
outputs. It provides the serial number,
Large kilowatt rating, DC excitation require-
Large AC generators are driven by diesel ment, date of manufacture, voltage and
engines and produce between 15 and 500 kilo- ampere outputs, power factors, model
watts of electricity. These generators can number, and revolutions per minute (rpm).
deliver 50/60- or 400-cycle AC. They can
On most models, this plate is attached to
deliver three-phase, four-wire power at 120/
the main generator housing.
208 or 240/416 volts. An output delivered at 50
cycles is 82 percent of the rated power; an out- • Equipment Identification Plate. Specifies
put delivered at 60 cycles is 100 percent of the the model number, serial number, horse-
rated power. power rating, date of manufacture, num-
Large generator sets produce electricity for ber and firing order of cylinders, national
lighting and power in buildings and other gen- stock number, contract number, and occa-
eral loads. They can produce enough output to sionally, the applicable TM. A typical
supply several kinds of loads simultaneously equipment identification plate is shown in
over a relatively wide area. Standard-fre- Figure 8-2.
quency generator sets are rated at 50/60
cycles; high-frequency genera-
tor sets are rated at 400 cycles.
DC GENERATOR SETS
DC generator sets provide
power for specific pieces of
equipment. For example, they
are used to charge batteries,
operate communications equip-
ment, and provide power to
some missile equipment. Thus,
the need for DC generator sets
in the field is less than the need
for AC generator sets. The three
DC generator sets listed in
Tables 8-1 and 8-2, pages 8-3 Figure 8-2. Typical equipment identification plate
and 8-4, are basic AC generators
that use rectifiers to convert the
AC voltage to DC voltage. • Starting and Stopping Instruction Plate.
Specifies starting and stopping and/or par-
DATA PLATES alleling and synchronizing procedures and
Three data plates located on the generator is frequently called the paralleling and
provide pertinent information about output, synchronizing instruction plate. It may
capabilities, and performance characteristics. also show preliminary positioning of con-
Refer to the description and data section in trols and procedures for using the dark-
the appropriate TM for information about a lamp method of synchronizing and paral-
specific generator that is not on the plates. leling generators. This plate is located
inside the main control-panel cover.
Generators 8-5
FM 5-424
120 V
240 V
120 V
8-6 Generators
FM 5-424
L1
208 V
208 V
L3
L2
208 V
Generators 8-7
FM 5-424
L1 L1
120 V 240 V
208 V L0 208 V 416 V L0 416 V
120 V 240 V
L3 L2 L3 L2
120 V
240 V
208 V
416 V
240/416 V
8-8 Generators
FM 5-424
Air circuit
Balance the load current breaker
of the phase: Single-phase
voltages (10 2 W),
Phase C = 196 amperes Phase-to-neutral
Phase B = 196 amperes
Phase A = 196 amperes 60 kW 60 kW Three-phase voltages
gen gen (30 4 W), phase-to-phase
listed in Table 8-3. Use the following parts of a system to the maximum demand
formula to determine the demand load when of the entire system. The diversity factor is
you know the demand factor: similar to the demand factor except that it
deals with the actual demand load rather
Demand load = connected load x demand factor
than the potential demand load. For
Table 8-3. Demand factors example, a generator set may serve three
demand sites, each with a maximum
Demand demand of 30 kilowatts, as shown in Figure
Structure
Factor 8-8, page 8-10. In this example, the potential
Housing 9 demand load is 90 kilowatts. Because maxi-
Aircraft maintenance facilities 7 mum demands at the three sites do not
Operation facilities 8 occur simultaneously, the maximum
Administrative facilities 8 demand load on the generator set is only 60
Shops 7 kilowatts, not 90 kilowatts.
Warehouses 5 Demand and diversity factors are used to
Medical facilities 8 plan the design of electrical facilities and
Theaters 5 determine the type and size of generator
Navigational aids 7 sets required for a field unit. Demand
Laundry, ice plants, and bakeries 10 factors are also used to rearrange existing
All others 9 facilities. For example, additional equip-
ment may greatly increase the connected
Step 5. Compute the diversity factor. Mea-
load of a structure, but it may or may not
sured at the point of supply, the diversity
require a change to the serving generator
factor is the ratio of the sum of the maxi-
mum power demands for the component set.
Generators 8-9
FM 5-424
60 kW
30 kW
Supplied load
Demand load
30 kW
Load C
30 kW Load B 30 + 30 + 30
Diversity factor =--------------------------------- = 1.5
60
30 kW
Load A
Time
8-10 Generators
FM 5-424
voltage drop is usually shown as a percent- A calculated voltage drop is used to plan a
age of the voltage required at the receiving distribution system. A system that does not
end. produce enough voltage may cause unex-
pected results. For example, the heat
The maximum allowable voltage drop for
produced by resistive heating equipment
lighting and power loads is 5 percent. This
varies as the voltage varies. Thus, a system
allows no more than a 3 percent loss in the
operating at 10 percent below the rated volt-
branch lines and no more than a 2 percent
age will produce 19 percent less heat. The
loss in the main and feeder lines.
heat loss is absorbed by the conductors sup-
To increase the voltage at the receiving end plying the power and may cause conductor
of the distribution system, increase the volt- failure.
age output from the generator set. However,
Step 8. Allow for growth. Expect the power
the output should never exceed the voltage
demands on an electrical circuit to increase
rating of the generator set. Operators must
in the future. Allow a growth of at least 50
periodically monitor the voltage throughout
percent of the initial load. When installing a
the distribution system to identify and cor-
wiring system for electrical power, ensure
rect malfunctions in electrical equipment
that the circuit can accommodate at least 50
that is connected to the lines.
percent more than the actual connected
loads.
Generator (231 V)
11 V line
drop
Available Motor
voltage
(220 V)
Generators 8-11
FM 5-424
NOTE: Three-phase, AC lines are assumed to be feeding balanced, three-phase loads. For three-
phase loads, input current is per phase.
Step 3. Use Table 8-8, page 8-17, to deter- voltage-drop criteria will require a larger
mine the total resistance of the cable when wire size than that normally required. The
it is connected between the generator set criteria resulting in the larger size wire gov-
and the load. Ampacity affects the size of erns the design of the distribution system.
wire required for a distribution cable.
NOTE: When installing a cable over-
Ampacity is the current-carrying capacity of
head, use a minimum size of No 8 AWG.
a cable or wire expressed in amperes. If the
An overhead cable must meet the
ampacity load is great and the wire length
voltage-drop requirement and be strong
from the generator set to the load is short,
enough to support its own weight plus
ampacity considerations will require a
any additional weight caused by fallen
larger wire size than that normally
branches, ice, or snow.
required. When power requirements are low
and the length of the line is long, the
8-12 Generators
FM 5-424
Generators 8-13
FM 5-424
NOTES:
1. These values of full-load current are in accordance with the National Electrical Code and are for motors run-
ning at speeds usual for belted motors and motors with normal torque characteristics. Motors built for espe-
cially low speeds or high torques may require more running current, in which case the nameplate current
rating should be used.
2. For full-load currents of 208- and 200-volt motors, increase the corresponding 230-volt motor full-load cur-
rent by 10 and 15 percent, respectively.
8-14 Generators
FM 5-424
Table 8-7. Allowable current capacities of conductors, in amperes, for not more
than three conductors in a raceway or cable
A B1 C D E F G
AWG Rubber Rubber Paper Asbestos Impregnated Asbestos
Types R, RW, Types RH, Thermoplastic varnished- asbestos Types A
RU, RUW (14- RH-RW2, asbestos cambric Types AI (14-8), AA
2) RHW Type TA Types AVA, (14-8), AIA
AVL
Type Var-Cam
RH-RW2 Type V
Thermoplastic Asbestos
Types T, TW Var-Cam Type
AVB
MI Cable
14 15 15 25 30 30 30
12 20 20 30 35 40 40
10 30 30 40 45 50 55
8 40 45 50 60 65 70
6 55 65 70 80 85 95
4 70 85 90 105 115 120
3 80 100 105 120 130 145
2 95 115 120 135 145 165
1 110 130 140 160 170 190
1/0 125 150 155 190 200 225
2/0 145 175 185 215 230 250
3/0 165 200 210 245 265 285
4/0 195 230 235 275 310 340
1
Insulation type and description.
2
If type RH-RW rubber-insulated wire is used in wet locations, the allowable current-carrying capacities will be
that of column C; and if used in dry locations, the current-carrying capacities will be that of column D.
Type Description
R Code-grade rubber compound
RW Moisture-resistant rubber compound
RU Latex-rubber compound
RUW Latex-rubber, moisture-resistant compound
RH-RW Heat- and moisture-resistant rubber compound
RH Heat-resistant rubber compound
RHW Heat- and moisture-resistant compound
T Thermoplastic-covered for dry locations
TA Thermoplastic- and asbestos-covered for switchboard wiring
TW Thermoplastic-covered for moist locations
MI Mineral-insulated, copper-sheathed for general use and special high-temperature locations
A Nonimpregnated, all-asbestos, without asbestos outer braid
AA Nonimpregnated, all-asbestos, with asbestos outer braid
AI Impregnated, all-asbestos, without asbestos outer braid
AIA Impregnated, all-asbestos, with asbestos outer braid
AVA Impregnated-asbestos and varnished-cambric with asbestos braid
AVB Impregnated-asbestos and varnished-cambric, flame-resistant cotton braid
AVL Impregnated-asbestos and varnished-cambric, outer asbestos braid, lead-sheathed
V Varnished-cambric
Generators 8-15
FM 5-424
8-16 Generators
FM 5-424
Tinned
AWG Circular Mils No of Wires Bare Copper
Copper
18 1,624 7 6.64 7.05
16 2,583 7 4.18 4.43
14 4,107 7 2.63 2.69
12 6,530 7 1.65 1.72
10 10,380 7 1.04 1.08
9 13,090 7 0.824 0.856
8 16,510 7 0.654 0.679
7 20,820 7 0.519 0.538
6 26,250 7 0.410 0.427
5 33,100 7 0.326 0.339
4 41,740 7 0.259 0.269
3 52,640 7 0.205 0.213
2 66,370 7 0.162 0.169
1 83,690 19 0.129 0.134
1/0 105,500 19 0.102 0.106
2/0 133,100 19 0.0811 0.0842
3/0 167,800 19 0.0642 0.0668
4/0 211,600 19 0.0509 0.0525
102 W
120 V 20 100-W bulbs M
Grounded neutral
Generators 8-17
FM 5-424
Load balanced
1/4 HP
0.3 kVA
8-18 Generators
FM 5-424
1,500 W Iron
1,000 W
Toaster
Neutral
Generators 8-19
FM 5-424
If motors are part of the load, increase the • To determine the voltage required for a
capacity of the generator set above the generator set, consider the distribution
capacity normally required. The increased circuits; the size, character, and distribu-
capacity is required to compensate for tion of the load; the length, capacity, and
reduced terminal voltage when large motors type of transmission lines; and the size,
are started and when frequency surges location, and connection of the generator
occur during motor acceleration. These sets.
power drains may adversely affect the per- • Lighting is universally rated at 120 volts
formance of electronic systems and other in the US. The voltage required for light-
equipment fed from the same generator set. ing can be obtained from a single-phase,
Also, motors already running may stall two-wire, 120/240-volt circuit or a three-
when large motors are started. You can phase, four-wire, 120/208-volt circuit.
avoid these and similar problems by remov- Using both lighting and small-motor cir-
ing the existing load when starting a large cuits increases the load requirements for
motor and then placing the small loads back general power applications.
on the generator set after the large motor
• Small motors (less than 5 horsepower
has reached its required speed.
[HP]) are supplied by DC or single-phase
Some single-phase loads contain equipment AC systems at 120 volts. Large three-
rated at both 115 and 230 volts. These loads phase motors (5 HP or more) usually
require a generator set with a single-phase, operate satisfactorily between 200 and
three-wire, 120/240-volt output. 240 volts.
The size of the load is a primary consider- • DC generator sets are used for specific
ation when selecting a generator set. Deter- tasks, and selection is based on the task
mine the capacity needed to support the to be performed. Battery charging is the
load before selecting a generator set. Sets main use of DC generators. A practical
with capacities ranging from 0.5 to 500 kilo- wiring diagram of a two-wire, DC gener-
watts are available. ator set is shown in Figure 8-14.
8-20 Generators
FM 5-424
Exciter Generator
armature armature
Generator
Exciter field
field
28 volts
Generators 8-21
FM 5-424
kilowatts, and/or power factors. If the only amperes required to support the load but do
information you know about a generator set not exceed the rating of the generator set.
is the kilovolt-amperes, power factor, and
Many generator sets are designed so that
voltage-output rating, you must determine
you can select one of several voltages. The
the load classification.
ampere rating changes as the voltage output
A generator can support its kilovolt- changes. Thus, a model MEP-018A, 5-
amperes rating if the major portion of a load kilowatt generator set can supply any of the
is inductive. For example, a model MEP- voltages and amperes in Table 8-9.
017A generator set rated at 6.25 kilovolt-
Rating information is on the alternator data
amperes can support a 6.25-kilovolt-ampere
plate and in the tabulated data section of
inductive load. A generator with a load that
the TM for each generator set.
is entirely resistive may be overloaded eas-
ily because it can support only 80 percent of Table 8-10. Voltage and ampere output
its kilovolt-ampere rating. For example, a
model MEP-017A generator set rated at 6.25 Phase Voltage Amperes
kilovolt-amperes can support only a 5-kilowatt Single 120 104
load (6.25 x 0.80 = 5). A generator set with a Single 240 52
rating of 0.8 power factor cannot support that Three 120 34.7
rating in kilovolt-amperes if the load is (per phase)
purely resistive (a power factor of 1.0). If the Three 208 17.3
ampere rating is known, calculate the total (per phase)
8-22 Generators
FM 5-424
Distribution center
180-kW load
(maximum) L3 L2 L1 L0
60-kW generator
L3 L2 L1 L0
60-kW generator
L3 L2 L1 L0
60-kW generator
L3 L2 L1 L0
paralleling switches are on, the two NOTE: The following measures should
paralleling lamps on the control panel of the be taken only if the lights do not blink
incoming set will begin to blink on and off. in unison. Turn all power off before
Both lights will blink on and off at the same reconnecting the generator sets.
time if the generator sets are connected
Ensure that the lights blink in unison. If the
properly.
base set is under a power load, observe the
kilowatt meter (percent-of-power meter) on
Generators 8-23
FM 5-424
8-24 Generators
FM 5-424
least 1/4-inch thick and coated for corrosion Keep the soil around the rod moist at all
protection. Grounding plates must be buried times.
below the moisture level. Frozen soil is a poor conductor of electrical
Attach the grounding system with a No 6 current. When the soil temperature drops
AWG or larger cable. Connect one end of the below 32°F and the soil moisture freezes,
cable to the grounding terminal of the gen- the effectiveness of the grounding system
erator set. Tighten the nut securely, as decreases. To compensate for low soil tem-
described in the appropriate TM. Connect peratures, place the grounding system near
the other end of the cable to the grounding a source of heat such as a generator set or
electrode with a special grounding clamp. vehicle exhaust. When it is difficult to
install an effective grounding system
SOIL CONDITIONS because the soil is frozen, connect the
Contact with the earth does not guarantee a grounding strap to something that is
good grounding system. The soil type, mois- already grounded, such as a metal building
ture content, and temperature affect the effi- or an underground pipe. If possible, attach
ciency of the grounding system. Table 8-10 the strap with a grounding clamp; if not,
describes the characteristics of four types of attach it with a bolt.
soils.
Another alternative is to drive several
Table 8-11. Soil characteristics grounding stakes into the soil at different
locations to form a grounding network.
Type of Soil
Quality of Drive the stakes to the greatest depth possi-
Ground ble. If necessary, drill, dig, or blast a hole in
Fine soil granules with high mois- Very good the soil and use the salt solution described
ture content previously. You may also be able to make a
Clay, loam, shale Good temporary ground by driving a spike deep
Mixed (clay, loam, shale mixed with Poor into a large tree.
gravel or sand)
Geographical locations are important con-
Gravel, sand, stone Very poor
siderations when establishing grounding
systems.
Soil is divided into two distinct layers. Top-
soil, the first layer, usually ranges from 1 to • Deserts. The extremely dry and loosely
6 inches deep. Because it is often dry and packed desert soils provide a very poor
loosely packed, topsoil is not a good electri- electrical grounding system. Increase
cal conductor. Subsoil, the second layer, is the efficiency of the grounding system
usually tightly packed, retains moisture, with the salt solution. Keep the soil
and provides the best electrical ground. Wet around the grounding system moist at
soil passes electrical current better than dry all times. Place the equipment near an
soil and allows the grounding system to oasis or subterranean water if possible.
work efficiently. • Mountainous areas. In the rocky terrain
A chemical solution is used on soils to typical of mountainous areas, site selec-
improve a poor grounding system. To make tion is the key to providing a good ground-
this solution, mix 5 pounds of sodium ing system. Try to place the equipment
chloride (common table salt) with 5 gallons near a streambed.
of water (1 pound of salt to 1 gallon of • Packed, rocky, or frozen soil. Use a slip
water). Dig a hole that is about 1 foot deep hammer to drive a grounding rod into this
and 3 feet wide. Pour the solution into the soil. You can make a slip hammer (Figure
hole and allow it to seep into the soil. Install 8-16, page 8-26), or you can order one
the grounding rod in the hole, connect the through normal supply channels.
grounding strap, and fill the hole with soil.
Generators 8-25
FM 5-424
3/4”
through
center
3 Slugging plate
Smooth off faces on 4” wide x 1”
thick bar or slab. Bore 17/32”
hole through it and thread to 5/8
x 11 NC.
4
5/8” cold roll or steel bar
3’
5/8 x 11 NC on
both ends
4” of thread
Lock washer 8”
8-26 Generators
FM 5-424
• Tropical areas. Soils in jungles and rain • Keep grounding rods and straps clean.
forests provide good electrical ground for
the grounding-rod assembly issued with • Ensure that grounding rods are as
the generator set. You can install ground- straight as possible.
ing rods easily in these moist soils. The • Keep the points of grounding rods sharp
fast buildup of corrosion is a problem in enough to penetrate the soil.
the tropics. To ensure a good electrical
path, apply waterproof tape at the • Ensure that the straps and cable are the
connection of the grounding strap and proper lengths.
keep the grounding rod clean and dry.
• Use the proper clamps and connections for
Perform the following checks and services to the grounding system selected.
establish a good grounding system:
• Properly tighten the terminal screw and
• Remove paint, oil, and grease from the the grounding-clamp screws.
grounding rods, straps, and connections.
Generators 8-27
FM 5-424
CONSTRUCTING A REVETMENT
Air-cooled, engine-driven generator sets are NOTE: Use revetments only for air-
designed to operate in the open with unre- cooled, engine-driven generator sets.
stricted ventilation. However, you may need
a revetment (Figure 8-18) to protect the DIMENSIONS
equipment from extreme weather and The minimum allowable inside dimensions
enemy attack. The revetment described in for a revetment for generator sets rated from
this section is designed to shelter one gener- 1.5 through 10 kilowatts are 7 1/2 feet long, 5
ator set. Install only one generator set 1/2 feet wide, and 4 feet high. The height
within each revetment. Also, do not place includes 1-foot openings around the top of
other heat-generating equipment in a revet- walls that are 3 feet high. The entrance into
ment with a generator set. Anything that the revetment should be 2 feet wide. The
creates heat inside a revetment will height of the sill at the bottom of the entrance
adversely affect the cooling of the set. should be 1 foot or less. A revetment with
8-28 Generators
FM 5-424
these dimensions is also suitable for genera- earth. The foundation must be less than 6
tor sets that produce 0.5 kilowatts of electric- inches high.
ity. To economize, however, the width and
A drainage system is required to ensure
length can be reduced to 4 feet and 5 feet,
that the runoff flows away from the genera-
respectively.
tor set and out of the revetment. Place all
The above minimum dimensions are based drain holes at the inside ground level.
only on engine cooling and ventilation con- Install a sump and drainage trench for each
siderations. They allow the minimum space drain hole if the water does not drain away
required for servicing and maintaining from the revetment naturally. Place a sump
equipment. and drainage trench outside the revetment.
Chimney
(optional)
Ventilation and
drainage slots
( 6 x 12 inches)
Drain
Door toward
prevailing wind
Fuel storage (size
depends on fuel
container size)
Generators 8-29
FM 5-424
the wall of the revetment. Allow as much hazards associated with fuels at high tem-
open space between the top of the walls and peratures.
the roof as possible for ventilation. Roof con-
The exhaust from the engine may or may
struction usually consists of two pieces of
not be ducted out of the revetment. This
lumber (4 inches by 4 inches) or logs (4
decision is left to the commander. Install a
inches in diameter), about 10 feet long, and
flexible pipe (chimney) similar to the one
enough cross pieces of lumber, logs, or steel
shown in Figure 8-18 if the exhaust is
planking to cover the entire roof. The cross
ducted outside. If a flexible pipe is not avail-
pieces should be about 8 feet long. If the
able, use a piece of exhaust pipe or similar
above materials are not readily available,
material. The point where the exhaust dis-
use any available material. The amount and
charges through the revetment wall
type of protection desired determines the
depends on the type of generator set and the
thickness of the roof. When adding roof pro-
exhaust pipe. The exhaust may or may not
tection, be sure the roof can support the
be discharged into an external exhaust
additional weight. NOTE: The roof shown
chimney. However, a chimney is preferable
in Figure 8-18, page 8-29, is covered
because it helps duct the exhaust gases
with sandbags for additional protec-
away from the revetment and reduces the
tion.
noise level.
Construct a revetment doorway shield that
is similar to a revetment wall. The shield is
WARNING
a wall that prevents projectiles and frag-
Never operate an air-cooled,
ments from entering directly into the revet-
gasoline-engine generator set
ment. The doorway shield must be 3 feet
inside a closed building unless
high and 7 1/2 feet long.
forced ventilation can remove the
engine heat and exhaust gases out- ALIGNMENT INSTRUCTIONS
side. Exhaust gases contain carbon When constructing a revetment, align the
monoxide, which is a poisonous, structure so that the door faces into the
odorless, and colorless gas. direction of the prevailing wind. Install the
generator set so that its long axis is parallel
with the long axis of the revetment. Center
MISCELLANEOUS CONSTRUCTION the set within the revetment walls. Use the
Construct a compartment outside the revet- information in Table 8-11 to orient the gen-
ment for fuel storage. The size of this erator set.
storage area depends on the size of the fuel
containers. The fuel supply is stored outside Table 8-12. Engine-driven generator-
the revetment to minimize the hazards asso- set orientation
ciated with fuels at high temperatures. Air
Generator Set
temperatures within the revetment increase Output (kW)
Orientation
considerably above the ambient tempera-
1.5 Generator end toward the door
ture outside when the generator set oper-
ates. Some generators are equipped with 3.0 Engine end toward the door
integral fuel tanks. Do not use the integral 4.0 Generator end toward the door
fuel tanks in a revetment because of the 10.0 Generator end toward the door
8-30 Generators
FM 5-424
CHAPTER 9
ENGINE CONTROLS
The controls and instruments used to oper- regulates the speed of the engine. The
ate a generator set are installed in a control heater controls (Figure 9-2, page 9-3) oper-
panel similar to the one in Figure 9-1, page ate the engine's heater. The control set
9-2. NOTE: In this chapter, the number includes a circuit breaker, a heater-on indi-
in parentheses after the control name cator light (press-to-test light), and an on-off
corresponds to the callout in Figure 9-1. switch. The press-to-test light is on when
the heater is operating. The three-way fuel
The DC circuit breaker (20) protects DC cir-
valve (Figure 9-3, page 9-3) directs the flow of
cuits against shorts and emergency stops.
fuel from the source of supply to the fuel
When pressed in the start position, the
pump. The valve has three positions—
start-run-stop switch (32) completes the bat-
auxiliary fuel tank, set fuel tank, and off. The
tery circuit to start the motor. The switch is
first two positions indicate the fuel source.
released and returns to the run position after
For example, when the valve handle is in
the generator starts. The switch remains in
the set fuel tank position, fuel is drawn from
the run position until it is placed in the stop
the tank on the generator set.
position. The manual speed control (21)
SAFETY CONTROLS
Most generator sets have a safety-control The coolant high-temperature indicator (9)
system similar to the one in Figure 9-4, page illuminates when the coolant temperature
9-4. The system consists of relays, overspeed rises enough to actuate the coolant high-
safety devices, and pressure-temperature temperature safety device. The overspeed
controls. The generator shuts down when a indicator (10) illuminates when the engine
safety device actuates. Safety devices stop speed exceeds the rated rpm and the over-
the engine or trip the circuit breaker in speed safety device (Figure 9-5, page 9-5)
cases of overspeeding, low fuel level, low oil actuates. The no-fuel indicator (11) illumi-
pressure, or high coolant temperature. The nates when the fuel in the tank is low
low oil-pressure indicator (8) illuminates enough to actuate the no-fuel protective
when the oil pressure drops enough to device.
actuate the low oil-pressure safety device.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 9
11
12
38 13
14
15
17
37 16
19
36 18
35
20
34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 22 23
21
ENGINE INSTRUMENTS On
Several instruments monitor the engine's Off
operation. The oil-pressure gauge (37) indi- Control box
cates the amount of oil pressure maintained in electric heater
the engine. The coolant-temperature gauge
(38) indicates the temperature of the engine
coolant. The fuel-level gauge (36) indicates
the amount of fuel in the main tank. The
battery-charge ammeter (35) indicates the
condition of the batteries and the charging
system. The hour (time-totalizing) meter (34) Figure 9-2. Typical heater controls
indicates the amount of time the generator
set has operated.
AC GENERATOR CONTROLS
Several controls monitor the operation of an voltage-adjust rheostat (24) adjusts the
AC generator. The volts-amps selector switch value of the output voltage. The rheostat is a
(5) provides current and voltage readings for small, variable resistor. The circuit-breaker
each generator phase. A meter is
connected to each phase of the
main generator. Most switches have
six positions that are plainly
marked on the face of the selector
plate. The phase-selector switch
(Figure 9-6, page 9-5) changes the
output of a generator to match the
voltage and phase requirements of
the load. This rotary-type switch is
used on generators that produce as
much as 10 kilowatts of electricity;
changeover boards are used for gen-
erators that produce 15 or more
kilowatts. The parallel-lights
switch (26) closes the synchroniz-
ing-lights circuit in preparation for Three-way fuel valve
paralleling two or more power
units. It is usually a two-position,
rotary or toggle switch. The Figure 9-3. Three-way fuel valve
switch (30) disconnects and connects the automatically disconnects the load from the
load lines from the generator set. This generator in case of overload, short circuit,
switch acts as a main switch and an over- or ground on the load lines or within the
load protective device. The circuit breaker equipment being powered.
AC GENERATOR METERS
Various meters monitor the output from an per second. This dial-type meter is used for
AC generator. The AC ammeter (6) indicates 50-, 60-, and 400-cycle generators. The kilo-
the current output of the generator. The out- watt meter (4) indicates output from the
put is usually a percentage of the rated load. generator. The output reading, in percent of
The AC voltmeter (7) indicates the voltage of kilowatts, must not exceed the rated capac-
the output terminals and, therefore, the ity of the power plant. The operator must
voltage output of the generator. The fre- reduce the load if the output reading
quency (hertz) meter (3) indicates the line exceeds the rated capacity of the power
frequency of the generator output in cycles plant.
OV RP UF UV OL SC Contactor
coil
Run
switch K1
DC Fuel
OP WT FL OS solenoid
Crank
switch K1 coil
Start
motor
Emergency
switch
DC
CONVENIENCE OUTLET
The generator contains a 120-volt AC conve- around the generator set. Fuses or a circuit
nience outlet that provides outlets for lights breaker protect the outlet from overloads.
Output-Selector Switch
Instructions:
Rotate the switch to the desired
output. Connect the load to the
indicated terminals.
240-volt,
1-phase, 2-wire
L2 L3
120-volt, 120/208-volt,
1-phase, 2-wire 3-phase, 4-wire
L2 L3 L0 L1 L2 L3
120-volt,
3-phase, 3-wire
L1 L2 L3
PUSH TO TURN
CHAPTER 10
PRELIMINARY INSTRUCTIONS
An electric generator set may arrive in the • Inspect the entire unit carefully for loose
field completely operational and ready for and missing hardware. Tighten loose
use. However, if the equipment was shipped hardware and replace missing items.
from a supply or maintenance point, the flu-
• Turn the engine over by hand to ensure
ids have been drained out of the set and it is
that all moving parts in the engine and
not in an operational-ready status. Several
the generator move freely.
preliminary tasks are required to set up the
equipment and support facilities for a field • Ensure that all tags, tape, cloth, and
unit. barrier materials are removed.
fuel supply and storage tanks required for • Dig an open trench 4 feet wide and 6
the generator set. Gasoline, diesel fuel, or inches deep around the area to contain
jet fuel (JP-4) may be used to power the gen- any fuel leaks or spills. Pile the earth in
erator set. Consider the following when a mound around the trench. Place
planning installation of the fuel storage crushed rock or sand inside the trench to
area: absorb spilled fuel. Immediately cover
any small spills with dry sand or earth.
• Planned duration of the field installa-
tion. • Prohibit burning of trash within 200 feet
of any fuel storage area.
• Security requirements.
• Do not place any electrical wires above
• Potential fire and safety hazards.
or near the fuel tanks.
• Potential sources of contamination.
• Direct hot exhaust from operating
Planned Duration engines away from the fuel supply.
The length of time the field unit will be in • Bury or cover fuel lines leading away
operation partly determines how the fuel from fuel tanks to protect them from the
storage facilities are installed. For a long- sun and physical damage.
term field unit, use the proper fittings to
install the fuel tanks underground. Ensure • Avoid using a rubber hose for fuel deliv-
that the tanks comply with the manufac- ery except as a temporary measure. To
turer's instructions. Select a location that is make the hose safe, attach or clamp a
convenient to the using equipment. Proper light, flexible copper wire to the end fit-
installation and a convenient location mini- tings of the hose. Twist a ground wire
mize the hazards of fuel contamination, around the hose to prevent breakage and
vapor lock, and fire. to provide a path for static electricity to
flow to the ground. Attach one electrical
For a short-term field unit, place the auxil- grounding wire to the auxiliary tank and
iary tanks or drums above the ground, as far another to the generator set.
from the using equipment as the auxiliary
line allows. If you are using a metal pipe- • Avoid using a long, nonconductive hose
line, place the tanks about 25 feet from the for fuel delivery except as a temporary
generator set. Keep the auxiliary fuel line as measure. Static electricity builds up
straight as possible. when fuel flows through a long pipe or
hose.
Security Requirements • Maintain adequate fire-extinguishing
Follow the unit's standing operating proce- equipment near the auxiliary fuel-tank
dures to perform the proper security mea- area and the generator set. The fire
sures. point must include a shovel, a pickax,
and a fire extinguisher. Include buckets
Potential Fire and Safety Hazards of sand in the fire point if they are avail-
Fire and safety hazards are critical ele- able.
ments in the design of a fuel storage area.
The following safety practices will help elim- Potential Sources of Contamination
inate many fire and safety hazards: The fuel supply for an electric generator set
• Clearly mark the entire fuel storage area must be free of contamination. The equip-
with NO SMOKING and OPEN FLAME ment operator can help ensure a pure fuel
signs to indicate that it is a hazardous supply by identifying potential sources of
area. contamination and planning around them.
Place the fuel storage area at least 50 feet used, check the heater for fuel leaks. The
from all work areas and equipment that heaters in some generator sets use diesel
does not require fuel. The storage area must fuel from the main tank. Check the fuel
be at least 50 feet from heavily traveled level in the auxiliary tanks. Drain con-
roads but be easily accessible by the fuel densation from the tanks and clean the
supply trucks. Place the storage area in fuel filters before operating the equip-
such a manner that any fuel leaks flow away ment.
from the equipment, personnel work areas,
• Inspect the plenum drain fitting before
and housing. You may need to emplace a
starting a gas turbine, engine-driven
shelter or cover to protect the fuel from con-
generator set. Ensure that it is clear and
tamination.
that no fuel has accumulated in the ple-
MAINTAIN THE FUEL SUPPLY num chamber. Use only clean fuel. Drain
The operator must maintain a fuel supply the sediment from the filter into a small
that is adequate for all needs. To help container and dispose of the sediment.
ensure that the proper fuel is on hand— Check the fuel control valves for proper
positioning.
• Ensure that the type and grade of fuel
used in the generator match the specifi- • Check the radiator coolant level and add
cations. coolant if necessary. Allow room for
expansion when filling a cold radiator. If
• Never mix different fuels. Label each cold weather is anticipated, add anti-
storage tank clearly with the type and freeze according to the instructions in
grade it contains. Ensure that only that Table 10-1, page 10-4.
type of fuel is put in the tank.
• Ensure that all required tools, TMs, and
• Clean the tank thoroughly before chang- basic issue items on the inventory list
ing the grade and type of fuel stored in are on hand and serviceable. Included in
it. Drain all the old fuel and remove the the basic-issue items are an auxiliary
sediment and condensation. This proce- fuel hose, grounding rods and cables, a
dure prevents improper operation or fire extinguisher, paralleling cable, a
damage to the generator set. load-terminal wrench, and grounding-
• Ensure that fuel does not spill on any wire clamps. Most generator sets have a
engine parts when draining an engine- storage compartment for the tools, TMs,
mounted fuel tank. Connect a flexible and basic-issue items.
hose between the petcock and the con- • Check the electrolyte level in the batter-
tainer if the fuel cannot drain directly ies, and add distilled water as necessary.
into the container. Ensure that the level is about 3/8 inch
above the battery plates. Never add
PERFORM BEFORE-OPERATION water to the batteries from a metal con-
PMCS tainer. Refer to TM 9-6140-200-14 for
Equipment operators must perform PMCS additional battery services.
before starting an electric generator set.
Refer to the manual issued with the set to • Check the engine’s oil level and add oil if
ensure that all required PMCS for a specific necessary. Lubricate all other parts
set are performed properly. NOTE. Use the according to the lubrication order issued
equipment manual to obtain the cor- with the equipment.
rect operating data. • Carefully check the fuel tank, the radia-
• Check the fuel lines for leaks. Check the tor, oil covers, and the oil pan for leaks.
fuel level in the tank and refill it as Check all lines and connections for leaks.
needed. If winterization equipment is
• Ensure that all generator and engine precise Class 1 sets. Place the circuit
instruments are securely mounted, prop- breaker (main switch) in the open (off)
erly connected, and undamaged. Check position. Connect the output service
all gauges when the generator is operat- cable to the load-panel terminal connec-
ing to ensure that they work properly. tions.
• Inspect the entire generator set for
cracks, breaks, and loose or missing WARNING
hardware. Inspect all wires and termi- Never attempt to start a generator
nals for damage and loose connections. set with the circuit breaker closed
On gas-turbine units, inspect the air- (on). A closed circuit breaker will
inlet screen assembly and remove cause a power surge and damage
obstructions. Inspect the changeover the equipment.
board (Figure 10-1) and the phase selec-
tor switch (see Figure 9-6, page 9-5) for
the correct link connections or position-
• Ensure that the grounding connections
ing for the desired voltage. Set the fre-
on the equipment and the grounding rod
quency selector switch for the desired
are tight. Use No 6 AWG or larger wire
frequency output on the 50/60 cycle,
for the ground.
NOTE: Fasten a tag near the radiator filler cap indicating the type of antifreeze.
CONNECTION INSTRUCTIONS
After the preliminary tasks are completed, is available. Use the following guides when
the operator must install and connect the installing an overhead distribution system:
distribution cables.
• Allow a minimum height of 20 feet for
INSTALL THE DISTRIBUTION CABLE vehicle clearance when crossing over
A distribution cable connects the generator roads.
set to the load. The cable may be installed • Space the poles so that the quick-discon-
overhead, buried underground, or laid on nect joints are supported by the pole as
the ground. Two types of distribution cables shown in Figure 10-2.
are used in military distribution systems:
• Tie the cable together with the quick-
• Cable that is supplied in predetermined disconnects.
lengths and sizes and equipped with
• Use the proper plug connections when
quick-disconnect connector plugs.
installing multiphase cables equipped
• Building wire that is supplied in rolls. with quick-disconnects. This type of
The operator must decide how the distribu- cable has male and female receptacles
tion cable is installed. The decision to install that must be properly aligned to prevent
the cable overhead, underground, or on the a reverse-power condition in the system.
ground depends on the type of material Match the cable marking or apply mark-
available and the conditions at the field ings before installing the cable to ensure
unit. the proper alignment. Most cables are
marked by the manufacturer. The marks
Overhead are countersunk circular or triangular
When conditions dictate the use of an over- depressions or raised buttons in the
head line, you must construct the line prop- insulation on each receptacle. Recepta-
erly. Utility poles, the most convenient cles usually have one pin and one jack
method of supporting the lines, are seldom larger than the other pins and jacks. The
available in the field. Pieces of wood 6 large pin and large jack represent a
inches by 6 inches may be substituted for grounding (neutral) conductor. Match
poles if they are long enough to set rigidly in the large pin and large jack to ensure
the ground and provide safe clearance for that the receptacles are connected prop-
the wires. As a last resort, you may use trees erly if there are no other markings. If
for support if the proper weatherproof cable you mark the cable at the field unit,
paint a color code on the receptacle.
240/416 Cable
20 ft
minimum
120/208
Figure 10-1. Typical changeover board Figure 10-2. Overhead distribution system
Bus-bar
protective
Feeder to section B shield
Feeder to section A
Ground
Conduit
Generator 1
Generator 2
WEATHER CONDITIONS
EXTREME COLD lowest temperature expected. Use the
Generator sets can start and operate at tem- information in Table 10-1, page 10-4, to
peratures as low as -25oF without a winter- mix antifreeze.
ization kit. When the ambient temperature • Ensure that the coolant in the radiator
is lower than -25oF, most engines require is kept at the proper level.
preheating before they are started. The
engine type determines the method used. • Inspect the cooling system frequently for
The two basic types of cooling systems used leaks. Check all gaskets and hose con-
on power-generating equipment are air- nections.
cooled and liquid-cooled. A blowtorch is used • Check the thermometer (water-tempera-
to preheat most air-cooled engines. Most liq- ture gauge) during operation for abnor-
uid-cooled engines are equipped with a win- mally high readings.
terization kit that contains a preheater.
Refer to the manual issued with the genera- • Ensure that all shutters, shutter con-
tor set for preheating and cold-weather trols, and thermostats function properly.
starting instructions. • Ensure that the shutters and the baffle
rods on air-cooled systems are positioned
Checks for cold-weather operation.
Some general PMCS for starting equipment
in cold weather follow: • Report all uncorrectable faults to organi-
zational maintenance.
All equipment—
Electrical system—
• Check the equipment manual for installa-
tion instructions before installing a gener- • Ensure that the batteries are fully
ator set in extreme cold. charged to prevent freezing.
• Check the antifreeze solution. Ensure that • Inspect the electrolyte level daily. The
it will protect the equipment at the electrolyte level must be 3/8 inch above
the battery plates.
Tents and
mess halls
Shop
60-kW
generator
30 120/208 V AC
skid-mounted
distribution panel
60-kW
generator Shop
Recreation
area
operation, and extreme heat causes the shelter. Allow air from the outside to cir-
wiring insulation to swell and soften. culate within the shelter. Keep the main
Chafing and fraying of the wires due to generator's ventilation screen and lou-
vibration are more frequent during vers free of obstructions. Frequently
extreme heat than in other conditions. inspect the instruments on the control
Frequently inspect the wiring for dam- panel for overloads. Overloads cause the
aged insulation and report damaged main generator to overheat and may
insulation to organizational mainte- cause the main circuit breaker to open.
nance. Do not fill the fuel tank completely;
instead, allow room for fuel expansion.
• Lubricate the generator set according to
Before an operating set is shut down,
the current lubrication order.
run it without the load to cool the
• Provide ample air circulation around the engine.
generator set if it operates in an enclosed
GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS
DUSTY/SANDY adding coolant, take any precautions
Perform the following PMCS when operat- needed to keep dust and sand from
ing electric power-generating equipment in entering the cooling system.
dusty/sandy areas:
• Maintain lubrication. Lubricate the gener-
• Erect a protective shield to provide wind ator set according to the current lubrica-
protection for the generator set. Dust tion order. Keep all lubricant containers
and sand cause mechanical failures and tightly sealed, and store them in an area
shorten the life of the equipment. Natu- free from dust and sand. Service the
ral barriers can form a wind shield. For engine oil, the oil filter, and the air cleaner
example, locate the generator set in the more frequently than required for normal
prevailing windward side of dusty areas, conditions. Clean all lubrication points
roadways, and construction sites. before applying lubricants. Clean around
the crankcase oil-fill cap and the crank-
• Frequently clean the generator set with
case oil-level gauge before checking the
an approved cleaning solvent. Keep the
oil level or adding oil.
unit clean, especially the screens and
grilles. When water is plentiful, wet the • Prevent dust and sand from entering the
terrain surrounding the immediate oper- fuel system. Inspect the fuel filter after
ating area. each operating period. Clean the filters
and strainers more frequently than
• Keep all equipment clean. Keep the
required for normal conditions.
main generator free of grease and oil.
Clean obstructions from the ventilation • Check the air cleaner frequently for
screens. Blow dust from electrical com- restrictions.
ponents with low-pressure, dry, com-
pressed air. RAINY/HUMID
Perform the following PMCS for power-gen-
• Frequently inspect the cooling system erating equipment used in rainy or humid
for leaks. Ensure that the radiator and areas:
shutter operate properly and are free
from obstructions. Keep the radiator cap • Provide protection from rain. Keep all
tightly closed. Drain and flush the cool- doors and panels on the generator closed
ing system more frequently than when the set is not in use. Open the
required for normal conditions. When
doors and panels during dry weather so • Cover nonoperating generator sets that are
the equipment can dry. outside with canvas or other weatherproof
material.
• Keep electrical equipment dry to prevent
corrosion, deterioration, and short cir- • Ensure that the coolant used in the cool-
cuits. Inspect all electrical wiring for ing system is free of salt. Use an
cracks, breaks, or frays. Report defective approved rust inhibitor to prevent rust
wiring to organizational maintenance. and scale from forming in the cooling
system.
WARNING • Paint exposed, unpolished surfaces. Coat
Keep the area surrounding a genera- exposed parts of polished steel and other
tor set dry at all times. If conditions ferrous metals with standard-issue rust-
are damp, use insulating materials proofing material or a light coat of
around the set to avoid serious grease.
shocks.
CAUTION
• Keep the fuel tanks as full as possible so Do not use salt water in the cooling
moisture cannot accumulate in them. system of a generator set except in
When adding fuel, ensure that no water an emergency because it will dam-
enters the fuel system. Keep the reserve age the equipment.
fuel containers tightly closed. Drain con-
taminated fuel tanks and refill them
with clean fuel. HIGH-ALTITUDE
Generator sets are rated based on sea-level
SALTWATER altitude. The rating of the set may decrease
Salt water is corrosive to metal, but it is an as the altitude increases. Information about
excellent conductor of electricity. Perform operating equipment at high altitudes is
the following PMCS on equipment operating usually printed on the data plate. The kilo-
in saltwater areas: watt rating may be reduced at high alti-
• Ensure that the electrical equipment is tudes depending on the type of engine used
never in contact with salt water. If con- to drive the generator. Refer to the appropri-
tact occurs, wash the equipment with ate TM for information about each model of
freshwater and allow it to dry thor- generator set.
oughly before operating it.
COMBAT AREAS
Operating generator sets in combat areas generator sets that reduce noise levels are
requires special precautions. Operators in being studied. These sets will be available to
combat areas must use any means available field units in the future.
to avoid detection by the enemy. It is difficult
to operate electrical generators without mak- NOISE
ing the location known to the enemy. The Major sources of noise associated with gen-
equipment is noisy and produces large erator sets are the engine’s exhaust system,
amounts of heat, which may endanger per- air-intake cooling fan, and vibrating metal.
sonnel and equipment nearby. The discom- Operators in combat areas can use several
fort caused by the noise and heat may result methods to reduce the noise from operating
in decreased performance of mission goals by generators. The methods used depend on
personnel. The ability to hear enemy activity the size of the generator set.
may be reduced. New signature-suppressed
0.5 to 10 Kilowatts
The most effective method of suppressing
the noise from small-sized generator sets is
to install them in a revetment. Connect an
auxiliary exhaust line from the engine to the Engine
exhaust
revetment chimney to remove the exhaust
(Figure 10-6). An empty 55-gallon oil or fuel
drum can be substituted for a sandbag chim- From
ney. To do this, punch a number of small engine Flexible
exhaust
holes in the bottom of the drum. The area pipe
with holes must be the same size or larger Sandbags
than the area of the engine exhaust. Lay the
drum on its side and insert the auxiliary 18-24 in
exhaust line inside the large hole in the
drum (Figure 10-7). Use any flexible or rigid
metal pipe that has a diameter larger than
the exhaust outlet on the engine muffler. To
reduce mechanical noises and the noise from
the engine fan, place the generator behind a
barrier such as a hill, dense woods, a large Figure 10-6. Sandbag exhaust chimney
vehicle, or a plywood wall. these sets. Even with an underground
exhaust system, the noise level will be high
because of the unsuppressed fan noise. To
WARNING reduce the fan noise, place a barrier such as
a van, plywood sheets, or convex containers
1. Do not overload a generator set.
Heavily loaded generators produce in the noise path. Another option is to place
excessive noise, dangerous sparks, the equipment so that a natural barrier lies
and hot exhaust gases that can between the radiator and the direction
injure personnel. where the noise reduction is desired. Do not
restrict air flow out of the radiator.
45o
Area of
loudest
Generator Engine noise
Exhaust
45o
CHAPTER 11
SERVICE WIRES
The service wire from the pole to the build- SIZE
ing usually consists of two, three, or four Although No 6 wire is recommended for
conductors on separate insulators at the overhead service cable, you should deter-
pole and the building or two- or three-con- mine the size by the maximum demand load
ductor, concentric-type service cables. When of electrical equipment used in each build-
installing attachments and services, use ing. Use Table 11-1, page 11-2, to determine
insulated conductors. If installing an over- the size of service conductors needed. Since
head service drop is impractical, run ser- these calculations do not take motor-start-
vices underground from a transformer ing currents into consideration, make a sep-
installation. arate check for objectionable flicker. The
number of wires in the service depends on
LENGTH the limits given in the figures and other fac-
Keep service drops less than 100 feet long tors, such as equipment rating. For two-wire
for No 8, 6, 4, or 2 wire. For No 0 or larger service, the limit is two circuits in general-
wire, do not exceed 75-foot spans unless service buildings and four circuits or a 3-
proper anchoring and support is provided. kilowatt connected load in barracks. Three-
Long or large services should be guyed at wire services are required for greater loads.
the line pole. Use three- or four-wire service to supply
more than one service switch.
show various methods of attaching service pages 11-6 through 11-8, show methods of
insulators for several types of building con- attaching services to structures.
struction. Figures 11-14 through 11-16,
Aluminum or
Copper
Copper-Clad Ampere
(AWG or
AL (AWG or Rating
MCM)
MCM)
4 2 100
3 1 110
2 1/0 125
1 2/0 150
Wood sheathing
Wood sheathing
6” service insulator
Brick veneer
Drill a
leader hole.
Brick veneer
7 1/2” service insulator plate 7 1/2” service insulator in stud
or special support between where no plate or support is
studs if furnished provided
Drill a 7/8”
hole.
Toggle-bolt service
Hollow tile or insulator
cement block
Service insulator
Stud
Plate
washers
Plate
washer
5/8” bolt
350 MCM - 500 MCM
Service head
30”
CHAPTER 12
The art of pole climbing is like any other art—it takes hard work. When you
have mastered the art of climbing, you are about 10 percent efficient in your
job. To become 100 percent efficient, you must learn to position yourself on the
pole so that you can work at ease and with efficiency.
INSPECTION
POLE test. Remove rocks and other objects that
Inspect the pole for unsafe conditions both are within 10 feet of the pole to prevent
before and during the climb. Unsafe condi- injury if you fall.
tions include such things as rake (leaning of
the pole), shell rot, cracks, breaks, knots, CLIMBING EQUIPMENT
woodpecker holes, and foreign attachments Pole-climbing equipment is needed to
to the pole. Inspect the pole for rot in the accomplish exterior overhead electrical dis-
center, called heart rot, by sounding the pole tribution work. Basically, there are five
with a hammer (if it sounds solid when hit main parts to a lineman's equipment—a set
with a hammer, it is safe). When the pole of climbers, a body belt, a safety strap, a
has been in the ground for a long time, hard hat, and leather gloves. Inspect your
inspect it for butt rot by digging down about climbing equipment before climbing a pole.
6 inches at the base of the pole and drilling The proper procedures for inspecting climb-
a hole partway into the pole base. The shav- ing equipment are covered in Chapter 13
ings from the hole will indicate if the pole is and in TM 9-243.
rotted. Plug the hole after completing this
CLIMBING PROCEDURES
BELTING IN right hand. Both keeper snaps will face out-
Climbing is an essential part of your job. In ward when you are correctly strapped
order to have your hands free to perform around the pole. The strap should lie flat
work up the pole, you must be able to belt in against the pole. You can then place your
at the work position. Practice will help you body weight on the safety strap. Figure 12-1
become skilled in positioning yourself on a shows the proper belt-in method.
pole.
NOTE: A left-handed person should
The safety strap is the first consideration. It reverse the belting-in and unbelting
must be carried on the body belt in the cor- procedures.
rect way. A right-handed person should
carry the safety strap in the left D-ring. CAUTION
Snap the double (looped) end so the keeper Always ensure that the snaps
will face outward nearest the body. The sin- are secured and properly
gle end and the keeper will face inward far- engaged.
thest from the body. This will keep the strap
from twisting. A left-handed person carries
the safety strap the same way but on the
right D-ring.
Make initial adjustments to the safety strap
before climbing a pole. While belted in at the
base of the pole, with your feet at equal
heights, place your elbow against your stom-
ach and raise your fist toward the pole.
There should be 1 to 2 inches between your
fist and the pole. With your elbow still
against your stomach, extend your fingers.
If your fingers do not touch the pole, your
strap is too long and needs to be adjusted.
Position yourself so that both gaffs are
firmly set into the pole. If you are right-
handed, your left leg will be low and locked.
Your right leg will be about 6 inches above
your left leg in a comfortable position. Keep
your knees and hips away from the pole and
unsnap the single end of the safety strap
with your left hand while holding onto the
pole with your right hand. Pass the single
end around the pole to your right hand.
Grasp the pole with your left hand and snap
the keeper into the right D-ring with your
Pt D
Pt C
Center
Pt B
Pt A
you step with a foot, you will transfer your the greater the temptation. Figure 12-5
body weight to that foot and lock the knee. shows the proper body position for ascend-
Step length is flexible and can be adjusted to ing a pole.
avoid hazards on the pole such as knots,
nuts, and holes. Always look where you are
going and inspect the pole as you are climb-
ing.
The gaffs must come above the point to be
penetrated and then be brought back down
into that point at about a 30-degree angle.
Always set the gaff firmly into the pole. To
maintain the 30-degree angle, keep approxi-
mately 8 inches between your knee and the
pole. You can accomplish this process by
using the inverted-J method (Figure 12-4).
safety strap on the left side by rotating your Ensure that you are in the correct position
hips slightly clockwise. This action will when you do so.
create a slight pull to the left to help you
To get in a work position to the right, keep
swing to the left.
your right leg low and locked. Lengthen
As you step up on your right foot and lock your safety strap slightly to the right, then
your right knee, the left gaff will come out of twist slightly in your body belt to face your
the pole and your body will swing to the left. work. All your weight will be on your right
Keep your left knee locked and your left gaff foot. You are not using your left leg for this,
aimed at the heart of the pole at all times. so position it any way you feel comfortable.
At this time, both knees should be locked. NOTE: Reverse this procedure to get to
Swing your left foot 3 to 4 inches to the left, a work position on the left.
unlock your right knee, and drop onto your
left gaff. The steps around the pole should
CAUTION
not be more than 3 to 4 inches apart (hori-
Working in the incorrect position
zontally) because it could cause your right
could cause back injuries.
gaff to come out of the pole.
Continue the process of positioning your
right foot, shortening your safety strap,
stepping up onto your right foot, swinging to
HOISTING TOOLS AND MATERIALS
the left, and dropping onto your locked left
Use a lineman's knot (Figure 12-7) to tie
leg until you have reached your desired posi-
items to a lineman's rope, and hoist the
tion. If you do this procedure correctly, you
items to the work position.
will stay at the same height on the pole.
Reverse this procedure to circle to the right.
Keeping your right leg low and locked, bring
your left foot close to the right and about 6
inches higher. Shorten your safety strap,
step up on your left foot, and swing to the
right, keeping the gaff aimed at the pole and
dropping down onto your locked right leg.
Work Positions
Even though you are in the location of the
work, you may have to lean out to change Figure 12-7. Lineman’s knot
insulators on the end of the crossarm.
SAFETY
A great portion of your time in the field will and on the lookout for potential hazards.
be spent working on poles. Both groundmen Each job or task has its own unique circum-
and linemen should pay particular attention stances. Evaluate each situation before the
to safety precautions during pole work. It is work begins to determine if any hazards
impossible to list all the hazards you may be exist. Chapter 13 covers some common
exposed to, so you must be constantly alert safety practices for pole work.
PURPOSE
The purpose of pole-top rescue is to quickly sons are electrical shock, heart attack, heat
and safely remove a victim from a power stroke, physical injury, and equipment fail-
pole. There are many reasons why you may ure. No matter what the reason, when a vic-
need to rescue a person from a pole and tim is unable to remove himself from a pole,
lower him to the ground. Some of the rea- you must perform a pole-top rescue.
EQUIPMENT
The equipment necessary for pole-top rescue • A rescue rope that is 1/2 inch in diame-
is important and should be available on all ter and twice the height of the highest
line trucks. The equipment should include crossarm on the base plus 10 feet.
but not be limited to—
• A knife.
• Personal climbing equipment such as
• Rubber protective equipment (used if
hooks, body belts, and safety straps.
the victim or the pole is energized).
PROCEDURES
There are four basic steps in accomplishing without you. Your personal climbing tools
the one-man concept of pole-top rescue— and rubber goods must be in good condition.
evaluate the situation, provide personal pro- Hot-line tools must be ready in case they are
tection, climb to the rescue position, and needed. The physical condition of the pole
lower the victim to the ground. must be surveyed for damaged conductors
and equipment, fire, and splits. Remember,
EVALUATE THE SITUATION do not take chances where your safety is
Call to the man on the pole and ask if he is concerned.
okay or if he needs help. If there is no
response or if the victim seems stunned or CLIMB TO THE RESCUE POSITION
dazed, go to his aid. Time is extremely impor- Carefully climb to the rescue position. If
tant. Evaluate the surroundings. Determine if necessary, clear the injured of any hazards
the pole or crossarm is split, cracked, or on and then reposition yourself in order to
fire; if the victim is in contact with a live determine the victim's condition. Slightly
conductor; and if you need rubber goods or above the victim and to one side is normally
hot sticks. Look at the whole scene, not just the best position for checking and working
the victim. with the victim (Figure 12-8, page 12-8). The
condition of the victim may vary, but this
PROVIDE PERSONAL PROTECTION section will discuss the conditions most com-
Your safety is very important to the rescue monly encountered.
mission because there will be no rescue
Hand line
Fall line
Three half
hitches
the line around the fall line twice, then pass Lower the victim and control his descent by
it around the victim's chest, and tie it with tightening and loosening the two twists in
three half hitches. The knot should be in the rope with one hand, and use the other
front of the victim, near one armpit and hand to guide the victim through any lower
high on the chest. obstructions.
CHAPTER 13
Safety
This chapter emphasizes safety rules and principles in electrical wiring and
repair work that will minimize or eliminate the hazards and dangers in elec-
trical wiring. The practices described in this manual conform to the rules of
applicable safety codes and regulations that are covered in detail in TM 5-682
and follow guidelines of the National Electrical Code (NEC). The NEC governs
all electrical construction. Deviations from these practices resulting from
emergency expedients must be corrected at the earliest possible time after
such an emergency ceases to exist. Military personnel must never take safety
for granted but should keep it in mind and practice it at all times. Strict obser-
vance and enforcement of the following procedures will minimize both the
number of accidents and the costs of installing, operating, and maintaining
the systems.
Safety 13-1
FM 5-424
13-2 Safety
FM 5-424
USING FIRST AID AND RESUSCITATION • Report all accidents to the foreman.
Observe the following rules in the installa-
• Train personnel thoroughly in prone-
tion electrical shop (see FM 21-11 for addi-
pressure and pole-top methods of apply-
tional information):
ing artificial respiration. The electrical
• Ensure that the electrical shop and each foreman in each shop should schedule
of its trucks have adequately stocked practice in artificial respiration once a
first-aid kits. month for every member of the electrical
section.
• Treat minor cuts and injuries on the job;
ensure that serious cuts and injuries
receive appropriate medical attention.
Safety 13-3
FM 5-424
13-4 Safety
FM 5-424
Safety 13-5
FM 5-424
Placing Ladders
• Never place ladders on a slanting or slip-
pery footing unless they are securely tied
or held in place.
• Ensure that stepladders are fully opened
before using them.
• Ensure that the distance from the foot of
the ladder to the wall is one-fourth the
length of the ladder.
• Ensure that extended extension ladders
are in a standing position and that hooks
are securely caught on rungs so that the
ladder cannot telescope when jarred.
• Do not place ladder jacks above the third
rung from the top of a 24- or 36-foot
extension ladder or above the fourth
rung from the top of a 46-foot extension
ladder. This ensures that the ladders
have the proper strength and stiffness.
13-6 Safety
FM 5-424
Safety 13-7
FM 5-424
the edges to weaken the leather or cause worker personally tests his rubber gloves.
it to tear. If the straps are otherwise Make a thorough visual inspection for
sound, you can use them until they are holes and thin spots. When rubber
not less than 1/8 inch thick in any por- gloves or other protective equipment is
tion other than the doubled part of the believed to be defective, tag it and turn it
strap. In this portion, the leather may in for replacement immediately.
wear slightly less than 1/8 inch because
• In addition to the daily visual check, give
a double portion is approximately twice
rubber gloves a semiannual electrical
as strong as a single portion.
test. Give other rubber protective equip-
• The leather is hard and dry. ment an electrical test annually. Make
arrangements with the servicing utility
• The leather is burnt. Burnt leather is
to conduct these tests.
dry on the outside. Bending at the burn
spot cracks the leather, and small pieces Use
between the cracks may be removed eas-
ily with your fingernail. • Wear rubber gloves when working on or
within reach of energized conductors or
• The leather has cracks, cuts, nicks, or equipment operating at voltages between
tears (particularly across or on the edges 300 and 5,000 volts.
of the strap) that tend to affect its
strength. • Wear leather protective gloves over rub-
ber gloves to protect them from mechani-
• Rivets (particularly those in the loops cal damage. Pin holes or thin spots
holding the D-rings) are loose or broken. caused by using gloves without protec-
• The pouch for holding pliers is broken. tors may be hazardous to workers.
• The buckle is broken or defective. • Use approved live-line tools without
using rubber gloves for work on lines
• The snaps are broken or defective.
that are energized at more than 5,000
• The steel-reinforcing strap is broken or volts.
badly worn.
• Wear rubber gloves while cutting sup-
• The buckle hole is torn or excessively posedly dead cables and while testing
enlarged. The tongue should work freely supposedly burned-out transformers on
without side play and close securely both primary and secondary sides.
under the spring tension.
• Do not remove rubber gloves until you
• The grain on the straps is worn. If the are entirely out of reach of energized
smooth side of the leather is worn so equipment.
that fibers are plainly visible and a red
• Do not work with the gauntlet of rubber
stitching becomes visible, the strap
gloves rolled down.
should be cut up and thrown away.
• Wear rubber gloves if you are tending
RUBBER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT reels when wire is being strung or
Follow the safety rules below for inspection, removed near other wires energized
use, and care of rubber protective equip- between 300 and 5,000 volts, and if you
ment: are working near someone who is near
conductors or equipment energized at
Inspection voltages between 300 and 5,000 volts.
• Before starting work on or near live con- • Use a hand line to raise or lower all rub-
ductors or equipment carrying between ber protective equipment in a canvas
300 and 5,000 volts, ensure that each tool bag or a bucket (Figure 13-3).
13-8 Safety
FM 5-424
Insulator hood
Rubber blanket
Safety 13-9
FM 5-424
• Make the underside straight when • Remove climbers when moving from job
removing metal to make the shoulder, to job or when working on the ground.
because a wounded surface may cause
• Remove climbers before working on a
the gaff to break out of the pole when
ladder, standing on a rubber blanket, or
climbing.
riding in a vehicle.
• Do not sharpen the gaff with a grind-
stone or an emery wheel. HOT-LINE TOOLS
The following safety rules govern work with
• Put the climber (Figure 13-4) in a vise hot-line tools:
with the gaff uppermost.
• Do not perform hot-line work when rain
or snow is threatening or when heavy
dew, fog, or other excessive moisture is
present. Exceptions to this rule are
when conducting switching operations,
fusing, or clearing damaged equipment
Straps
that presents a hazard to the public or to
troops.
• Stay alert. If rain or snow starts to fall
Pad or an electrical storm appears while a
job is in progress, complete the work as
quickly as possible to allow safe, tempo-
rary operation of the line until precipita-
tion or lightning ceases. Judgment of
Gaff safe weather conditions for hot-line work
is the foreman's responsibility.
• Perform hot-line work during daylight if
Figure 13-4. Climbers possible. In emergency situations, you
may work under artificial light if all con-
ductors and equipment being worked on
• Sharpen the gaff on the two outer sur- are made clearly visible.
faces with a file. Take long strokes from
the heel to the point of the gaff. Remove • Do not wear rubber gloves with hot-line
only enough material to make a good tools because they make detection of
point. brush discharges impossible.
• Never sharpen the gaff to a needlepoint. • Avoid holding outer braces or other
Leave a shoulder about 1/8 inch back metal attachments.
from the point. The distance across the • Avoid unnecessary conversation. This
gaff at the shoulder should be about 5/32 distracts the attention of linemen from
inch. Sharpening the gaff in this manner work, causes confusion, and adds unnec-
prevents the point from sinking too far essary hazards.
into the pole.
• Maintain close cooperation among every-
CLIMBERS one on the job.
Take the following precautions when using • Treat wooden pole structures the same
climbers: as steel towers. Do not depend on the
• Do not use climbers after gaffs are worn insulating value of the wood.
shorter than 1 1/4 inches on the underside.
13-10 Safety
FM 5-424
Safety 13-11
FM 5-424
POTHEADS 10
Opening
• Open the neutral pothead last and close Direction of
it first when opening and closing circuits traffic
with potheads.
• Do not stand on a concrete floor or on the Curb line
ground while operating potheads in
manholes or vaults. Instead, use an Red lantern
insulated stool, a crossarm, or other dry White lantern
lumber. Cover all grounded framework
safely. In locations containing water, White lantern placed at
foreman’s discretion
take all possible precautions.
• Keep your body clear of all grounded
equipment when working on or near pot- Figure 13-5. Method of protecting open
heads. manholes at night
POLES
• Climb to your working position by the
Working On safest path and take the safest position
• Warn persons nearby when moving a possible, keeping all parts of your body
pole by hand, with a pole cart, or with clear of grounded or live portions of
the truck derrick. Station someone with equipment.
a red flag to warn or stop traffic as nec- • Do not use pins, braces, or guy lines as
essary. handholds.
• Report poles to the foreman that appear • Never carry any tools or material in your
unsafe for climbing so that they can be hands when climbing.
properly braced or guyed. Take special
• Watch for hazardous and dangerous con-
care with untreated pine poles because
ditions such as rusted hardware and
they deteriorate rapidly.
defective guy lines, braces, and arms.
• Do not remove wires or supporting guy Repair such conditions immediately.
lines from a pole until the condition of
• When more than one person is ascending
the butt has been checked.
or descending, ensure that the first per-
• Support unsound poles with pike poles son reaches his working position or the
or guy lines before starting excavation or ground before the second person starts
removing wires. to ascend or descend.
• Remove all the equipment around the
Climbing
pole being removed before starting exca-
vation. • Take care when climbing past another
worker so you do not damage his safety
strap with your gaffs.
13-12 Safety
FM 5-424
• Ensure that your safety strap does not position on a pole. Ensure that one snap
catch on the pole steps when climbing. is fastened in each D-ring.
When wearing a body belt and a safety
• Avoid pressure on the tongue snap when
strap, snap both ends of the strap into
leaning against arms, pins, braces, and
same D-ring when you are not in the
wires to prevent the safety snap from
working position.
becoming disengaged from the D-ring.
• Never put both snaps of your safety
strap in one D-ring while in the working
VOLTAGE
LOW INTERMEDIATE
Electricians may work on energized conduc- De-energize ground lines and equipment
tors and equipment operating at 300 volts operating between 300 and 5,000 volts
or less if all adjacent energized or grounded before starting any work. The only excep-
conductors and equipment are covered with tion to this is when working on overhead
insulating material or approved rubber pro- lines. When working on them, wear rubber
tective equipment. Follow the safety precau- gloves. All work on energized lines, except in
tions below when working on energized an emergency, is executed only when
conductors and equipment operating at 300 directed by a work order.
volts or less:
Checking Energized Conductors
• Tape or cover all bare or exposed places Consider conductors and equipment nor-
on one conductor before exposing mally operating between 300 and 5,000
another one. volts to be energized until positively proved
• Open switches and remove fuses when otherwise. When you cannot establish posi-
working on building wiring, motors, belt- tive proof by a visual check, use an approved
ing, shafting, blowers, or other machin- voltage detector. Before using the detector,
ery (including shop machine tools). you must check it on a conductor that is
Attach hold cards to the switches. known to be energized and note a positive
indication. You must repeat this check on a
• Do not touch steam or water pipes when
known live conductor after making the test
handling portable electric tools or light
on a dead conductor. If rechecking the volt-
cords.
age detector on a live conductor is impossi-
• Never leave joints or loose ends of wire ble, use two voltage detectors, one as a check
untaped unless otherwise protected. against the other.
• Never turn on current in a building Insulation
where a fire has occurred and electric
When working within reach of conductors or
wiring or apparatus has been affected
equipment operating between 300 and 5,000
until a careful safety inspection is made
by the fire department or a safety volts, all energized and grounded conduc-
inspector. Parts damaged by heat, water, tors or equipment must be covered with rub-
or extinguisher fluid may short-circuit ber line hose, insulator hoods, line
and rekindle the fire. protectors (pigs), or blankets or must be iso-
lated with suitable barriers. If you change
Safety 13-13
FM 5-424
your position, cover or barricade any ener- • Treat the spans of wire to be removed as
gized or grounded conductors and equip- energized. Attach a rope to each end and
ment coming within reach before starting lower the spans one at a time.
new work. • Make all possible connections to dead
Use the following safety precautions when wires and equipment with only the final
working on equipment and conductors oper- connection made to the energized con-
ating at 300 to 5,000 volts: ductor.
13-14 Safety
FM 5-424
• Place a hacksaw on the exposed cable • Maintain the minimum body clearance
insulation adjacent to and touching the from energized lines and equipment (see
grounded lead sheet when cutting cable. Table 13-1, page 13-16).
• Open the switch before working on an oil • Perform all work on de-energized cir-
circuit breaker that has an operating cuits between two sets of grounds. Place
bus feed switch. one set on the first pole or structure
toward the source of energy and the
• Treat series circuits, series lamps, and
other on the pole nearest the load.
devices in series circuits as energized
unless they are opened by disconnects. • Do not ground a supposedly dead circuit
without first feeling out the circuit for a
• Never open a series circuit at the point
static discharge with a switch pole.
where work is in progress, such as at
lamps or other series-circuit devices. • Net off energized equipment properly at
Always bridge the point of the circuit the substation before working near it,
being working on with a jumper. and install suitable barriers and warn-
ing signs.
HIGH
Lines and equipment operating at 5,000 • Remove substation apparatus from ser-
volts or more must be de-energized and vice when wiping, cleaning, repairing, or
grounded before any work is started. An performing other maintenance. Place
exception is overhead lines, which you may hold cards on the main and control
work on with live-line tools. Execute all switches before starting work. If you
work on energized lines (except in case of cannot see hold cards distinctly, use a
emergency) only on an authorized work red light to illuminate them.
order. Follow the rules below when working • Do not perform work on any apparatus
on high-voltage equipment operating at until the electrical foreman has proved it
5,000 volts or more: to be dead and safe.
• Do not work on more than one conductor • Do not approach or touch reactors and
at a time with live-line tools. connected equipment unless they have
• Keep live-line tools dry and free from been disconnected from all live lines and
dirt. Thoroughly dry and test tools sub- have been grounded.
jected to damp weather before using • Do not raise, move, or lower cables that
them again. are energized at voltages up to 12 kilo-
• Protect live-line tools carried on line volts more than 18 inches. Do not move
trucks to prevent scars and abrasions. cables that are energized at voltages
Waterproof canvas bags, compartments over 12 kilovolts.
with padded hooks, or bins built into the • Discharge electrolytic and oxide-film
truck may be used for this purpose. lightning arresters by grounding and
shorting the horn gaps before touching
the arresters.
CIRCUITS
DE-ENERGIZED switch, remove the fuses, and then tag the
Do all electrical installation work on a de- switch. The tag should give the electrician's
energized (dead) circuit if possible. Most name, the date, and the time that he turned
electricians rip the main service-entrance the switch off. If existing conditions do not
Safety 13-15
FM 5-424
33 to 66 4 OVERLOAD
Frequently blown fuses or tripped circuit
66 to 132 5
breakers indicate short circuits, grounding,
132 to 220 8 or circuit overloads. Do not solve this prob-
lem merely by installing larger fuses than
HOT those recommended for use in the circuit
Working on hot circuits is not recommended because this exposes both the building and
except in emergency situations. In such situ- the personnel to an electrical fire. Instead,
ations, only experienced personnel who have determine the cause of trouble and rewire
been cautioned on the dangers involved overloaded circuits by increasing the wire
should work on these circuits. AC voltages size of the run or dividing the connected
as low as 67 volts and DC voltages as low as load into several circuits.
110 volts have caused death by electrocu-
tion. When working on a hot line, closely fol- BYPASSED
low the procedures listed below: Do not use jumpers to bypass the fuse or
remove the circuit-breaker protection from
• Insulate yourself to prevent your body the circuit except when testing for short cir-
from becoming a conductor path for the cuits. These primary safety devices are of
current flow. vital importance in a circuit installation. If
• Work on only one side of the circuit at a these protective devices are bypassed, the
time. electrical installation loses its circuit-cur-
rent limitation and short-circuit protection.
• Use insulating gloves at all times and If the devices are removed, the troubles that
stand on nonconducting materials. caused the power interruption or circuit fail-
• Ensure that all equipment, tools, and ure will not be isolated to the local circuit
wearing apparel is dry, because dry but will cause the rest of the fuses to blow or
materials offer more resistance to the the circuit breakers to operate, cutting off
flow of electricity than do moistened or the entire system from power.
wet items.
13-16 Safety
FM 5-424
Safety 13-17
FM 5-424
WIRE MARKERS
On equipment or in wiring systems where condition of each conductor with a test lamp
wires are numerous and circuit identifica- or voltmeter before working on the circuit.
tion is difficult, wire markers are a distinct This rule also applies to wires that are color
aid to installation. However, use them coded to conform with the prescribed circuit
merely as a guide, and carefully check the or ground requirements.
GROUNDING
Safety codes require that every 120-volt cir- however, the grounding is there for your pro-
cuit have a system of grounding. This is a tection.
preventive measure, much like oxygen
Grounding assumes that all metal parts of a
masks on a commercial airliner. During nor-
circuit that you might come into contact
mal operation, the grounding system does
with are maintained at zero voltage because
nothing; in the event of a malfunction,
they are connected directly to the earth.
13-18 Safety
FM 5-424
Example: A circuit contains a metal pull- switch, junction, and outlet boxes; and
chain switch. The hot wire accidentally metal faceplates.
becomes dislodged from the fixture terminal
The shock in this example could have been
and comes into contact with the metal can-
prevented if the circuit had a grounding sys-
opy of the light fixture. The fixture and the
tem. A grounding wire connecting the neu-
pull chain are electrically charged or hot.
tral bus bar to the metal housing of the light
You touch the chain or the fixture, a short
fixture would provide an auxiliary electrical
circuit occurs, and you provide the path to
path to ground in the event of a short cir-
the ground for the electric current. In other
cuit. This grounding wire would carry the
words, you receive a shock.
fault current back to the distribution center
This same situation could occur in any num- and assure that the fuse or circuit breaker
ber of places where electricity and conductive protecting the circuit would open, shutting
materials are together, such as power tools off all current flow.
and appliances with metal housings; metal
Safety 13-19
FM 5-424
CHAPTER 14
Maintenance
The rules and routines outlined for a maintenance program for any electrical
wiring system are determined primarily by the selection, location, and instal-
lation of the original equipment installed. Maintenance is merely a system of
routines designed to keep the equipment in satisfactory operating condition
through periodic inspection, cleaning, testing, tightening, adjusting, and lubri-
cating. These basic maintenance operations should be set down in the above-
listed order, and the various duties should be delegated to specific electrical
personnel to prevent operating breakdowns. This chapter reviews and outlines
the various procedures and recommended practices necessary to perform
maintenance and troubleshooting.
INSULATION
The insulation materials designed to shield repair, or replace such wire areas and loca-
or protect the conductors from accidental tions as required.
contact with other conducting substances
Conductor shielding installed in the field
are built into the conductor during manufac-
(such as antishort bushings and damage
ture or may be installed in the field as part
protection) should always be maintained
of the system's installation. Since it is
and should be replaced when dislodged or
important to maintain these protective coat-
damaged. To ensure a trouble-free system,
ings or shields on the wire conductors,
routinely inspect and maintain conductors
ensure that preventive maintenance
and conductor-enclosure supports. Replace
includes periodic tests and checks to expose
damaged electrical parts, components, and
potential trouble locations where the wire
conductors immediately.
insulation has become frayed or where pro-
tective devices have been damaged. Tape,
LOOSE FITTINGS
To avoid the possibility of short circuits, the power distribution in an electrical system
maintenance organization responsible for should periodically spot-check the electrical
Maintenance 14-1
FM 5-424
fittings. These fittings include such items as separation and tighten or reclamp them as
conduit couplings, connectors, and box-entry necessary.
devices. Check fittings for looseness or
CAPACITORS
Since the static capacitor or condenser inspect it and work on it until it is com-
remains charged after being disconnected pletely discharged.
from the energy source, you must not
CONDUCTOR CONNECTION
The conductor connections made to electri- the wire or terminal connections is high
cal devices or other conductors should also enough, the heat resulting from the resis-
be included in the periodic maintenance tance in an electrical connection may cause
checks to determine the condition of solder a fire by igniting surrounding materials.
splices, wire taps, and terminal connections.
Loose, partly contacting, or partly broken
connections at the screw terminals or splices WARNING
of an electrical device can cause short cir- Wait 5 minutes after the circuit is
cuits, arcing and burning, and radio inter- opened before short-circuiting the
ference. This may result in the rapid capacitor terminals. This waiting
oxidation of the connecting materials or a period allows time for the
dangerous short circuit if the free wire con- discharge device to drain off the
tacts other metallic components that are major portion of the residual
grounded. Moreover, the increased resis- charge. You may then short-circuit
tance resulting from a loose or poor connec- the capacitor between terminals,
tion increases the voltage drop in the circuit, but stay clear of the discharge arc.
causing inefficient operation of the devices
on the system. If this increased resistance in
DEVICES
Periodically inspect all operating devices in prevent operation breakdown or potential
the wiring system for defects. As outlined in hazard to personnel. If breakage repeatedly
Chapter 3, the inspection checks include occurs in specific locations, replace electrical
normal operation and operation under the devices with items that are able to with-
rated load. Any devices that fail these tests, stand the use or relocate outlets and
are broken, or are loosely supported in their switches.
mountings should be replaced or repaired to
14-2 Maintenance
FM 5-424
WHEN TO TEST
Test the circuit at the rough stage, while the circuit is continuous to the last box. Retest
wiring is still exposed and problems are the circuit after installing walls, ceilings,
easy to spot and correct. Switches, recepta- and floors (before adding final touches)
cles, and light fixtures are not installed at because a nail will occasionally penetrate
this stage; but hot, neutral, and grounding the wiring and cause a short.
wire splices should be made so that each
Maintenance 14-3
FM 5-424
WARNING
Turn off the breaker or pull the fuse
Due to copyright restrictions, before using a continuity tester.
this graphic is unavailable
EXAMPLE OF TESTER USE
electronically. You must You have just completed a circuit from the
refer to the hard copy distribution center to a new light fixture,
and you need to test the circuit before turn-
of this product to view ing on the breaker. Do not put a light bulb in
the fixture. Put a continuity tester between
this graphic. the breaker end of the hot wire and the
ground. Attach the alligator clip of the
tester to the neutral bus bar and touch the
end of the hot wire with the tester probe.
Have someone turn the light switch on and
off. If the tester does not light (or ring), you
have not shorted the hot wire. Now, put the
light bulb in the fixture and have your
Figure 14-1. Continuity tester helper repeat the switching. If the continu-
ity tester lights (or rings) with the switch on
HOMEMADE CONTINUITY TESTER
and does not with the switch off, the circuit
Use a doorbell and a 6-volt, dry-cell battery
is working correctly. After testing, put the
to make your own continuity tester. Connect new hot wire into the circuit-breaker termi-
one battery terminal to one doorbell termi- nal and energize the circuit. A continuity
nal with a short piece of wire. Next, connect
tester can also be used to determine
a 2-foot wire to the other terminal on the
whether or not a cartridge fuse is good.
doorbell. Momentarily touch the free wire
HOW TO TEST
First, check your wiring visually. Start at tester or the free wire of a homemade tester)
the distribution center and walk through to the neutral bus bar. Touch the hot wire of
each circuit looking for problems. Think each circuit to the tester (the tester probe or
about what each wire is supposed to do and the free battery terminal) one at a time. The
verify that the circuit is correctly wired. circuit should be open (no bell or light); if the
light comes on or the bell rings, there is a
TESTING FOR SHORT CIRCUITS short in that circuit.
To ensure that your test will run the entire
length of a circuit, temporarily join the hot When testing circuits at a subpanel, run the
wires at each switch location. This simu- above test twice. First, hook the clip to the
lates the ON position and thereby extends neutral bus bar to check the hot-wire/neu-
the circuit test to include the wiring from tral-wire circuits. Then, hook the clip to the
the switch to whatever it will control. grounding-wire terminal to check the fault-
current circuits.
At the service-entrance panel, hook one lead
of the tester (the alligator clip of a continuity
14-4 Maintenance
FM 5-424
TESTING FOR OPEN CIRCUITS cannot find the problem or if the wiring has
Although testing for open circuits can wait already been covered, undo the wire splices
until the power is turned on, you may want at the next-to-the-last box on the circuit and
to check the continuity of the ground-fault retest the circuit at the distribution center.
circuit (the bonding of the conduit sections) Continue this procedure by moving closer to
if the wiring involves conduit that will be the source each time until the circuit tests
covered. One method of doing this at each open. You have now isolated the short
box is to touch the neutral wire and the box between the box where the circuit checked
to the two ends of the tester. The light open and the previous box or at one of those
should come on or the bell should ring; if it boxes.
does not, check for a loose connection along
the neutral or conduit path. DETERMINING THE CAUSE OF A SHORT
Most short circuits occur in flexible cords,
FINDING A SHORT plugs, or appliances. Look for black smudge
First, ensure that the free-device wires at marks on faceplates or frayed or charred
each box are not inadvertently touching cords connected to a dead circuit. Simply
each other or the metal box. If the wiring is replace the damaged cord or plug before
exposed, you should be able to see the prob- installing a new fuse or resetting the
lem by carefully checking the circuit. If you breaker.
TROUBLESHOOTING
Follow the troubleshooting procedures out- shows the procedures for determining the
lined in Table 14-1, pages 14-5 through 14-9, cause and location of a malfunction in a cir-
when a malfunction occurs or a fuse cuit.
repeatedly blows. Figure 14-2, page 14-10,
Maintenance 14-5
FM 5-424
14-6 Maintenance
FM 5-424
Maintenance 14-7
FM 5-424
14-8 Maintenance
FM 5-424
Maintenance 14-9
FM 5-424
14-10 Maintenance
FM 5-424
TESTING
Test an electrical generator set before opera-
tion, periodically during operation, and WARNING
after parts are repaired or replaced. These Store and use the load bank only in
tests ensure that the generator is working an upright position, never upside
properly, will not malfunction under differ- down or on end. Ground the frame to
ent load conditions, and can maintain the avoid possible shocks. If excessive
load. Maintaining the load when the set is vibration or unusual noises occur
in operation reduces carbon buildup in the during operation, turn the load bank
internal-combustion engine. off. Shut down the power source
Operators can test a generator set with the before touching, connecting, or dis-
equipment it was designed to power or with connecting any electrical leads or
a load bank. The load-bank method is pre- parts. Disconnect the load bank at
ferred because it lets the operator set up once if the motor or other compo-
and control the power specifications. The nents heat up excessively. NEVER
load bank should be used to test generators use water to put out an electrical fire;
that frequently operate with little or no ALWAYS use carbon dioxide.
load.
The load test is made by adding increments
The load bank is a self-contained test unit of resistive or reactive electrical loads to the
that is mounted in a cabinet and generates generator. Operators can change increment
no power. It operates on an external power combinations to simulate any electrical load
source through the system being tested. within the bank's rating. For example, the
Cables are required to connect the load load bank can test the output of generator
bank to the generator. Some load banks are sets rated for single-phase, two-wire, 120/
designed to operate automatically. Others 240 volts; three-phase, three-wire, 240 volts;
are operated manually to maintain a mini- and three-phase, four-wire, 120/208 or 240/
mum load on the generator. 416 volts. The tests can be applied at fre-
quencies ranging from 50 to 1,000 cycles per
second.
Maintenance 14-11
FM 5-424
14-12 Maintenance
FM 5-424
Maintenance 14-13
FM 5-424
HOUSEKEEPING
ROTATING EQUIPMENT prevail. When dirt collects on reflectors,
Electrical rotating equipment is manufac- lamps, walls, or ceilings, the initial or
tured to operate at a particular tempera- designed foot-candlepower of the installa-
ture, rated in degrees above ambient tion drops. Though original installations are
temperature. This term limits the maximum usually planned with an expected drop of 10
operating temperature of the equipment, to 15 percent in candlepower, lack of proper
which is derived by adding the rating to the cleaning may drop the lighting output as
atmospheric temperature of the operating much as 50 percent. For proper mainte-
location. For example, if a motor is rated at nance under normal conditions, fixtures and
30°F above ambient and the temperature of lamps should be cleaned at least every 3
the surrounding area is 80°F, the maximum months. Clean them more frequently when
operating temperature of the motor would working in conditions that are dirtier than
be 110°F. To help maintain the operating normal.
temperature below the danger point, you
must keep the equipment clean and dry. STORAGE
Excessive amounts of dust or moisture on Store electrical materials and tools in or on
equipment surfaces act as an insulator and shelves, racks, or cabinets. Proper storage
prevent the heat from dissipating into the helps minimize the number of grounds or
atmosphere through the equipment housing. short circuits in an electrical circuit because
Poor housekeeping conditions in a wiring area the possibility of accidental damage to
or wiring installation increase the possibil- conductor insulation is reduced. Good stor-
ity of short circuits. age facilities can reduce the time required
for wiring installation because damaged
LIGHTING conduit, fittings, cable, and supports can
The efficiency of a lighting installation is create time-consuming problems on the job.
reduced when poor housekeeping conditions
14-14 Maintenance
FM 5-424
the other end can be removed. To replace a holder.) Install the new tube holder by
tube, put the tube pin in the spring-loaded reversing the procedure.
tube holder and push until the other end
can be inserted. BALLASTS
Shut off all current in the lamp, and disas-
STARTERS semble the fixture until you get to the bal-
Remove the fluorescent tube to gain access last. In table models, the ballast is located
to the starter. Remove the starter by twist- in the base of the lamp; in ceiling or wall-
ing it a quarter turn counterclockwise and mounted models, the ballast is in the metal
then pulling it out of its socket. Place a new enclosure that is attached to the ceiling or
starter in the socket and twist it a quarter wall.
turn clockwise.
The replacement ballast is already wired,
TUBE HOLDERS and about 5 inches of each wire will be stick-
Tube holders vary considerably, so it is wise ing out of the ballast. Remove the old ballast
to take the one you are replacing with you by cutting all the wires coming out from it
when buying a new one. To remove a dam- about 5 inches from the ballast and remov-
aged tube holder, first disconnect the wires. ing the mounting screws. Mount the new
If the wires are connected by terminal ballast, and then connect the wires. Strip
screws, loosen them to free the wires. If the about 1/2 inch of insulation from the end of
tube holder has push-in wire connectors, each wire, and use a medium-size wire nut
release each wire by inserting a small for every two wires. When working with a
screwdriver or a nail into the slot next to the ballast, match the color-coded wires cor-
connection. Take out the mounting screw rectly by connecting red to red, blue to blue,
and remove the tube holder. (On some mod- and so forth. Check your work against the
els, you may have to take the end bracket off wiring diagram printed on the ballast.
the fixture so you can slide off the tube
POLE-LINE HARDWARE
Salvage pole-line hardware that becomes of bolts passing through crossarms or brack-
surplus due to line removals, alterations, ets is difficult to determine because the
and maintenance work. Discard hardware point of greatest corrosion is usually hidden
that has been materially reduced in from view. As a rule, replace a bolt when the
strength by corrosion or rust. The condition head is rusted over.
LUBRICATION
All rotating equipment rotates in housings intervals, because overlubrication can also
on a ball, a roller, or sleeve bearings. To cause equipment to malfunction. When oil
ensure maximum operating performance, or grease comes in contact with insulated
routine PMCS should include lubrication conductors, it hastens their deterioration.
according to the lubrication orders for the Overlubrication causes overheating and
equipment. The type of lubricant, the lubri- leakage, and oily or greasy equipment sur-
cating period, and the points of lubrication faces collect dust and abrasive materials in
are often attached to the equipment as a the air. If the surfaces are not cleaned
data plate. It is equally important not to promptly, this dirt can cause wear on the
overlubricate by using too much oil or bearing ends as well as eventual breakdown
grease or by shortening the lubrication of the equipment.
Maintenance 14-15
FM 5-424
APPENDIX A
Electromagnet Wattmeter
Resistor Generator
Motor
Rheostat
Commutator or armature
Lamp
Current
Resistance
Ohm
Cycle
Positive
Negative
F Fan outlet
C C Clock outlet specify voltage F
Special-purpose outlet,
describe in specifications Floor outlet
S2 Double-pole switch
3 wires or 4 wires
Buzzer Bell
Push button
Fire-alarm station
D Electric door opener F F Fire-alarm bell
Controller Horn
H N Nurse’s signal plug
Annunciator
Figure A-7. Fuse pullers Figure A-8. Wire grip and splicing clamp
Mounting
bar Bar hangers
Sheet-
metal
stamping
Fins
Bent-
over
fins
Sheetrock Outlet
(drywall) or box
plaster on
plasterboard
Patented supports
Screw
50 A 125/250 V
3-pole, 3-wire 30 A 125/250 V
grounding
3-pole, 4-wire
Adapter
2-pole,
rubber-molded plug 3-pole
with finger grip twist lock
Grounded plug
Female Male
Mogul
1 5/8” Medium
15/16”
1 1/2” 1”
Candelabra
49/64” 19/32”
Intermediate
5/8” 7/16”
Types of sockets
Porcelain
Socket shell
Insulation Terminal
Elevation
Base-pull socket Section Weatherproof socket
Cleat socket
Bell
Types of reflectors
Siren
Buzzer
Cone
Dome
Floodlight
Incandescent lamps
9/16” hole
Angle iron
28”
Flat cross-arm
brace, open-
hearth steel Double-span,
cross-arm braces
10”
5/8”
Carriage bolt
Hook-head pole step
Curved washer
Lag screw
Round washer
Eyebolt
1 1/2” x 2”
opening
Double-arming eyebolt
1 1/2” x 2” opening
Shoulder eyebolt
1 1/2” x 2” opening
Straight thimble-eyebolt
Angle thimble-eyebolt
11/16” hole
2 7/8”
2 5/8”
3 3/16”
Straight thimble-eye (also Thimble clevis
available in twin-eye design)
Eyenut
Thimble clevis
installed on insulator
Thimble-eyenut
Pole-top pins
1” lead
head
9-gauge steel
galvanized
U-type clamps,
galvanized steel
9-gauge
steel
5”
5”
5/8” pin
Strain clamp
3/4” opening
11/16” hole
Angle
thimble-eye
4 13/16”
Forged steel
11/16” x 7/8” slot
2 5/16”
4 3/16”
1/2”
1/2” 4 1/4”
1 3/4”
1/2”
Dead-end clevises
Bottom
connection
2 5/8”
6” spindle
5/8” R
APPENDIX B
Electric Data
Table B-1. Characteristics of electrical systems
or
416
240
240 416
416
240
V = 240
D V V or 480 Large motor loads,
Three-phase, three-wire V or 600 small lighting loads
30 3 W
240
E 240 Motor and lighting
Three-phase, four-wire 120 loads
240
30 4 W 120
Type Temperature
Trade Name Application Provisions
Letter Rating
Asbestos-covered, heat-resis- *AF 150°C Fixture wiring, limited to 300 V and dry indoor loca-
tant fixture wire 302°F tions
Type Temperature
Trade Name Application Provisions
Letter Rating
Moisture-resistant rubber RW 60°C Dry and wet locations; for over 2,000 V, insulation
140°F shall be ozone-resistant.
Moisture- and heat-resistant RH-RW 60°C Dry and wet locations; for over 2,000 V, insulation
rubber 140°F shall be ozone-resistant.
Mineral insulation (metal MI 85°C Dry and wet locations with Type O termination fit-
sheathed) 185°F tings, maximum operating temperature for special
applications 250°C
Moisture- and heat-resistant RHW 75°C Dry and wet locations; for over 2,000 V, insulation
rubber 167°F shall be ozone-resistant
Type Temperature
Trade Name Application Provisions
Letter Rating
*Fixture wires are not intended for installation as branch circuit conductors nor for the connection of portable or sta-
tionary appliances.
Table B-7. Reduction of current-carrying capacity for more than three conductors
in raceway or cable
Percent Reduction of
Number of Table B-3, page B-5,
Conductors and Table B-5,
page B-7
4 to 6 80
7 to 24 70
25 to 42 60
43 and above 50
Braid on
Trade Type No of
Insulation Each Outer Covering Use
Name Letter AWG Conductors
Conductor
Asbestos- AFC 18-10 2 or 3 Impregnated Cotton or None Pendant Dry places Not hard
covered, asbestos rayon usage
heat-
resistant AFPO 18-10 2 Impregnated Cotton or Cotton, rayon, or Pendant Dry places Not hard
cord asbestos rayon saturated usage
asbestos
AFPD 18-10 2 or 3 Impregnated None Cotton, rayon, or Pendant Dry places Not hard
asbestos saturated usage
asbestos
Cotton- CFC 18-10 2 or 3 Impregnated Cotton or None Pendant Dry places Not hard
covered, cotton rayon usage
heat-
resistant CFPO 18-10 2 Impregnated Cotton or Cotton or rayon Pendant Dry places Not hard
cord cotton rayon usage
CFPD 18-10 2 or 3 Impregnated None Cotton or rayon Pendant Dry places Not hard
cotton usage
Parallel PO-1 18 2 Rubber Cotton Cotton or rayon Pendant or Dry places Not hard
cord portable usage
PO-2 18-16 2 Rubber Cotton Cotton or rayon Pendant or Dry places Not hard
portable usage
PO 18-10 2 Rubber Cotton Cotton or rayon Pendant or Dry places Not hard
portable usage
All-rubber SP-1 18 2 Rubber None Rubber Pendant or Damp places Not hard
parallel portable usage
cord
SP-2 18-16 2 Rubber None Rubber Pendant or Damp places Not hard
portable usage
SP-3 18-10 2 Rubber None Rubber Refrigerators Damp places Not hard
or room air usage
conditioners
Braid on
Trade Type No of
Insulation Each Outer Covering Use
Name Letter AWG Conductors
Conductor
All-plastic SPT-1 18 2 Thermoplastic None Thermoplastic Pendant or Damp places Not hard
parallel portable usage
cord
SPT-2 18-16 2 Thermoplastic None Thermoplastic Pendant or Damp places Not hard
portable usage
SPT-3 18-10 2 Thermoplastic None Thermoplastic Refrigerators Damp places Not hard
or room air usage
conditioners
Lamp cord C 18-10 2 or more Rubber Cotton None Pendant or Dry places Not hard
portable usage
Twisted, PD 18-10 2 or more Rubber Cotton Cotton or rayon Pendant or Dry places Not hard
portable portable usage
cord
Reinforced P-1 18 2 or more Rubber Cotton Cotton over Pendant or Dry places Not hard
cord rubber filler portable usage
P-2 18-16 2 or more Rubber Cotton Cotton over Pendant or Dry places Not hard
rubber filler portable usage
P 18-10 2 or more Rubber Cotton Cotton over Pendant or Dry places Hard usage
rubber filler portable
Braided, K 18-10 2 or more Rubber Cotton Two-cotton, Pendant or Damp places Hard usage
heavy- moisture-resistant portable
duty cord finish
Vacuum- SV, 18 2 Rubber None Rubber Pendant or Damp places Not hard
cleaner SVO portable usage
cord
SVT, 18 2 Thermoplastic None Thermoplastic Pendant or Damp places Not hard
SVTO portable usage
Junior SJ 18-16 2, 3 or 4 Rubber None Rubber Pendant or Damp places Hard usage
hard- portable
service
cord SJO 18-16 2, 3 or 4 Rubber None Oil-resistant Pendant or Damp places Hard usage
compound portable
SJT, 18-16 2, 3 or 4 Thermoplastic None Thermoplastic Pendant or Damp places Hard usage
SJTO or rubber portable
Hard- S 18-2 2 or more Rubber None Rubber Pendant or Damp places Extra hard
service portable usage
cord
SO 18-2 2 or more Rubber None Oil-resistant Pendant or Damp places Extra hard
compound portable usage
ST 18-2 2 or more Thermoplastic None Thermoplastic Pendant or Damp places Extra hard
or rubber portable usage
STO 18-2 2 or more Thermoplastic None Oil-resistant Pendant or Damp places Extra hard
or rubber thermoplastic portable usage
Braid on
Trade Type No of
Insulation Each Outer Covering Use
Name Letter AWG Conductors
Conductor
Rubber- AFSJ 18-16 2 or 3 Impregnated None Rubber Portable Damp places Portable
jacketed, asbestos heaters
heat-
resistant AFS 18- 2 or 3 Impregnated None Rubber Portable Damp places Portable
cord 16-14 asbestos heaters
Heater HC 18-12 2, 3, or 4 Rubber and Cotton None Portable Dry places Portable
cord asbestos heaters
HPD 18-12 2, 3, or 4 Rubber with None Cotton or rayon Portable Dry places Portable
asbestos or all heaters
neoprene
Rubber- HSJ 18-16 2, 3, or 4 Rubber with None Cotton and rubber Portable Damp places Portable
jacketed asbestos or all heaters
heater cord neoprene
Jacketed HSJO 18-16 2, 3, or 4 Rubber with None Cotton and oil- Portable Damp places Portable
heater cord asbestos or all resistant heaters
neoprene compound
HS 14-12 2, 3, or 4 Rubber with None Cotton and rubber Portable Damp places Portable
asbestos or all or neoprene heaters
neoprene
HSO 14-12 2, 3, or 4 Rubber with None Cotton and oil- Portable Damp places Portable
asbestos or all resistant heaters
neoprene compound
Parallel HPN 18-16 2 Thermosetting None Thermosetting Portable Damp places Portable
heater cord heaters
Heat- and AVPO 18-10 2 Asbestos and None Asbestos, flame- Pendant or Damp places Not hard
moisture- varnished retardant, portable usage
resistant cambric moisture-resistant
cord
AVPD 18-10 2 or 3 Asbestos and None Asbestos, flame- Pendant or Damp places Not hard
varnished retardant, portable usage
cambric moisture-resistant
Range, SRD 10-4 3 or 4 Rubber None Rubber or Portable Damp places Ranges,
dryer cable neoprene dryers
Elevator E 18-14 2 or more Rubber Cotton Three cotton, outer Elevator Nonhazardous
cable one flame- lighting and locations
retardant and control
moisture-resistant
Table B-14. Standard loads for branch circuits and feeders and
demand factors for feeders
Standard
Occupancy Loads, Watts Feeder-Demand Factor
per square foot
Armories and auditoriums 1 100%
Banks 2 100%
Barber shops 3 100%
Churches 1 100%
Clubs 2 100%
Dwellings 3 100% for first 3,000 watts, 35% for next
117,000, 25% for excess above 120,000
Garages 0.5 100%
Hospitals 2 40% for first 50,000 watts, 20% for excess
over 50,000
Office buildings 5 100% for first 20,000 watts, 70% for excess
over 20,000
Restaurants 2 100%
Schools 3 100% for first 15,000 watts, 50% for excess
over 15,000
Stores 3 100%
Warehouses 0.25 100% for first 12,500 watts, 50% for excess
over 12,500
Assembly halls 1 100%
Outlet devices:
Lamp holders permitted Any type Any type Heavy duty Heavy duty Heavy duty
Receptacle rating 15 max amp 15 or 20 amp 30 amp 40 and 50 amp 50 amp
*These current capacities are for copper conductors with no correction factor for temperature (see Tables B-3
through B-7, pages B-5 through B-9).
Verify Selected Conductor for Current-Carrying Capacity (Tables B-2 through B-7, pages B-2 through B-9)*
FM 5-424
For 110 V Circuit Distance to Load, in feet For 120 V Circuit Distance to Load, in feet
Load in 50 75 100 125 150 200 250 300 400 500 Load in 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000
Amps Amps
40 6 4 4 3 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 40 4 4 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 3/0 4/0 4/0
8 6 6 4 4 3 2 1 1/0 2/0 8 6 4 3 2 1 1/0 1/0 2/0 2/0
50 4 4 3 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 300 50 4 3 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 4/0 250 300
8 6 4 4 3 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 8 4 3 2 1 1/0 2/0 2/0 3/0 3/0
60 4 2 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 250 350 60 4 2 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 250 250 300 350
6 4 4 3 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 6 4 2 1 1/0 2/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 4/0
70 4 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 250 300 400 70 4 1 2/0 3/0 4/0 250 300 300 350 400
6 4 3 2 2 1/0 2/0 2/0 4/0 250 6 3 2 1/0 2/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 4/0 250
80 4 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 250 350 500 80 4 1 2/0 3/0 4/0 250 300 350 400 500
6 4 3 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 250 6 3 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 4/0 250 250
90 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 250 300 400 500 90 2 1/0 3/0 4/0 250 300 350 400 500 500
4 3 2 1 1 2/0 3/0 3/0 250 300 4 2 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 4/0 250 300 300
100 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 300 350 500 600 100 2 1/0 3/0 4/0 300 350 400 500 500 600
4 3 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 250 350 4 2 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 250 250 300 350
*Example: A building using open wiring required 20 amperes (at 110 V) to be supplied to a load located 150 feet from the circuit breaker. From Tables B-2 and
B-7 (assuming R-type copper wire is used), the minimum size wire for this circuit is No 14. From the above table, a No 6 copper wire is required to limit the
voltage drop to 3%. Therefore, a No 6 copper wire should be used. If the wire available were aluminum, then the minimum size is No 12, and for a maximum
voltage drop of 3%, a No 4 must be used.
FM 5-424
Maximum Distance
Size of
Between Rigid Metal
Conduit,
Conduit Supports,
inches
feet
1/2 10
3/4 10
1 12
1 1/4 14
1 1/2 14
2 16
2 1/2 16
3 20
Conductors Conductors
Size of
Without Load With Load
Conduit,
Sheath, Sheath,
inches
inches inches
1/2 4 6
3/4 5 8
1 6 11
1 1/4 8 14
1 1/2 10 16
2 12 21
2 1/2 15 25
3 18 31
3 1/2 21 36
4 24 40
5 30 50
6 36 61
Number of Conductors (Types R, RW, RH, RU, RUW, TF, T, and TW)
AWG
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Number of Conductors
Conductors
1 2 3 4 4+
Lead covered 55 30 40 38 35
Table B-21. Dimensions and percent of area of conduit and tubing for combinations
Area, square inches
Size of Internal Not Lead Covered Lead Covered
Conduit, Diameter, Total 1 2 3 4+ 1 2 3 4 4+
inches inches 100% Cond Cond Cond Cond Cond Cond Cond Cond Cond
53% 51% 43% 40% 55% 30% 40% 38% 35%
1/2 0.622 0.30 0.16 0.09 0.13 0.12 0.17 0.09 0.12 0.11 0.11
3/4 0.824 0.53 0.28 0.16 0.23 0.21 0.29 0.16 0.21 0.20 0.19
1 1.049 0.86 0.46 0.27 0.37 0.34 0.47 0.26 0.34 0.33 0.30
1 1/4 1.380 1.50 0.80 0.47 0.65 0.60 0.83 0.65 0.60 0.57 0.53
1 1/2 1.610 2.04 1.08 0.63 0.88 0.82 1.11 0.61 0.82 0.78 0.71
2 2.067 3.36 1.78 1.04 1.44 1.34 1.85 1.01 1.34 1.28 1.18
2 1/2 2.469 4.79 2.54 1.48 2.06 1.92 2.63 1.44 1.92 1.82 1.68
3 3.068 7.38 3.91 2.29 3.17 2.95 4.06 2.21 2.95 2.80 2.58
3 1/2 3.548 9.90 5.25 3.07 4.26 3.96 5.44 2.97 3.96 3.76 3.47
APPENDIX C
Multiply By To Obtain
Glossary
A ampere(s) EMT electrical metallic tubing
Glossary-1
FM 5-424
No number W watt(s)
Glossary-2
FM 5-424
References
SOURCES USED
These are the sources quoted or paraphrased in this publication.
References-1
FM 5-424
ARMY PUBLICATIONS
DA Pam 738-750. Functional Users Manual for the Army Maintenance Management System
(TAMMS). 1 August 1994.
EM 385-1-1. US Army Corps of Engineers Safety and Health Requirements Manual. 1 Octo-
ber 1992.
FM 5-422. Engineer Prime Power Operations. 7 May 1993.
FM 21-11. First Aid for Soldiers. 27 October 1988.
TM 5-301-1. Army Facilities Components System -- Planning (Temperate). 27 June 1986.
TM 5-301-2. Army Facilities Components System -- Planning (Tropical). 27 June 1986.
TM 5-301-3. Army Facilities Components System -- Planning (Frigid). 27 June 1986.
TM 5-301-4. Army Facilities Components System -- Planning (Desert). 27 June 1986.
TM 5-302-1. Army Facilities Components System: Design. 28 September 1973.
TM 5-302-2. Army Facilities Components System: Design. 28 September 1973.
TM 5-302-3. Army Facilities Components System: Design. 28 September 1973.
TM 5-302-4. Army Facilities Components System: Design. 28 September 1973.
TM 5-302-5. Army Facilities Components System: Design. 28 September 1973.
TM 5-303. Army Facilities Components System - Logistic Data and Bills of Materiel. 1 June
1986.
TM 5-682. Facilities Engineering: Electrical Facilities Safety. 1 June 1983.
TM 9-6140-200-14. Operator's, Unit, Direct Support and General Support Maintenance Man-
ual for Lead-Acid Storage Batteries. 13 July 1989.
OTHER SOURCES
Sunset Basic Home Wiring, Lane Publishing Company, Menlo Park, California, 1987.
References-2
FM 5-424
DOCUMENTS NEEDED
These documents must be available to the intended users of this publication.
DA Form 2028. Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms. 1 February 1974.
DA Form 2404. Equipment Inspection and Maintenance Worksheet. 1 April 1979.
READINGS RECOMMENDED
These readings contain relevant supplemental information.
Summers, Wilford I., American Electricians' Handbook. McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1987.
References-3
FM 5-424
25 June 1997
DENNIS J. REIMER
General, United States Army
Chief of Staff
Official:
JOEL B. HUDSON
Administrative Assistant to the
Secretary of the Army
03557
DISTRIBUTION: