European Background HISTORY 142 AMERICAN HISTORY

The First World War, 1914-1918

Michael D. Berdine, Ph.D. Pima Community College Tucson, Arizona

A Powder Keg
Ever since the defeat of Napoleon, Britain had dominated the world without serious challenge. The unification of most of Germany was realized under the Iron Chancellor, Prince Otto von Bismarck, after the Franco-Prussian War in 1871. Under his guidance a new imperial power was created that was strong enough to challenge Britains position in international politics and commerce.

Prince Otto von Bismarck

European Background
A Powder Keg Soon after 1900, most European nations, and a few others, began to polarize, according to the interpretation of their particular national interests, around these two powers. Leading the Central Powers in the Triple Alliance were Germany and Austro-Hungary. The Triple Entente, included Britain, France, and Russia.

European Background
A Powder Keg
Each camp engaged in an armaments race; incident after incident threatened to throw off a spark that would ignite the war. Ultimately, the match that lit the powder keg came in June 1914 with the assassination of Austrias Crown Prince, Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The numerous alliances caused most of Europe to be drawn into the war that began when Austro-Hungary threatened to attack Serbia.

Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

America Before Entry into WWI

American Neutrality
Austro-Hungary

Serbia

As in the War of 1812, the direct ostensible cause of Americas entry into the war arose from efforts to uphold its rights at sea as a neutral. With the outbreak of war in Europe, President Wilson proclaimed American neutrality. He asked the nation to be neutral in fact as well as in name.

Pres. Woodrow Wilson

America Before Entry into WWI

American Neutrality The government soon became involved in efforts to uphold Americas rights at sea against the two sea powers, Britain and Germany. These two opposing powers in the war were seeking to destroy each others foreign trade. Britain immediately sought to enforce a blockade against Germany according to its own interpretation of international law.

World War I Alliances

America Before Entry into WWI

Americas Relations with Britain Wilson asked all nations to respect the rules drawn up with the Declaration of London (1909), which Britain had refused to sign. Britain instead enlarged the rights of a belligerent in certain practices offensive to the United States.
1) It enlarged the list of contraband of war to include foodstuffs and other goods not previously accepted as contraband.

America Before Entry into WWI

Americas Relations with Britain
2) Britain invoked the doctrine of continuous voyage to stop American goods being shipped to neutral countries bordering Germany; 3) Britain enforced its blockade against neutral shipping to Germany, not along the German coastline, but by inspecting ships all over the world; 4) Britain limited American commerce with Germanys neutral neighbors to what had existed before the war broke out to prevent goods being transshipped to Germany.

America Before Entry into WWI

Americas Relations with Britain
5) Britain set up a blacklist of American firms trading with Germany.

Wilson sent notes of protest to the British for these violations of international law but did nothing to apply sanctions. Americans soon learned to live with the British regulations and government officials privately agreed that a British victory was in Americas interest.

America Before Entry into WWI

German War Operations and America Besides, America found a profitable market with the Allies for all it could produce. Germany, lacking equality of surface naval craft with Britain, employed a new weapon, the submarine. It did so to enforce strangulation of the British Isles and to break the British blockade.

German U-Boats

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German War Operations and America In Feb. 1915, Germany declared that all enemy ships in waters around the British Isles would be sunk on sight and warned neutral vessels to avoid these waters. Germany also warned citizens of neutral countries not to travel on Allied ships. The U.S. asserted that Germany must observe the rule of visit-and-search before sinking vessels.

America Before Entry into WWI

Sinking of the Lusitania
This rule made Germanys new weapon too vulnerable to destruction from armed merchant ships. Germany protested that it would abandon unrestricted submarine warfare if the U.S. would, among other demands, force the British to observe the Declaration of London. The British ship Lusitania was sunk by a torpedo near Ireland in Feb. 1915, with the loss of over 100 American lives.

R.M.S. Lusitania

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Sinking of the Lusitania Wilson sent successive notes to Germany to persuade it to abandon unrestricted submarine warfare. Sec. of State Bryan resigned because he believed Wilsons policies would lead to war, and Robert Lansing replaced him. After the sinking of still another British ship, the Arabic, in Aug. 1915, Wilson protested more strongly.

America Before Entry into WWI

Sussex Pledge This time Germany agreed to abandon such sinkings unless provisions were made to protect the lives of noncombatants. When the French ship Sussex was sunk in March 1916, with the loss of two American lives, Wilson sent Germany an ultimatum. In it he demanded safety for the lives of passengers.

America Before Entry into WWI

Sussex Pledge In May 1916, to avoid war with America, Germany made the Sussex Pledge not to sink merchant ships without saving the lives of those aboard. Public opinion was divided in sympathy for the belligerents. Since there was no likelihood of America restraining the British, German-Americans hoped for neutrality and peace.

America Before Entry into WWI

Public Reaction to the War
Other organizations and individuals, like Theodore Roosevelt and Gen. Leonard Wood, campaigned for military preparedness. Wilson, after a time, abandoned his opposition to strong preparedness and in 1916 asked Congress to pass several defense measures. In 1916, Congress passed the National Defense Act to increase the size of the army and bring the state militia under the federal government.

America Before Entry into WWI

Defense Legislation In Aug. 1916, Congress appropriated money for the construction of battleships and other naval fighting vessels. In Sept., the U.S. Shipping Board was created and received money to buy and build merchant vessels to be operated under its management. A Council of National Defense was created by Wilson to make plans to mobilize the material resources of the nation in case of war.

America Before Entry into WWI

Defense Legislation In 1916, Wilson sent Col. House to Europe as his personal agent to propose terms for peace. England, France, and Germany showed no willingness to negotiate a peace.

Col. House goes to Europe

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Election of 1916 The possibility of Americas entry in the war in Europe made this the leading issue in the election. The Democrats renominated Wilson and endorsed his domestic reform legislation. The Democratic slogan, He kept us out of war, gave an implied promise that neutrality would be maintained.

America Before Entry into WWI

Election of 1916
The Republicans nominated the Supreme Court Justice Charles Evans Hughes and the Progressives renominated Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt refused the nomination and asked his supporters to rejoin the Republican Party, but they supported Wilson as the more progressive. Hughes avoided the war issue, since the Republicans were divided between pacifists and interventionists.

Charles Evans Hughes

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Election of 1916 Wilson won by a narrow margin in both the popular vote and electoral college. The outcome hinged on the vote in California, which, to everyones surprise, swung over to Wilson the day after the election. Hughes lost in California because he failed to seek the support of the Progressive Gov. Hiram Johnson while campaigning there.

Gov. Hiram Johnson

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Wilsons Peace Proposals Wilson won the states of the South and West. After the election, Wilson asked the belligerents to state the terms by which they would conclude the war. Again, the terms of both sides were irreconcilable.

America Before Entry into WWI

Wilsons Peace Proposals Wilson stated his own conditions for a just peace without victory. These terms foreshadowed the first provisions of the Fourteen Points but nothing came of this effort.

America Before Entry into WWI

Immediate Causes of U.S. Entry into the War Unrestricted German submarine warfare was the most important immediate cause of Americas entry in the war. In Jan. 1917, Germany announced resumption of a sink-on-sight submarine campaign against all ships around the British Isles. Wilson immediately broke of diplomatic relations with Germany upon this abandonment of the Sussex Pledge.

America Before Entry into WWI

Immediate Causes of U.S. Entry into the War
When he asked Congress for authority to arm merchant vessels a long filibuster in the Senate under Robert M. La Follette defeated his request. Wilson used instead a statute dating to the War of 1812 to arm merchant ships. After eight American ships had been sunk, Wilson, on April 2, called a special session of Congress and asked for a declaration of war; the war resolution passed on April 6.

Robert M. La Follette

America Before Entry into WWI

Immediate Causes of U.S. Entry into the War
The Zimmerman Telegram (Note) was intercepted by the British and released by the State Dept. on March 1, influenced public opinion against Germany. This message from Germany to Mexico promised Mexico the return of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, if Mexico would enter the war against the U.S. and invite Japan to do the same. The Russian Revolution, which resulted in the overthrow of the Russian Czar in March 1917, made it easier for the U.S. to join the Allies in the cause of democracy.

America Before Entry into WWI

Background Causes of American Entry
Now, the Wilson administration would not have to apologize for its alignment with the Russian autocracy. The events immediately preceding the declaration of war do fully explain Americas taking up the Allied cause. Basically, the English background of the influential majority of the American people caused them to identify themselves with the British cause.

America Before Entry into WWI

Background Causes of American Entry This background included language, literature, law, and other aspects of a common culture. American credits with Britain from the sale of munitions and other supplies were stressed at one time as a cause of pro-British sentiment. It was said that the repayment of the obligations gave influential financial interests a heavy stake in a British victory.

America Before Entry into WWI

Background Causes of American Entry
This factor is probably greatly exaggerated since these same interests stood to lose profits and pay heavier taxes in case of war. The British flood of sensational propaganda made a great psychological appeal as contrasted with the Germans logical and legalistic presentation of their case. Furthermore, the British controlled the cables and other communications by which war news reached America; news had to be favorably slanted before newsmen could transmit it to America.

America Before Entry into WWI

Background Causes of American Entry
British propaganda created stories of atrocities, especially in connection with the German invasion of Belgium in disregard of Belgiums neutrality. Germanys manifest militarism in creating and boasting of its powerful armaments, as well as its entry in the world race for colonies, alarmed the Americans. It was felt that German victory represented a threat to American interests and institutions.

America in World War I

Mobilization for War Soon after declaring war the United States government became aware of the seriousness of the difficult situation of the Allies. The Allies desperately needed large numbers of men, ships, munitions, and foodstuffs. Speedy mobilization of material resources was needed.

America in World War I

Mobilization for War The greatest and most pressing need was manpower for the military services. In May 1917, Congress passed a Selective Service Act that required all men of certain ages to register for military service. The total armed forces of the U.S., including both volunteers and draftees, reached about 4 million.

America in World War I

Mobilization for War Half of these were shipped overseas and about a third saw active service there. The War Industries Board, headed by Bernard M. Baruch, was created to control the manufacture of war matriel. The War Shipping Board was created to build the ships need to transport men and supplies and replace losses from submarine sinkings.

Bernard M. Baruch

War Industries Board

America in World War I

Mobilization for War A vast program of ship construction immediately got underway. A Railroad Administration assumed government control of the railroads after they proved incapable of avoiding confusion in moving the vast shipments of goods needed. A Fuel Administration exerted its efforts to conserve coal and oil and increase their productivity.

America in World War I

Mobilization for War Daylight Savings Time was instituted to conserve electricity. A Food Administration was created and placed under Herbert Hoover. Meat and wheat were conserved for shipment overseas, and farmers were paid higher prices to encourage production, which rose by 25%.

Herbert Hoover

America in World War I

Control of Public Opinion The administration showed much interest in winning public support for the war effort and suppressing dissention. Congress established immediately the Committee on Public Information under journalist and politician George Creel. This agency printed books, wrote editorials, made motion pictures, published a daily Official Bulletin, and made striking posters.

George Creel

America in World War I

Control of Public Opinion The war was sold as a holy crusade; it was a war to end war and a war to make the world safe for democracy. Most Americans were loyal, but some Socialists regarded it as a capitalist war. The tone of wartime propaganda aroused a hysteria against all things German; Wilson accepted this unnecessary persecution as a matter of course.

America in World War I

Control of Public Opinion Congress passed the Espionage Act (1917) and the Sedition Act (1918) to prevent any possible obstruction of the war effort.

America in World War I

Financing the War
One of the most important contributions to victory was made in the form of loans and supplies to the Allies. More money was raised by bond sales than by taxes. Liberty Bonds and Victory Bonds were sold in high-pressure campaigns; many poor were compelled to borrow money at prevailing high interest rates to buy bonds to prove their loyalty.

America in World War I

Financing the War Tax money was raised by increasing rates in the individual and corporation income levies. A corporation excess profits tax was passed. Excise taxes increased in king and in amount. The cost of the war amounted to about $35 billion; almost $10 billion went to the Allies as loans.

America in World War I

The Army and the War Gen. John J. Black Jack Pershing was placed at the head of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) sent to France. It was seven months after the declaration of war before the army saw action in battle. The Germans had hoped to win the war before the American Doughboys could get into action.

Gen. Pershing arrives in France

Doughboy

America in World War I

The Army and the War The defeat of the Italians and the surrender of the Russians permitted Germany to rush more troops to the Western Front in France. In May 1918, the Germans approached within 40 miles of Paris. At Pershings insistence, the American army assumed responsibility for the defense of a definite sector of the battlefront, rather than being absorbed into British and French units.

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America in World War I

The Army and the War At the Battle of Chateau-Thierry, the Americans helped halt the German advance. In June, the Germans were driven out of Belleau Wood. The Second Battle of the Marne saw the beginning of German retreat.

America in World War I

The Army and the War The St.-Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne offensives involved over 1 million American troops. The Germans kept falling back from these attacks.

America in World War I

The Wilson Peace Offensive In Jan. 1918, Wilson announced his Fourteen Points to Congress as a basis for a just peace in Europe. The first provisions called for
1) the abolition of secret diplomacy; 2) freedom of the seas for all; 3) freedom of trade among nations; 4) armament reduction;

America in World War I

The Wilson Peace Offensive Fourteen Points (cont.)
5) the disposal of colonies of the defeated powers in the interest of the colonials; and, 6) the League of Nations.

Other provisions related to the national aspirations of particular nations and boundary adjustments.

America in World War I

The Wilson Peace Offensive The Germans were showered with printed circulars announcing the Fourteen Points as a basis of peace. The terms seemed so reasonable that the people, tired of war, rebelled, forced the German Kaiser to flee to Holland and set up a parliamentary government. The Fourteen Points, in conjunction with Allied offensives, hastened German surrender.

America in World War I

The Wilson Peace Offensive Marshall Ferdinand Foch, supreme commander of the Allied forces, negotiated the Armistice, and the war ended Nov. 11, 1918. This was before Allied forces had been able to invade German territory. A total of 130,000 Americans died in the war, well over half being from disease.

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Gen. Pershing and Marshal Foch

America in World War I

The Wilson Peace Offensive A wartime epidemic of influenza in 1918 took the lives of many civilians as well as causing a heavy death toll among military personnel.

Difficulties of Making Peace

Wilsons Frustrations in Peacemaking
Resentment against the Germans because of the horrific losses and sacrifices of the war in both America and Europe was extremely high. Thus, it made it difficult for Pres. Wilson to realize a just and idealistic peace. By electing Republican majorities in both houses of Congress, the American people repudiated the Wilson administration in the congressional elections in Nov. 1918, even before the war was over.

Difficulties of Making Peace

Wilsons Frustrations in Peacemaking This was the first repudiation of a wartime administration in American history. The people were tired of the war and the sacrifices it required. In spite of his defeat at the polls, Wilson presumed to speak for the nation by going to the Paris Peace Conference with his plans for peace.

Wilson off to Paris

Difficulties of Making Peace

Wilsons Frustrations in Peacemaking He did this without taking with him effective Republican advisors in close touch with their party; nor did he take with him any members of the Senate. Wilsons promises in the Fourteen Points had been made in opposition to secret treaties committed to a division of spoils of war among the Allies e.g., the Sykes-Picot Agreement, and the Balfour Declaration.

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Sykes-Picot Agreement

Difficulties of Making Peace

Wilsons Frustrations in Peacemaking Wilson hoped to overcome these commitments at the negotiations. The British and French leaders were pledged to take vengeance on the Germans, who were held responsible for having caused the war. The Allies expected to dictate unusually harsh terms against the defeated Axis Powers.

Opening Session of the Paris Peace Conference

Difficulties of Making Peace

The Treaty of Versailles The danger of the spread of Communism over Europe forced Wilson to accept compromises to restore peace quickly. The Peace Conference was dominated by the Big Four: Wilson, David Lloyd George of Britain, Georges Clemenceau of France, and Vittorio Orlando of Italy.

The Big Four

Difficulties of Making Peace

The Treaty of Versailles Wilson hoped to modify the harsh terms demanded by the Allies and secure acceptance of the Fourteen Points. Facing stiff opposition from these politicians, Wilson had to compromise many of the points he had hoped to write into the peace treaty. The terms of the Treaty of Versailles (1919) were harsh indeed.

L-R: Orlando, Lloyd George, Clemenceau, and Wilson

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Difficulties of Making Peace

The Treaty of Versailles Treaty of Versailles Terms (cont.)
1) Germany was stripped of all its colonies; 2) Germany surrendered Alsace-Lorraine and other border areas to Poland, Belgium and Denmark; 3) Germany was forced to accept the war-guilt clause, requiring it to make full reparations for the cost and damage of the war;

Difficulties of Making Peace

The Treaty of Versailles Treaty of Versailles Terms (cont.)
4) Germanys assessment was to be determined later by the Reparations Commission; 5) Germany was to be completely disarmed and the Allies were committed to work toward disarmament among themselves;

Difficulties of Making Peace

The League of Nations Treaty of Versailles Terms (cont.)
6) Finally, Wilson induced the Allies to accept the League of Nations, which, he hoped, would peacefully settle friction resulting from injustices in the treaty.

Difficulties of Making Peace

The League of Nations Covenant of the League of Nations (cont.)
1) Council of Nine, made up of the five leading powers (U.S., Britain, France, Italy and Japan) and four others elected by the Assembly; 2) Assembly made up of delegates from all member nations; 3) Permanent Secretariat at Geneva to handle the routine business of the League.

The terms of the Covenant of the League of Nations established the organization.

League of Nations in Geneva

Difficulties of Making Peace

The League of Nations Purpose of the League: 1) to respect and preserve the territory and independence of its members; 2) to consider disputes likely to lead to war; 3) to apply military and economic sanctions against nations guilty of aggression; 4) to plan armament reduction; and, 5) to establish a Permanent Court of International Justice.

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Difficulties of Making Peace

American Opposition to the Treaty Members of the Republican majority in the Senate were determined to defeat the treaty. Their leader, Henry Cabot Lodge, intensely disliked Wilson personally. Other members of the Senate objected to Wilsons failure to consult that body in drafting the terms of the treaty.

Senator Henry Cabot Lodge

Difficulties of Making Peace

American Opposition to the Treaty Some members of the Senate opposed the concessions made to the selfishness of the Allies. And, many opposed American membership in the League of Nations. American minorities of various national origins opposed the treatment accorded their homelands.

Difficulties of Making Peace

American Opposition to the Treaty Many Americans suffered disillusionment from the initial idealism of the war and now felt that the U.S. ought to withdraw from the futile attempt to remake Europe. Others objected that the country would become involved in another European war. Republicans wished to capitalize on the dissatisfaction for political advantage.

Difficulties of Making Peace

American Opposition to the Treaty Two groups sought to defeat the treaty: the Irreconcilables including Hiram Johnson, William E. Borah, and La Follette wished to reject it completely. Cabot Lodge used the strategy of modifying the treaty so much with Fourteen Reservations Wilson himself would oppose it. This last group succeeded.

Difficulties of Making Peace

American Opposition to the Treaty Wilson was so dissatisfied with the reservations introduced into the treaty in the Senate that he advised his own followers to vote against it. He tried to take his battle to the nation, but broke down from exhaustion and never recovered. A separate peace was made with Germany by joint resolution passed under Harding in 1921.

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Difficulties of Making Peace

American Opposition to the Treaty The United States negotiated separate peace treaties with Austria and Hungary, which the Republican Senate ratified promptly in 1921.

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