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Chapter 1

Analysis of Resistive Circuits


Artemio P. Magabo Professor of Electrical Engineering

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering University of the Philippines - Diliman

Topics
a.
1. 2. 3. 4.

Network Reduction Techniques


Series and Parallel Circuits Delta-Wye Transformation Current and Voltage Division Source Transformation

b. Dependent Sources c. Application of Circuit Analysis on Operational d. e. f.


Amplifiers Nodal Analysis Mesh Analysis Ladder Method

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Equivalence
Two electric circuits are said to be equivalent with respect to a pair of terminals if the voltages across the terminals and currents through the terminals are identical for both networks. a
+

V1 b
-

I1

x Circuit 1 y

V2
-

I2

Circuit 2

If V1=V2 and I1=I2, then with respect to terminals ab and xy , circuit 1 and circuit 2 are equivalent.
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Resistors in Series and in Parallel


Resistors in Series a
+ R1- + R2 +

+ -

R eq = R1 + R 2 + ... + Rn
b Resistors in Parallel

V1
-

I1

Rn

1 1 1 1 = + + ... + R eq R1 R 2 Rn
Special Case Two resistors in parallel:

I1
+ -

V1 b
-

R1

+ -

R2

+ -

Rn

R eq =

R1R 2 R1 + R 2
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Delta-Wye Transformation
The transformation is used to establish equivalence for networks with 3 terminals. z z Ra x Rb Delta Rc y x Wye R1 R3 R2 y

For equivalence, the resistance between any pair of terminals must be the same for both networks.
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Delta-to-Wye Transformation Equations

R1 =

RaRb Ra + Rb + Rc

R2 =

RbRc Ra + Rb + Rc

R3 =

RcRa Ra + Rb + Rc

Wye-to-Delta Transformation Equations

Ra =

R R + R2R3 + R3R1 R1R2 + R2R3 + R3R1 Rb = 1 2 R3 R2 R R + R2R3 + R3R1 Rc = 1 2 R1


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Example: Find the equivalent resistance across terminals AB. A


4 3 12 1 5 9 3 5 10 3 10

2 1.5

Starting from the right, we get for resistors in series

Req1 = 5 +10+ 3 = 18
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Req1 is in parallel with the 9-resistor.

Req 2 =

(18)(9) =6 18 + 9

Req1=18

The resulting network becomes A


4 3 2 1.5
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12 1

Req2=6

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Ra Convert wye into delta


3 1.5 1

Rc

Rb

Ra =

(3)(1) + (1)(1.5) + (1.5)(3) 9 = = 6 1.5 1.5

Rb = Rc =
12 6 9

9 = 3 3 9 =9 1

Replace the wye with its delta equivalent and simplify. We get A
4

Req3 =12 // 6 = 4
R eq 4 = 3 // 6 = 2
B
2
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Re-draw the network and simplify further.

4 9

Req3=4 Req4=2

Req5 = 4 + 2 = 6
Req5 is in parallel with the 9-resistor.

B A

2 4 9

Req6 = 9 // 6 = 3.6
Finally, we get

Req5=6

A B

4 Req6=3.6 2
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RAB = 4+3.6+2 = 9.6

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Voltage and Current Division


Voltage Division Consider n resistors that are connected in series
+

R1

R2
+V 2

R3
+V 3

Vn
+

V
-

+V 1

Rn

The voltage across any resistor Ri is

Vi = Ri I =

Ri V R1 + R2 + ... + Rn

i=1,2,n

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Voltage and Current Division


Current Division Consider n resistors that are connected in parallel
+

I
R1

V
-

I1 R2

I2 Rn

In

The current Ii through any resistor Ri is 1 Ri where I Ii = 1 + 1 + ... + 1 i=1,2,n Rn R1 R2


Special Case Two resistors in parallel: I1 =

R2 R1 I and I2 = I R1 + R2 R1 + R2
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Example: A transistor amplifier (shown with its equivalent circuit) is used as a stereo pre-amplifier for a 2mV source. Find the output voltage Vo if gm=30mA/V.
2mV

500 2k

V
-

gmV

75k

10k

Vo
-

transistor amplifier circuit model

Voltage division at the input

V=

2000 2mV 2000 + 500

V =1.6 mV

Current Source = gmV =(30x10-3)(1.6x10-3) = 48 A


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2mV

500

2k V
-

gmV

75k

10k

transistor amplifier circuit model

IO

Vo

Current division to determine the current IO through the 10k resistor

IO =

75k 48A 75k + 10k

IO =42.353 A

Finally, from Ohms Law Vo = -(42.353x10-6)(10x103) = -423.529 mV


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Source Transformation
R
+

Vs

a Is
R

V
-

V
-

b From KCL,

From KVL,

Vs = RI + V

Is =

V + I or RIs = RI + V R

If the two networks are equivalent with respect to terminals ab, then V and I must be identical for both networks. Thus

Vs = RIs

or

Is =

Vs R

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The operational amplifier


Operational Amplifier Model
Inverting Terminal VNon-inverting Terminal V+ Input Resistance Rin Output resistance Rout Open Loop Gain AOL Of order 103 to 105 Differential Input Voltage Ed = (V+ - V- ) Supply power VCC and VCC Output Vo = AOLEd - RoutIout

iB-

Vcc

VRin
iB+ - Vcc

Rout
AOL Ed

V+

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Ideal Op-Amp Assumptions


Input and Output Resistances Rin = iB+ = iB- = 0 Rout = 0
iB- = 0

Vcc

Open Loop Gain AOL= Ed = (V+ - V-) = 0 V+ = V-

VEd = 0

V+
iB+ = 0 - Vcc

Vo

-VSAT < Vo < VSAT


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Buffer / Voltage Follower


KVL at V s - R s - E d - R L loop, + V s V Rs E d V o = 0
Vs

Rs Vo
_

RL
Power Supply

No voltage drop at R s since i B + = 0; + V s 0 0 Vo = 0 Vo = V s


Rs

V- = Vs
V+ = Vs

This circuit minimizes ' loading effect'.


Vs

iB+ = 0

RL

Vo
_

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Inverting Amplifier
No voltage drop at R 2 , V + = 0 and V = 0 (V V ) = (Vs 0 ) = Vs I1 = s I1 R1 R1 R1 I 1 = I f + ib + = I f + 0
V I1 = I f = s R1 KVL at R 2 - E d - R f - R L loop, 0 0 V f Vo = 0 V Vo = R f I f = R f s R 1 Rf Vo = R Vs 1

Rf If R1 R2
+ Vf iB- = 0

V- = 0 V+ = 0
iB+ = 0

Vs

RL

Vo
_

Closed loop Gain : Rf ACL = R1


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Nodal Analysis
General Procedure
1. Label all nodes in the circuit. Arbitrarily select any node as reference. 2. Define a voltage variable from every remaining node to the reference. These voltage variables must be defined as voltage rises with respect to the reference node. 3. Write a KCL equation for every node except the reference. 4. Solve the resulting system of equations.
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Example: Find the voltage VX using nodal analysis.


40
+Va

30 +Vb + Vx 15
REF

10

+Vc

4.8V +

20

0.2A

For node a, the voltage of the node is dictated by the voltage source. Thus, Va=4.8 Volts.
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The KCL equations for nodes b and c are node b: node c:

0=

Vb 4.8 Vb Vb Vc + + 30 15 10

0.2 =

Vc Vb Vc 4.8 Vc + + 10 40 20
Vc = 3.2V

Solving simultaneously, we get

Vb = 2.4V
Finally, we get the voltage Vx

Vx = 4.8 - Vb = 2.4V
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Example: Find the voltages Va, Vb and Vc using nodal analysis (a voltage source between 2 nodes).
8 6
+Vb + 6V +Vc

+Va

3A

3
REF

5A

The KCL equations for node a and the supernode node a:

3=

Va Vb Va Vc + 6 8
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supernode:

5=

Vb Vc Vb Va Vc Va + + + 3 4 6 8

For the voltage source, we get Vb-Vc=6 volts. The equations can be simplified into

72 = 7Va 4Vb 3Vc 6 = Vb Vc 120 = 7Va + 12Vb + 9Vc


Solving simultaneously, we get

Va = 24 V

Vb = 16.3 V

Vc = 10.3 V
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Example: Find the voltages Va, Vb and Vc using nodal analysis (dependent voltage source between two nodes). v + x +Va

+Vb

- +

+Vc

3A

3 2vx
REF

5A

The KCL equations for node a and the supernode node a:

3=

Va Vb Va Vc + 6 8
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supernode:

5=

Vb Vc Vb Va Vc Va + + + 3 4 6 8

For the dependent voltage source, we get

Vc Vb = 2vx = 2(Va Vc )
The equations can be simplified into

72 = 7Va 4Vb 3Vc 0 = 2Va Vb + 3Vc 120 = 7Va + 12Vb + 9Vc


Solving simultaneously, we get

Va = 24 V

Vb = 9.6 V

Vc = 19.2 V
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Mesh Analysis
General Procedure
1. Count the number of window panes in the circuit. Assign a mesh current to each window pane. 2. Write a KVL equation for every mesh whose current is unknown. 3. Solve the resulting equations. Mesh - a loop that does not contain an inner loop.
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Example: Find the voltage VX using mesh analysis.

16

+ _

+ Vx 40 2V -

I1

40
+

I2

1A

I3
30

20

- 5V

The KVL equations for meshes 1 and 2 are

Mesh 1: -2 = 40(I1- I2) + 16I1 Mesh 2: 5 = 40I2 + 40(I2 -I1) + 20(I2- I3)
In mesh 3, the current source dictates the value of the mesh current. Thus, I3=1 A.
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The two equations can be simplified into

-2 = 56I1 - 40I2 25 = -40I1 + 100I2


Solving simultaneously, we get

I1 = 0.2A
Finally, we get the voltage Vx

I2 = 0.33A

Vx = 40(I2 - I1) = 5.2V


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Example: Find the currents I1, I2 and I3 using mesh analysis (current source between + two meshes). 36V
-

5V

I2
1 3

I1
4

3A

I3

We cannot write a KVL equation for mesh 1 or for mesh 3 because of the current source. Form a supermesh and write a KVL equation for it. supermesh: 36 = 1(I1 I2 ) + 3(I3 I2 ) + 2I3 + 4I1
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The KVL equation for mesh 2 is unchanged.

5 = 5I2 + 3(I2 I3 ) + 1(I2 I1 )


The third equation is dictated by the current source.

I1 I3 = 3 A
Solving simultaneously, we get

I1 = 5.45 A

I2 = 0.86 A

I3 = 2.45 A
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Example: Find the currents I1, I2 and I3 using mesh analysis (dependent source I2 1 2 included). 3

15A

I1

1 v 9 x

+ vx -

I3

The current in mesh 1 is dictated by the current source. Thus, I1=15 Amps. The KVL equation for mesh 2 is

0 = 2I2 + 3(I2 I3 ) + 1(I2 I1)


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We cannot write a KVL equation for mesh 3. Cant form a supermesh either. However, we can write an equation for the dependent source.

I3 I1 =

1 1 vx = [ 3 ( I3 I2)] 9 9

Solving simultaneously, we get

I1 = 15 A

I2 = 11 A

I3 = 17 A

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Choice of Method
Given the choice, which method should be used? Nodal analysis or mesh analysis?
Nodal analysis: The number of voltage variables equals number of nodes minus one. Every voltage source connected to the reference node reduces the number of unknowns by one. Mesh Analysis: The number of current variables equals the number of meshes. Every current source in a mesh reduces the number of unknowns by one. Note: Choose the method with less unknowns.
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Example: Write the nodal and mesh equations that describe the circuit shown. 4A +Va +Vb We need 4 4 6 voltage 5 2 3A variables.

10

+Vc

+Vd

5A

The nodal equations are node a:

REF

Va Va Vb + 2 4 V Va Vb Vb Vc Vb Vd node b: 4 = b + + + 4 5 6 10 3=
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Vc Vb Vc Vd + 6 8 V Vb Vd Vc node d: 5 = d + 10 8
node c:

4=

There are 5 meshes but the 3A and 5A current sources flow in distinct meshes. We need to define 3 current variables. 3A
3A 2 4 I1

10

4A
I2 I3

8 6 5A 5

5A

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The mesh equations are mesh 1: supermesh: 4A source:

0 = 2(I1 3) + 4I1 + 5(I1 5)

0 = 6(I2 5) + 10I3 + 8(I3 5) 4 = I2 I3

Note: We need either three current variables or four voltage variables to describe the circuit. It is preferable to use mesh analysis.

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Ladder Method
Applicable for ladder-type networks only.
Procedure:

1. Define a current or voltage variable for the element that is farthest from the source. 2. Use KVL and KCL successively to express all network currents and voltages in terms of the chosen variable.

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Example: Find all currents in the circuit shown.


5
+

a Ic c
6

b Id d

4 16

48V

Ia
3

Ib
1

12

Note: All currents and voltages will be expressed in terms of the defined current variable I.

Vbd = (4 + 12)I = 16I V From Ohms Law Id = bd = I 16


From KVL
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From KCL From KVL

Ib = Id + I = 2I

Vac = 3Ib + Vbd + 1Ib = 24I Vac = 4I From Ohms Law Ic = 6 From KCL Ia = Ic + Ib = 6I
From KVL which gives I =

2 A 3

48 = 5Ia + Vac + 3Ia = 72I

Note: Since I is now known, any current or voltage in the circuit can now be computed.
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For example, the other currents are

Ia = 6I = 4 A

I c = 4I = Id = I =

Ib = 2I =

4 A 3

2 A 3

8 A 3

Another way of solving the problem is to simply assume a value for the current I. Then, the assumed value is scaled to conform with the given magnitude of the source. This is possible since the resistive network is linear.

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Assume I=1A . Then, proceeding as before, we get


5
+

a Ic c
6

b Id d

4 16

48V

Ia
3

Ib
1

12

Vbd = (4 + 12)I = 16 V V From Ohms Law Id = bd = 1 A 16 From KCL Ib = Id + I = 2 A


From KVL From KVL

Vac = 3Ib + Vbd + 1Ib = 24 V


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From Ohms Law From KCL From KVL

Ic =

Vac =4A 6

Ia = Ic + Ib = 6 A
48 = 5Ia + Vac + 3Ia = 72 V

Since the actual source is 48 V and not 72 V, all currents and voltages must be scaled down by a factor equal to 48/72, or 2/3.

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Example: Use the ladder method to find all currents.


5 1 a 1 I4 b
+ -

3 1 I2

4 I1 3

Iy

I3 3

54V

Ix

Vad = 6Iy
I3 = Vad = 2Iy 3

Vce = 6Ix
I1 = Vce = 2Ix 3

I4 = I3 + Iy = 3Iy

I2 = I1 + Ix = 3Ix

Vbd = 1I4 + Vad = 9Iy

Vbd = 4I2 + Vce = 18 x I


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Equate the expressions for Vbd. or

9 I y = 18 I x I y = 2I x

KVL for the source

54 = 1(I2 + I4 ) + Vbd

= 3Ix + 3Iy + 18Ix = 27Ix


We get

Ix = 2 A Iy = 4 A

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