A Project Review Work On Pesticide Pollution and Management In Agriculture

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

SUBMITTED BY ROLL NO. ENV- 010375 REGISTRATION NO. # 344 SESSION -2000-2001

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE JAHANGIRNAGAR UNIVERSITY, SAVAR, DHAKA

Dedicated to My Family

Acknowledgement

I am grateful to almighty Allah who has endued me to complete the project. I express my heart-felt gratitude to Dr. Md. Khabir Uddin, Associate Professor, Dept. of Environmental Science, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka to commit me the lively supervising guidelines in research project during preparation of the report. I also utter my gratefulness to Dr. Md. Mazibur Rahman , Principal Scientific Officer, Institute of Food and Radiation Biology (IFRB), Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission, Savar, Dhaka) for providing valuable suggestions during preparation of the report.

Finally, I disclose a special thanks to my beloved parents, sisters and my friends for their encouraging and spiritual support throughout the time.

The Author June 6, 2006

List of Contents Abstractix Abbreviationsx 1. INTRODUCTION1 Pesticides, an important issue for Bangladesh. Objectives of the report 2. METHODOLOGY.3 3. ABOUT PESTICIDES 3.1. Definition..4 3.2. Historical Time Line for Pest Control .......................4 3.3. Sectors of Pesticide Use in Bangladesh..6 3.4. General Characteristics of Pesticides.7 3.5. Formulation of Pesticide.11 3.6. Classification of Pesticide .12 3.7. Natural products pesticide ..16 3.8. Pesticide Toxicity..17 3.9 Overview of mostly used pesticides.18 Chlordane DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) Aldrin / Dieldrin Endrin Heptachlor Mirex Toxaphane 4. PESTICIDE CIRCULATION IN THE ENVIRONMENT 4.1 Pesticide Circulation25 4.2 Physicochemical Properties of Pesticides in Relation with the Environment 4.3 Fates of pesticides.28 4.3.1. Enter of the pesticides..28 4.3.2. Pesticide in the water body29 4.3.3.Behavior of pesticides.30 4.4 Effect of pesticides 4.4.1. Pesticidal toxicity in air33 4.4.2. Pesticidal toxicityin soil.33 4.4.3. Toxicity of pesticides to fish.34 4.4.4. Pesticidal toxicity to birds 34 4.4 5. Effects of pesticides on biota.35 4.4.6. Effect of pesticideson human.35 5. 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 MANAGEMENT PRACTICES management practices38 pest management..40 Pesticide management practices..42 Reducing risk through use of engineering controls.46

6. TREATMENT METHODS 6.1. Traditional Disposal Methods 50 6.2. Modern Innovation Non-Combustion Destruction Methods..52 6.3. Biological Treatments 6.3.1. BIOREMEDIATION54 6.3.2 Phytoremediation / Phytotechnology.58 7. REGULATIONS IN BANGLADESH 7.1 Acts and regulation In Bangladesh..63 7.1.1. The Pesticide Ordinance, 1971 63 7.1.2 The Pesticide Rules, 1985..64 7.1.3. Quality control 65 7.2. Convention on pesticides ..66 7.3. Pesticide management in Bangladesh..71 7.3.1 The action plan for pesticides..73 8. RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUTIONS74

Reference:.76

List of table used in the report Table no Table-1 Table-2 Table-3 Table-4 Table-5 Table-6 Table-7 Table-8 Table-9 Table-10 Table-11 Table-12 Table-13 Table-14 Table-15 Table16 Table-17 Table-18 Topics a listing of developments relating to pest control and pesticides Pesticides use in Bangladesh in M. tons Partition coefficients (PC) for selected pesticides (generic name only) Grouping of pesticides based on persistence in soils Chemical or Physical Property of pesticide Formation of pesticide the mode of action of most of pesticides Types of Pesticides, Target Pests and Nature of User Benefits from Pest Control usage Synthetic organic pesticides USEPA Pesticide Health Advisory Level Important physicochemical properties of pesticides Toxicity of pesticides to fish Toxicity of pesticides A list of common health problems related to Pesticides exposure in human Traditional Pesticides Disposal Methods Selection of modern pesticide destruction technologies Phytoremediation for elimination of pesticide status of different Pops pesticides in Bangladesh Page no 5 7 9 11 11 12 13 14 16 17 27 34 36 37 50 52 59 71

List of figure used in the report

Figure no Figure -1 Figure -2 Figure -3 Figure -4 Figure -5 Figure -6 Figure -7 Figure -8 Figure -9 Figure -10 Figure -11 Figure -12 Figure -13 Figure -14 Figure -15 Figure -16

Topics Structural formula of Chlordane Structural formula of DDT and DDE Structural formula of Dieldrin and Aldrin Structural formula of Endrin

Page no 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 28 29 31 32 55 56 57 61

Structural formula of Heptachlor Structural formula of Structural formula of Mirex Toxaphane

Pesticide circulation in the environment Fate and route of pesticides in the environment Pesticides loss in water Behavior and fate of pesticides in soil, water, & air Biological transfer of pesticides Co-metabolic process diagram of Bio-remediation Air sparging process diagram Typical composting method Mechanisms for organo-hlorine pesticides phytoremediation

No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Glossary

Annex Annex-I Annex-II Annex-III Annex-IV Annex-V

Page no 1 2 3 5 6

Abstract The report was put on to find about overviews of pesticides used in Bangladesh and their circulation in the environment and their toxic effects to human being as well as on to the environment. Pesticides are chemical compounds or mixture of substances with diverse chemical nature and biological activity. They are specially designed and manufactured for their use to prevent, destroy, repel, attract, sterile, stupefy or mitigate any undesired life declared to be the pest. They are ubiquitous chemicals in the environment. They can be transported over long distances in the atmosphere, resulting in widespread distribution across the earth, including regions where they have never been used. They are organic compounds of anthropogenic origin that resist degradation and accumulate in the food chain. Pesticides can pose a threat to human and the environment. The main concerns of pesticides have been reviewed in this report with their pathways and fates in the environment, persistence and bioaccumulation. The purpose of the project was also to review on possible management practices including pest management, IPM, Sustainable Pest Control, that can be effective. Here, it is also to review on available treatment technologies. Both traditional and innovative non-combustion destruction technologies for treatment of Pesticides. Potential biological methods for treatment of POPs have been explored. Different bioremediation methods with their applicability have been discussed. Finally, the pesticide act and regulations are discussed and their obligation and limitation are also found out.

Abbreviations used in the report AC AChE ADI ATSDR bw BMP DDD DDE DDT DE DRE DOE EPA EXTOXNET FRTR FAO GOB HAL HCB HPP IPM Koc Kow LD50 LC50 OCP OC OPP PC PCBs POPs PP PPM PPW R&D SPC SRPP TCB TEQ WHO Adsorption Co-efficient Acetyl Cholinesterase Acceptable Daily Intake Agency For Toxic substance and Disease Registry Body Weight Best Management Practices dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(4chlorophenyl)ethane) Destruction Efficiency Destruction And Removal Efficiency Department Of Environment Environmental Protection Agency Extension Toxicology Networks Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Government Of Bangladesh Health Advisory Level Hexachlorobenzene Hydropower plant Integrated Pest Management Organic carbon partition Co-effientOctane Octane/ Water partition co-efficients Lethal Dose LethL concentration Organochlorine Pesticide Organi Chlorine Organophosphorus Pesticide Partition co-efficient Polychlorinated biphenyls Persistent Organic Pollutants Plant Protection Part Per Million Plant Protection Wing Research and Development Sustainable Pest Control State Regional Power Plant Tri-chloro-biphenyls Toxic Equivalent World Health Organization

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Man struggles to obtain adequate supplies of food (and fiber) against all the elements, including pests of various sorts which reduce the quantity and quality of output, by physical damage, disease, etc. Through the ages, it seems, increasingly, that people find a need to minimize the existence and/or damage of pests, with the use of pesticide chemicals and by other means noted above. Some of the factors that lead to increased need for pest control are: development of succulent crops attractive to pests, e.g. high sugar content of fruits; large acreage/mass production of monoculture crops which facilitates pest development ; widespread incursion of people into new areas occupied by pests not formerly interacting with man; use/development of plants/animals susceptible to pest damage; mobility of people and commerce leading to importation of pests without natural controls; expectations of people that there should be a minimum of interference from pests; and adaptation of pests to chemical and other control measures. Pests and disease cause a 20-40% loss of world wide crop production. These may occur at all stages of the food chain: during harvesting, drying, storage, processing, and retailing. Pesticide reduces attack by pests, disease, and weeds, contribute higher yields, increased quality and higher economic returns. The use of pesticide is one of the most important contributors to increased agricultural production since 1940s. Pesticide in Bangladesh Pesticides have intrinsically inserted itself into the threads of everyday agricultural life in Bangladesh. This is a legacy of chemical pesticides and

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insecticides use that has existed in the country since the introduction of modern agriculture in the mid-1960s. Without knowing the proper use of equipments and pesticide handling and disposal procedure, illiterate poor farmers and their family are directly exposing themselves to the risk of pesticide poisoning. Bangladesh is one of the signatory parties and requires taking actions to generate general awareness of harmful consequences of POPs to reduce their releases and their ultimate elimination. For sustainable agriculture practice and environment, its our own concern to phase out the POPs pesticides and industrial chemicals. The objective of this work specifies the following points:

1. To import knowledge to the people about the environmental pollution

of pesticides ,

2. To find about overviews of pesticides used in Bangladesh and their

circulation in the environment and their toxic effects on it.

3. To create mass awareness about the effects of harmful pesticides 4. To identify the pathway of reducing toxic effect he total concentration
from different agricultural soil

5. To attain government attention on this problem to make necessary

policies Finally, it is emphasized that possible remediation and management techniques that can be effective and suitable for a country heavily burdened by contaminants used by man consciously or unconsciously.

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CHAPTER TWO METHODOLOGY

The project is emphasized on literature reviews and collection of existing information on research do on historical background, general properties, and circulation in the environment, health risk assessment, and potential destruction technologies for the treatment of Pesticides. The key information of historical review, properties are designed from the information of Natural Resources Cornell Cooperation Extension available in various web sites. The health effects and exposure scenario of the Pesticides were primarily collected from the World Health Organizations various reports, guidelines and fact sheets. The circulation of pesticides and their effects on the environment was discussed from Pesticide Management by Dr. S.K. Agarwal. The Status reports of Pesticides in Bangladesh were collected from the National Implementation Plan (NIP) for Management of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Bangladesh, under the Stockholm Convention and reports published by Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission. The information on the management and remediation techniques was primarily collected from the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) website. Additional information on Pesticides came from a variety of sources, including the websites of organizations such as www.safepesticideuse.com, www.nedcc.org, United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP), and various conference reports and science journals.

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CHAPTER THREE ABOUT PESTICIDES 3.1 Pesticides Pesticides are chemical compounds or mixture of substances with diverse chemical nature and biological activity. They are specially designed and manufactured for their use to prevent, destroy , repel, attract, sterile, stupefy or mitigate any undesired life declared to be the pest .It is difficult to image of modern pest control and agricultural programmes without some forms of chemical control. The United States Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act has defined pesticide as (1) Any substance or substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing , destroying , repelling, or mitigating any pest insect, rodents, nematode, fungus, weed, other form of terrestrial or aquatic plants , animals , viruses, declares to be a pest, regulator, defoliant or desiccant 3.2 Historical Time Line for Pest Control There is information to suggest that certain types of pest control products were used in Roman times, but the use of synthetics began in the 1930s and became more widespread after the end of World War II. In recent years, chemical pesticides have become the most important consciously-applied form of pest management. The "first generation" pesticides were largely highly toxic compounds, i.e. arsenic and hydrogen cyanide. The "second generation" pesticides largely included synthetic organic compounds. A listing of developments relating to pest control and pesticides is presented in the following table:
(1)

(2) Any substance or mixture of substances intended for use as a plant

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Table 1: a listing of developments relating to pest control and pesticides YEAR REMARKS REFERENCE Jones, p. 309 Jones, p. 321 Shepard, p. 4

12000BC First records of insects in human society 2500 BC 1000 BC 324 BC 1300 1669 1763 18th century 1787 1809 1848 1867 1860's 1873 1882 1892 1893 1928 1932 1932/39 1942/45 1946 Ancient Sumarians use sulfur to control mites Homer refers to the use of sulfur compounds caterpillars

Chinese use ants in citrus groves to control Shepard, p. 4 Marco Polo writes of the use of mineral oil Shepard, p. 4 against mange in camels Earliest use of arsenic as insecticide Ground tobacco recommended in France to kill phids Petroleum, kerosene, creosote and turpentine Frear, p. 120 introduced as insecticides Soap mentioned as insecticide and turpentine Shepard, p. 4 emulsion recommended to kill/repel insects Nicotine discovered in France to kill aphids Rotenone used as insecticide the dye Paris Green killed insects Paris Green (arsenical) used to control Colo. DDT first made in a laboratory diseases Lead arsenate discovered as control for gypsy Perkins, p.5 moth Lead arsenate found to be effective Ethylene oxide patented as insect fumigant Methyl bromide first used as fumigant discovery of DDT Compound DDT made available for use Organic phosphate insecticides Perkins, pp. 5-6 Shepard, p. 6 Shepard, p. 6 Perkins,p. 10 Perkins, p. 20 Shepard,p. 6 Mrak, p. 44 Mrak, p. 45 Shepard, p. 4 Shepard, p. 6 Ordish, p. 152 Shepard, p. 4 Mrak, p. 44

Bordeaux mixture discovered to control plant Shepard, p. 5

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1979

First of synthetic pyrethroids registered as insecticides (fenvalerate and permethrin)

1994 1997 2000 2003 2005

Registration of imidacloprid as first of nicotinoid insecticides Fipronil registered as systemic insecticide of fip role type More effective pesticides Eco-friendly pesticides Pesticides from neem Agarwal, p-29

3.3 Sectors of Pesticide Use in Bangladesh Agriculture is the main occupation of the people employing about 63% of the 54.6 million labor forces, which directly contribute around 46% of the GDP (Gross Development per capita). Bangladesh has got one of the most fertile lands but due to paucity of capital and lack of knowledge of new inputs and techniques its yield per acre is one of the lowest in the world. Rice, wheat, jute, sugarcane, tobacco, oilseeds, pulses and potatoes are the principal crops. Bangladesh is marginally deficit in food grains. All out efforts are being made by the government and the people to increase the production of food grains and diversify agriculture output. From 1960 onward, the official strategy of successive governments was intensification of agriculture. It was to be carried out with the help of High Yield Varieties (HYV) of rice and wheat. To grow HYV requires three principal inputs: irrigation facility, chemical fertilizer and pesticides With the advent of industrialization and urbanization, industries dealing with the production, packaging and transport of fertilizer, petrochemical products, cement, textile, leather and mining were set up. Improper chemical use, handling and indiscriminate disposal of chemical wastes thus became a hazard introduced to health and environment.

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Table 2: Pesticides use in Bangladesh in M. tons Type pesticide of No of Consumptio brand s 20000 Insecticides Fungicides Herbicides Miticides Rodenticides Total 239 51 38 28 10 366 13,785 1,430 271 26, 122 15,634 12,301 2,148 838 19 70 15,376 13,984 2,419 964 27 37 17,395 13,736 2,941 1,364, 32 19 18,092 n 2001 2002 2003 Consumption Consumption Consumption

Source : Bangladesh Crop Protection Association, 2003 In Bangladesh, pesticides are imported. Some agro- chemical industries formulate and re-pack pesticides. There are numerous pesticide products that are formulated by local unauthorized companies and these are mostly adulterated with toxic pesticides like DDT. 3.4 General Characteristics of Pesticides The pesticide has the various properties including degradation, adsorption, solubility, volatility and Persistence. Degradation Most pesticides are organic compounds which degrade under typical environmental conditions. There are three types of degradation process, including Microbial degradation Chemical degradation and Photo degradation. Microbial degradation. Soils and plants hold populations of

microorganisms which derive energy from the degradation of organic

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compounds

such

as

pesticides.

Two

important

processes

are

distinguished mineralization, in which the compound is completely degraded to carbon dioxide (CO2), and co-metabolization, in which the chemical is transformed into other chemical compounds. Chemical reactions. Pesticides may react with air, water, and other chemicals in soil and plants through oxidation, reduction, and hydrolysis. Photochemical reactions or decomposition through exposure to sunlight. Factors of degradation The following factors are involved in degradation process: Chemical structure. Some types of chemical compounds are more easily degraded through chemical or microbial reactions than others. Soil type. Soil properties affect pesticide degradation in many ways. In general, the higher the organic matter content and moisture-holding capacity of the soil, the higher the rate of pesticide degradation in that soil. Temperature. The rates of microbial and chemical reactions increase with temperature, so pesticide degradation occurs faster as the soil and air become warmer. Soil water content. Microbial and chemical reactions are favored by moist soil conditions, so degradation occurs fastest when soils are not too dry. Position in the soil. The upper layers of the soil profile are chemically and biologically most reactive. Adsorption Soil organic matter and, to a lesser extent, clay particles can bind pesticides. Pesticides which are strongly adsorbed to soil are not carried downward through the soil profile with percolating water.

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a) Partition coefficient (PC). The PC value is defined as the ratio of pesticide concentration in the adsorbed-state (that is, bound to soil particles) and the solution-phase (that is, dissolved in the soil-water). The partition coefficient makes it possible to put a value on a particular pesticide's chance of being lost via runoff or leaching in a specific soil, via the formula: K = (PC) (%OM) (0.0058) Where K is an index for sorption of a given pesticide on a particular soil, % OM is the percent of organic matter in the soil, Table 3 Partition coefficients (PC) for selected pesticides Pesticide Aldicarb Chloramben Simazine Atrazine DDT PC 10 13 158 172 243,000 Pesticide PC Carbaryl Methyl Trietazine Malathion Parathion 229 7,079 549 1,778 7,161

b) Adsorption coefficient: A pesticide's tendency to be adsorbed by soil is expressed by its adsorption coefficient: K (oc) = conc. adsorbed/ conc. dissolved/% organic carbon in soil High K(oc) values indicate a tendency for the chemical to be adsorbed by soil particles rather than remain in the soil solution. Since pesticides bond mainly to soil organic carbon, the division by the percentage organic carbon in soil makes the adsorption coefficient a pesticide-specific property, independent of soil type.

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Solubility The tendency of a chemical to dissolve in water is expressed by its solubility. Pesticides with solubility below the threshold value of 30 mg/l are considered to have relatively low potentials for leaching. Pesticides with solubility values higher than 30 mg/l may have a high leaching potential if the degradation rate and the soil adsorption coefficient are low. Volatility The potential for a pesticide to volatilize, or become a gas, is expressed by its Henry's Law Constant: H = vapor pressure/solubility A high value for this constant indicates a tendency for the pesticide to volatilize and be lost to the atmosphere. Gaseous losses can be reduced through soil incorporation. Although exchange of soil air with the atmosphere does take place, the rate is so slow that volatilization losses of incorporated pesticides are very low. Persistence Persistence defines the "lasting-power" of a pesticide. Most pesticides break down or "degrade" over time as a result of several chemical and microbiological reactions in soils. Sunlight breaks down some pesticides. Generally, chemical pathways result in only partial deactivation of pesticides, whereas soil microorganisms can completely break down many pesticides to carbon dioxide, water and other inorganic constituents. Degradation time is measured in "half-life." Each half-life unit measures the amount of time it takes for one-half the original amount of a pesticide in soil to be deactivated.

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Table 4: Grouping of pesticides based on persistence in soils Non-persistent (half-life less 30 days) Aldicarb Moderately Persistent Persistent than ( half-life greater greater 30 days, days) Bromacil Chlordane Lindane than Aldrin Atrazine Methyl parathion Heptachlor l Parathion Malathion Diazinon Endrin Table -5 Chemical or Physical Property of pesticide Chemical or Physical Property Water solubility Henry's Law Constant Kd Koc Hydrolysis half-life Photolysis half-life Threshold Value greater than 30 ppm less than lO-2 atm - m-3 mol less than 5, usually less than 1 or 2 less than 300 to 500 more than 25 weeks more than 1 week Picloram (half life

than100

less than 100)

Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1986, 3.5 Formulation of Pesticide Pesticide products contain a number of constituents, including the active ingredient that kills or controls the target organism as well as a number of additives. These additives include solvents, sufficient liquid or solid carriers, softeners and additives.

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Table: 6. Formation of pesticide No 1. 2. 3. 4 5. 6. Formation Aqueous Concentration Emulsifiable Concentration Suspension Concentration Water Powder Wettable Powder Water Dispersible Powder 7. 8. Granules Dusts Granules or pellets which contain, or are coated with, the active ingredient or ingredients A fine powder formulation used for specific applications. nature of application A concentrate solution of the active ingredient, or Ingredients, in water. A homogeneous liquid formulation that forms an emulsion on mixing with water. A stable suspension of finely ground active ingredient in water intended for dilution before use. active ingredient, when dissolved in water. A powder formulation that is dispersible in water to form a suspension. Similar to wettable powder, but involving a more advanced formulation.

Soluble A powder formulation which forms a true solution of the

Source: Agricultural pollution by Merrington. 3.6 Classification of Pesticide The pesticide can be classified in three different ways taking into account three different criteria viz, mode of entry, mode of action and their chemical nature. a) Classification based on mode of entry i) Stomach poisons: those pesticides which enter the body of the target organism through its food are termed as stomach poison. They reach the stomach and kill the organism .Stomach pesticides are very effective against insect pests and rodents.

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ii) Contact poisons: Contact pesticides are those ones which enter the body of the organism by penetrating through their cuticle or through spiracles. The pest may absorb the pesticide while walking on the treated parts, while flying through a mist or fine droplets or when they are hit directly during spraying or dusting of the pesticides. iii) Fumigants: are those pesticides which enter in gaseous state into the body of the organism through the spiracles, trachea and nose. They are most effective in closed spaces and as such are widely used for controlling the stored grain pests. b) Classification based on mode of action The mode of action of pesticides is given below in the following figure: Table: 7. the mode of action of most of pesticides No 1 2 Mode action Poison Contact Ingested by the pest organism before releasing toxins into its stomach. Applied directly to the pest organism Penetration its Surface and producing a localized toxic effect they remain active for few days at most. of description

Residual

Act in the same way as contact pesticide, but do not need to be applied directly to the pest organism since they remain active for long period.

Translocated

Active ingredient is mobilized within the pest organism and a more effective toxic effect upon it. Active ingredient is mobilized within the crop or animal being protected and is then transferred to the target pest.

Systemic

Source: Agricultural pollution by Merrington.

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Physical poisons: Which kill the pest by exerting physical effect? Heavy oils and tar oil kill the insects, birds and fishes through asphyxiation i.e. exclusion of air. Inert dust cause abrasion of cuticle or absorb moisture from the body of the organism. Protoplasmic poisons the toxicants which kill the organism by destruction of the cellular protoplasm of the mid gut epithelium. Respiratory poisons blocks the cellular respiration and render the respiratory enzymes inactive. Nerve poisons affect the nervous system and render the organism to behave abnormally, leading to death. The toxicant gets dissolved in tissue lipoids and inhabits the production of acetyl cholinesterase enzyme insects and mammals. c) Classification based on chemical nature This classification system segregates pesticides into either the inorganic compounds having pesticidal property, or organic compounds having pesticidal property. Table 8 Types of Pesticides, Target Pests and Nature of User Benefits from Pest Control usage. No Pesticide type Target pest User benefits from pest control

1.

Acaricides/ miticides

Mites

Stop pests sucking juices from plants or liquids from animals

2. 3.

Algaecides Avicides

Algae, plants, Birds

marine Kill algae in desired locations Avoid nuisance and physical

damage of birds

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4.

Defoliants & Plants desiccants

Removal of leaves/foliage of plants or completely kills plant immediately, to facilitate harvest

5. 6.

Bactericides

Bacteria

Kill bacteria in desired locations Kill/eliminate microbes from target area, sanitization e.g., disinfection,

Disinfectants viruses

7. 8. 9. 10.

Fumigants Fungicides Herbicides Insecticides/

Nematodes, insects, Kill undesired species from soil, fungi, , etc Fungi Undesired (weeds) Insects commodities or space Kill fungi causing plant diseases, nuisance plants Elimination of visual or other nuisance of weeds Eliminate nuisance/disease threats to humans and animals contamination

11. 12. 13.

Moluscicides Piscicides

Invertebrates, snails, slugs Fishes

e.g., Eliminate nuisance or economic damage of invertebrates Removal of undesired fish from target waters Control growth/development of

Plant growth Plants/fruits/seeds regulators

plant to obtain desired effect, e.g., ripening, storage life, etc. Various insect and Dissuades/deters protected area. animal from

14.

Repellents

other animal forms

being on protected object or in

15.

Rodenticides

Rodents

Eliminate nuisance and disease to humans and damage to Commodities

16.

Silvicides

Woody

plants/ Eliminate damage to by undesired species of trees

weeds in forestry

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Synthetic organic pesticides dominate the field of pest control. A rigid classification of these compounds is difficult. They broadly include following groups: Table: 9. Synthetic organic pesticides No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. pesticide Organochlorine Organophosphorous Carbamate Herbicide Botanical Fungicide Rodenticides Fumigants Mulluscicides Nematocides Chemicals BHC, DDT, Methoxychlor, Aldrien, Dieldrin, Heptachlor, Chlordane, Endosulfan etc Malathion, Parathion, Phorate, DDVP, Phenthoate, Diazinon, etc. Carbaryl, Aldiucarb, etc. 2,4-D,2,4,5-T, Paraquate, Diquat, Trizolcs ,etc Pyrethrins, Nicotine, Rotenoids. Organo-mercury and tin compounds Thallium sulfate , arsenic , zinc phophide, warafin Hydrogen cyanide, fomaladehyde, Metaldehyde, Carbamate, Copper sulfate, etc methyl-isothio-cyanide, phosphorus compounds. carbamates, organo-

3.7 Natural products pesticide There are ample evidence to show that the plant kingdom is a vast storehouse of chemical substance manufactured and used by plants in their own defense from attack by insects, bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Several significant groups of pesticide are obtained from plants. These include i) ii) iii) Nicotine Rotenone Pyrethrins

Nicotine is isolated from at least 18 species of tobacco among which Nicotine tobacum and N. rustica are most common. Nicotine does not

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leave any harmful residue on applied surfaces. It is highly toxic to mammals. Rotenone is isolated from Derris elliptica and D. malacensis. It is photo-and thermo-stable. It is highly toxic to fishes. Its active ingredient is nicoulene Pyrethrum is prepared from the flowers of Chysanthemum cinereraefolium and C. coccineum. The active ingradients of pyrethrum are four esters i) ii) iii) iv) pyrethrin I pyrethrin II Cinerin I Cinerin II

It is viscous liquid insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. it is highly unstable in light, moisture and air. It has powerful contact action with rapid knock down. Synthetic analogs of the pyrethrins are pyrethroids including allethrin and fenvalerate. 3.8. Pesticide Toxicity The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has issued guidelines for lifetime health advisory levels (HAL's) for commonly used pesticides, expressed in concentrations of micrograms per liter. It is equivalent to parts per billion (ppb). For example, alachlor has a HAL of 0.4 ppb and carbofuran has one of 40 ppb. Table 10 USEPA Pesticide Health Advisory Levels Name Carbaryl Chlordane Dieldrin Aldicarb HAL(ug/l) 700 0.03 0.002 10 Name Endrin Methoxychlor 2,4-D Atrazine HAL(ug/1) 0.3 400 70 3

Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

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3.9. Important and widely used pesticides are discussed below: 3.9.1. CHLORDANE Chemical Characteristics: Chlordane is a broad-spectrum organochlorine insecticide known for its toxic effects and its capacity to persist and bioaccumulate in the environment. The chemical builds up in the fatty tissues of fish, birds, and mammals. Production and Use: Introduced in 1945, chlordane was used in the greatest quantities as a soil insecticide for controlling termites. It has been used as a pesticide on corn, citrus, and other crops. I Chlordane has been used also on livestock; on home lawns and gardens and underground around the foundation of buildings to control termites. The structural formula of CHLORDANE IS shown below in Fig. 1

Fig.1 Structural formula of Chlordane Exposure and Effects: Exposure to chlordane may occur through several routes, including consumption of contaminated meats, fish, shellfish, root crops, and other foods;

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 Chlordane has been linked to liver and blood disorders, severe neurological effects, and damage to the endocrine and reproductive systems. 3.9.2. DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) Chemical Characteristics: DDT is an organochlorine compound that persists in the environment and bioaccumulates in human and animal tissue. DDT was recognized as an effective insecticide in the 1930s.

The structural formula of DDT and DDE is shown below in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Structural formula of p,p-DDT, C14H9Cl5 & Production and Use:

p,p-DDE, C14H8Cl4

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that approximately two dozen countries use DDT for controlling malaria. More than 80 countries have banned or restricted use of DDT.

Exposure and Effects: Exposure results from consuming contaminated food, and from contact in homes that have been sprayed with DDT for malaria control. DDE, a breakdown product of DDT, has contributed to eggshell thinning in predatory birds.

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3.9.3. Aldrin/Dieldrin Chemical Characteristics: They are synthetic organochlorine insecticides with similar chemical structures. Aldrin quickly breaks down to dieldrin in the environment.

The structural formula of Dieldrin & Aldrin is shown in Fig. 3. (a) (b)

Fig. 3 Structural formula of (a) Dieldrin & (b) Aldrin (CAS No.: 309-00- ) Production and Use: Since the 1950s, aldrin and dieldrin have been widely used as agricultural insecticides, veterinary agents, termiticides, and vector control agents. Aldrin has been used as a soil insecticide to control root worms, beetles, and termites. Dieldrin has been used for control of disease vectors such as mosquitoes and tsetse flies, for veterinary purposes as a sheep dip, and for the treatment of wood and the mothproofing of woolen products. Exposure and Effects: Animals and people may be exposed via consumption of fish, seafood, dairy products, fatty meats, and root crops grown in contaminated soil or water.

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It demonstrates very high acute toxicity to aquatic organisms such as fishes, crustaceans, and amphibians.

3.9.4. ENDRIN Chemical Characteristics: Endrin is a persistent, acutely toxic organochlorine insecticide used mainly on field crops. It does not easily dissolve in water.

The structural formula of Endrin & Heptachlor is shown in Fig. 4.

Cl
Cl
O

CH

Cl2

Cl
Cl
Fig. 4 Structural formula of Endrin Production and Use: Introduced in 1951, endrin has been used as a pesticide to control birds on buildings and insects and rodents in fields and orchards. Endrin is applied in the production of cotton, maize, sugarcane, grains, apples, and ornamentals. Exposure and Effects: Human exposure takes place primarily through consumption of contaminated food and water, or in occupational settings. Exposure to endrin can cause endocrine effects, liver damage, and disorders of the nervous system.

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3.9.5. Heptachlor Chemical Characteristics: Heptachlor is characterized by its toxicity, environmental persistence, and ability to bioaccumulation in the fat of living organisms. It has a half life of up to two years in soils

The Structural formula of Heptachlor is given below:

. Fig. 5 Structural formula of Heptachlor (CAS: 76-44-8) Production and Use: Heptachlor is primarily used to kill soil insects and termites. It has also been used against cotton insects, grasshoppers, some crop pests, and to combat malaria. Heptachlor is now banned in many countries throughout the world. Heptachlor is also used to protect underground cable boxes from fire ants. Exposure and Effects: Contaminated food is probably the major exposure route for most species including humans. Inhalation may be an exposure route, particularly in homes treated for termites. Drinking contaminated water or dermal contact can also result in exposure.

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3.9.6.

Mirex

Chemical Characteristics: Mirex is considered to be one of the most stable and persistent pesticides in soil, sediment, and water, with a half life in soil of up to 10 years. It does not dissolve easily in water, but sticks to soil and sediment particles such that it is not likely to travel far through the soil and into underground water. The structural formula of Mirex is shown in Fig. 5.

Fig 6 Structural formula of Mirex Production and Use: Mirex was formerly used as an insecticide to kill ants. It has been used to combat fire ants, leaf cutters, harvester termites, Western harvester ants, and mealybug of pineapple. Mirex also had extensive use as a fire retardant in plastics, rubber, paint, paper, and electrical goods. Exposure and Effects: Most exposures occur thorough eating contaminated food, particularly fish and other animals living near contaminated sites. Exposure can also arise through inhalation.

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3.9.7. Toxaphene Chemical Characteristics: Toxaphene is an insecticide containing more than 670 chemicals. Toxaphene is characterized by its toxicity, persistence, and ability to bioaccumulate in animals and travel long distances. It does not dissolve well in water, so it is likely to be found in air, soil, or sediment at the bottom of lakes or streams. The Structural formula of Toxaphane is given below:

Fig- 6 Structural formula of Toxaphane Production and Use: Toxaphene was one of the worlds most widely used pesticides in the 1970s. Toxaphene was used to control insect pests on cotton, cereal grains, fruits, nuts, and vegetables. Exposure and Effects: Exposure may result from eating contaminated animals, particularly fish and shellfish, drinking water from contaminated wells, At high exposures, toxaphene has been associated with kidney and liver damage, central nervous system effects, possible immune system suppression, and cancer. Acute exposure to toxaphene is typically lethal to mammals, birds, and aquatic species.

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CHAPTER FOUR PESTICIDE CIRCULATION IN THE ENVIRONMENT There are basically two ways properly-applied pesticides may reach surface and underground waters -- through runoff and leaching into the atmosphere. 4.1 Pesticide circulation: Occurrence of pesticide residues in edible parts of plants is significant in terms of human exposure, while pesticides released into the atmosphere have an impact on air quality and create problems when agricultural workers enter the treated areas.

Fig. 7 Pesticide circulations in the environment

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Once applied to cropland, a number of things may happen to a pesticide. It may be taken up by plants or ingested by animals, insects, worms, or microorganisms in the soil. It may move downward in the soil and either adheres to particles or dissolve. The pesticide may vaporize and enter the atmosphere, or break down via microbial and chemical pathways into other, less toxic compounds. Pesticides may be leached out of the root zone by rain or irrigation water. 4.2 Physicochemical properties of pesticides in relation with the environment The physical and chemical properties of a chemical substance determine their fate and behavior in the environment. Chemical substances emitted in the environment are distributed/trans-located in their compartments and/or transformed due to inextricable network of interaction of their physicochemical properties with a variety of environmental parameters. ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 1. General: Geography and climate/meteorology (latitude, altitude, sunlight intensity, rainfall, wind, temperature, humidity, etc.) 2. Air: Chemical composition (presence of contaminants), suspended particles, aerosols 3. Water: PH, suspended materials, soluble inorganics and organics, biota. 4. Soil and sediment: Clay mineral, cation exchange capacity (Al, Mg, Cu, etc.) Organic matter content Redox potential Biota (terrestrial invertebrates, including soil insects and earthworms,.) PH

Source: Miyamoto 1996

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A list of physical characteristics of some Pesticides is given in Table 11. TABLE 11 IMPORTANT PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF 9 CHLORIANTED PESTICIDES Pesticides Molecular formula Molecular weight Density g/L Aqueous solubility mg/L Aldrin Chlordane DDT Dieldrin Endrin Heptachlor C12H8Cl6 C10H6Cl8 C14H9Cl5 C12H8Cl6O C12H8Cl6O C10H5Cl7 364.93 409.78 354.49 380.92 380.92 373.32 1.6 1.6 1.55 1.7 1.72 1.58 0.017 0.056 0.0055 0.2 0.26 1.8 6.5 6 6.19 5.48 5.2 5.476.10 Hexachloro Benzene (HCB) Mirex Toxaphane C10Cl12 C10H10Cl8 545.55 414 1.8 1.66 0.085 0.55 7.18 5.786.79 Up to 10 yrs 1-14 yrs C6Cl6 284.81 2.044 0.005 5.73 2.7-7.5 yrs Log Kow Persistence T1/2 20days-1 yr 4 yrs 2-16 yrs 2-15 yrs Up to 12 yrs 0.4-2 yrs

Source: ASTDR, ETOXNET

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4.3 Fates of pesticides 4.3.1 Enter of the pesticides: Pesticide enter the environment through spillage or drifts at the time of pesticide application or because of their volatility or through wastes of human, animal, plant and industrial processes After a pesticide is applied to a field, it may meet a variety of fates.

Fig. 8 fate and route of pesticides in the environment Some may be lost to the atmosphere through volatilization, carried away to surface waters by runoff and erosion, or broken down in the sunlight by photolysis. Pesticides which have entered into soil may be taken up by plants (and subsequently removed), degraded into other chemical forms, or leached downward, possibly to groundwater. The remainder is retained in the soil and continues to be available for plant uptake, degradation, or leaching.

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4.3.2. Pesticide in the water body: If a pesticide is not readily degraded and moves freely with water percolating downward through the soil, it may reach groundwater. If, however, the pesticide is either insoluble or tightly bound to soil particles, then it is more likely to be retained in the upper soil layers and small amounts may be lost to surface waters through runoff or erosion. Pesticides are lost to water resources through surface loss (runoff and erosion) to streams, lakes, and estuaries, and leaching through the soil to groundwater. Surface Loss of Pesticides If pesticides are applied to the soil surface without incorporation, they are susceptible to loss through runoff and erosion during high- intensity rainfall events. Surface losses will likely result in contamination of streams, lakes, and estuaries. The potential for surface loss depends on pesticide properties, soil type, and the length of time after application. Pesticides that attach easily to soil particles or are very insoluble tend to remain close to the soil surface.

Fig. 9 Pesticide loss in water system

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Rainfall and Soil Water Water flow is the most important transport mechanism for pesticides. Water is added to the soil through precipitation or irrigation, which either infiltrates into the soil or runs off the soil surface. The fraction of water that infiltrates compared to the fraction that runs off depends largely on the intensity of precipitation and the infiltration capacity of the soil. For example, if rainfall rates are high and the soil is a compacted clay loam, little water will enter the soil and most will be lost through runoff. This is especially the case when the soil is near saturation and therefore has a low capacity for absorbing additional water from precipitation. Pesticide Leaching and Groundwater Groundwater originates as recharge, the water that percolates downward through soil to the depth at which all soil pores are saturated. Depending on local geology and groundwater flow characteristics, water in any given well may be recharged from the land directly adjacent to the well or from areas miles away. Shallow wells typically are recharged by water originating from adjacent land. Dilution: The toxic effect of a pesticide on humans and animals is directly related to its concentration. Dilution plays an important role in maintaining pesticide concentrations below health standards. Dilution may occur both over space and time. In regions where agriculture coexists with other land uses (e.g. forestry), recharge and runoff are diluted with waters from adjacent lands. 4.3.3. Behavior of pesticides Pesticides accumulate in various organisms and transfer from one trophic level to upper trophic level. The concentration of pesticides increase through the trophic levels and cause various harmful effect on organisms.

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Bio-concentration of pesticides Bio-concentration of pesticides in food chains or webs is governed essentially by the molecular recalcitrance of the compound concerned and by physicochemical and metabolic transformations under different ecological conditions. Development in plant protection is concerned increasingly with pesticides of high specificity and low persistence.

Fig. 10 Behavior and fate of pesticides in soil, water, & air. Biotransformation of pesticides The metabolic reaction which occur and higher plants wherein pesticides are bio-transformed transformation. are microsomal transformations and non-microsomal

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Bio-concentration of pesticides The accumulation of pesticides in various biological systems is called bioaccumulation. The pesticides enter a biological system mainly by three routes: aerial, terrestrial, and Aquatic. Although the actual relationship of these routes is very complicated yet an attempt has been made to present the details in a simplified manner. I (Arial) Air II (Terrestrial) Soil III (Aquatic) Water

Terrestrial Plants

Soil invertebrates

planktons Aquatic Animals

Herbivorous Animals

Terrestrial Vertebrates

Fish eating birds

Carnivorous animals

Fig: 11: Biological transfer of pesticides

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The rate of accumulation of pesticides is higher through aquatic route than through aerial and terrestrial routes. The cause of higher accumulation is aquatic environment is attributed to the chemical nature of the pesticide, which have higher lipo-solubility and lower water solubility. When the pesticide enters the aquatic environment, its movement is facilitated by water. It is then picked up by organic-lipid containing particles which remain suspended in water. From this stage, the particles enter the food chain and get accumulated in the biomass. 4.4. Effect of pesticides 4.4.1 Pesticidal toxicity in air The pesticidal pollution of air occur through volatilization of pesticides where filling, loading, mixing and spraying operations are performed and sometimes through drift and wind erosion of soil particles with absorbed residues. Measurements of concentration of air borne organochlorine pesticides in the ambient air has been made in areas both near to and remote from where these chemicals have been used in agriculture. These measurements have shown that their concentration depends heavily on meteorological conditions, proximity of the site of application, and time elapsed since application. Air may be an important vehicle for the transport of DDT on a global scale. 4.4.2. Pesticidal contamination in soil Soil pollution by pesticides results in various ways, namely direct mixing of pesticides in soil for pest control, runoff of pesticides during and after application , fall out after crop spraying, particle settling over the ground, contaminated plant parts getting ploughed up in the soil. Soil pollution assumes a major concern in contaminating the crop grown, affecting soil pH and microbial population, thus affecting soil fertility.

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4.4.3 Toxicity of pesticide to fish Toxicity of pesticides to fishes has been established by Duodoroff and Tarzwell (1954), James (1965), Mathur(1969), and Gautam et al (1979). Toxicity of certain pesticides to fishes has been shown in Table 12. Table 12: Toxicity of pesticides to fish

Pesticides Aldrin Chlorodane Dielrin Endrin Toxaphene

Toxic concentration(ppm) 0.02 1.0 (sunfish) .0025 (trout) .003 (bass) 1.0

Source : Pollution Management by Agarwaal According to Gautam et al (1979) DDT was found to be toxic to Channa punctata. They found that mortality rate of the fishes was maximum in the younger fishes and gradually decreased in the older fishes from 60 to 250 minutes. The initial mortality might be due to the high susceptibility of the fish. 4.4.4 Pesticidal toxicity to birds The effects of non-lethal concentrations pesticides are subtle and do not cause mortality. However, pesticides do interfere with growth, egg production, egg size, shell thickness, hatchability, fertility etc., ultimately resulting in reduction in their population (ITRC, 1975). The inhibitory response of the acetyl cholinesterase (AChE) of some birds in response to pesticide application indicate that, it was dose dependent, and showed the circulating insecticidal contamination levels.

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4.4.5. Effects of pesticides on biota The most obvious effects in this respect are a consequence of the many deleterious effects either directly or indirectly on the target as well as on the non-target system. These effects include: disturbance in equilibrium existing between insect, pests and their parasites, increased disease susceptibility, bioaccumulation, development of pest tolerance, disturbance in reproductive physiology, behavior abnormalities in birds and insects, effects on population of birds, wild life, fishes and seed production, effects on finally Contamination of food and human bodies. 4.4.6. Effects of pesticide on human Pesticide Poisoning A particular pesticide can have 1. acute toxic effects, 2. Chronic toxic effects or both. Acute toxicity occurs when a person is exposed to a single, large dose of poison. Symptoms usually appear immediately, although they may be delayed a day or two. The severity of the symptoms depends on how toxic the particular poison is and The length of exposure. Chronic toxicity occurs when a person is exposed to repeated small doses of a toxic material over a long period of time. Potential chronic effects include cancer, birth defects, and damage to organs such as the liver.

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Table 13: Toxicity of pesticides.

Category

Signal word LD50 required on the label Oral Dermal 0200

LC50

Approximate an

oral

dose that can kill average person A few drops to 1 tsp. (or a few drops on the skin)

Inhalation 00.2

I. Highly toxic

DANGER

050

POISON! crossbones

skull

and

(Not used to indicate skin and eye irritation effects) II. Moderately toxic III. Slightly CAUTION! 500 5,000 5,000+ 2,000 20,000 20,000+ 20+ 220 More than 1 oz. to 1 pt. or 1 lb. More than 1 pt. or 1 lb. Source: EPA Toxicological Aspects Pesticides are highly toxic; their toxicity may range from acute toxicity, such as death at extreme limit in humans (including aborted fetuses) and wildlife following the exposure of pure substance accidentally. Pesticides have the potential to injure human health including adverse health effects, such as birth defects, damage to immune and respiratory systems, and critical organs. WARNING! 50500 200 2,000 0.22 More than 1 tsp. to 1 oz.

toxic IV. Relatively CAUTION! nontoxic

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Table 14. A list of common health problems related to Pesticides exposure in human HEALTH CONCERN CANCER DESCRIPTION There are over a hundred different types of cancer, but the incidence of potentially hormone-stimulated cancers, such as breast, testicular and prostate cancers. Birth Defects Physical defects or malformations occur during embryo development resulting in deformed offspring. Reproductive Damage Reduced fertility due to reduced quality and/or quantity of eggs and/or sperm.Prenatal exposures can affect reproductive organ development and sexual development, i.e., endocrine disruption, Developmental and Effects Damage to CONTAMINANTS AFFECT THE DEVELOPMENT AND FUNCTION OF THE
BEHAVIORAL PROBLEMS.

Behavioral CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, LEADING TO DEVELOPMENTAL AND

the Exposure can reduce the bodys ability to protect against and fight disease.

Immune System Effects on

the There are direct effects on the lung, heart and blood and vessels, lung volume and airways (e.g., asthma).

Respiratory Circulatory System

Source: Ohanjanyan 1999

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CHAPTER FIVE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES There are various procedure for pesticide pollution management, including management practices, pest control, and finally pesticide management practices. 5.1 management practices The key to reducing the potential for pesticide contamination of water resources is the use of planned pest management. This may include avoiding unnecessary complement pesticide pesticide applications, use. In use of targeted and economical and crop applications, and use of cultural or biological practices that substitute for or addition, pesticide selection management should be carried out according to the site-specific needs for reduction of water contamination. The management plan requires evaluation of the nature of the water quality problem through consideration of the relative priorities for protection of various surface and groundwater resources, and the vulnerability of these water resources to contamination by pesticides. Soil and Crop Management Pest infestations can be minimized by using soil and crop management practices which provide for vigorous plant growth. These practices include: appropriate seedbed preparation and planting, optimization of timing of crop planting and harvesting, maintenance of optimum soil nutrient and pH levels, use of appropriate crop rotations, use of good water management practices (drainage and irrigation), as appropriate, avoidance or alleviation of soil compaction, and Use of soil and water conservation practices that reduce surface loss or leaching.

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Irrigation Irrigation of crops and water of lawns may increase the potential for movement of pesticides to groundwater or surface water. Pesticides located at the soil surface may be carried to streams and lakes with this runoff water. Excessive irrigation rates also may increase the potential for leaching of pesticides to groundwater. If more water is supplied than is required to recharge the water storage capacity in the root zone, Drainage Subsurface drainage may increase pesticide contamination of streams and lakes by diverting water flow from groundwater to surface water and providing a shortcut for drainage water. However, it also provides for a superior plant growth environment and therefore insures more vigorous plant growth and higher resistance to pests. Best Management Practices Pesticide management on the farmstead plays a key role in groundwater contamination. Appropriate pesticide handling practices that help protect the well should always be used whether pesticide contamination is documented or not. The important points of BMP are given below: 1. Prevent spillage and back-siphoning from spray equipment into the well by preventing overflow and maintaining an air gap between the filling hose and the water level in the tank. 2. Maintain as much distance as possible from the well and the pesticide mixing and loading site. 3. Mix, load, and rinse pesticides over an impermeable surface that is designed to drain to sealed catchments, whenever possible. 4. Rinse chemical containers thoroughly using the triple rinse method or a pressure rinser. 5. Recycle pesticide containers and avoid the need to locate an acceptable landfill site.

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6. Dispose of unused pesticides that have been banned or are no longer wanted to reduce the overall contamination potential from the farmstead. 7. Store pesticides in a secure, properly ventilated location where product usefulness can be maintained with minimal risk to people, animals, and the environment. 8. Attend to all pesticide spills immediately. 9. Attend to all back-siphoning incidents immediately. 10.Clean the pesticide sprayer properly. In the farmyard, clean over an impermeable surface. 11.Use closed-handling systems for mixing pesticides where practical. 12.Locate and construct new wells according to codes that are intended to avoid contamination. 13.Decommission or plug old wells, if not intended for future use.

5.2 Pest management Pest management is an effective method for pest control. It damages the infected pest and reduces the amount of pesticide use. There are many methods for pest control, including integrated pest management and sustainable pest control. Integrated pest management "Integrated Pest Management is the coordinated use of pest and environmental information along with available pest control methods, including cultural, biological, genetic and chemical methods, to prevent unacceptable levels of pest damage by the most economical means, and with the least possible hazard to people, property, and the environment. (Integrated Pest Management Forum. 2002. American Farmland Trust )

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Objectives of integrated pest Management The New York State IPM programme operates under five

to minimize crop losses caused by insects, weeds, and plant diseases, to optimize the use of cultural management techniques, biological pest controls, and resistant varieties, to maximize the effectiveness of pesticide use, to reduce pest management costs, and to minimize the development of pesticide resistance.

Most groundwater contamination problems are associated with application of pesticides to control soil-dwelling pests such as nematodes, weeds, pathogens, and insects. Key components of integrated pest management Successful integrated pest management usually has several key components. 1. Knowledge. Understanding the biology and ecology of the pest, and the crop (or livestock) is essential. Information about interactions within agricultural ecosystems is also important. IPM draws on the fundamental knowledge of plant and insect biology accumulated by biologists. 2. Monitoring. Farmers can use relatively simple techniques to keep track of what pests are where. This information, combined with knowledge of pest life cycles, can enable farmers to implement control measures at the most effective times. 3. Economic threshold. This takes into account the revenue losses resulting from pest damage and the costs of treatment to prevent the damage. Below the economic threshold, the presence of the pest is tolerated. Only when pest numbers increase above the threshold does the farmer take action. 4. Adaptability. Farmers must keep informed about what is happening in their paddocks so that they can adapt their strategies to changing circumstances. Research scientists, too, must aim to keep at least one

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step ahead of the pest, which is also undoubtedly changing and adapting over time. Sustainable Pest Control The immense social and economic costs of relying on chemical pesticide s have slowly begun to be recognized. A banding the idea that pests can or should totally be eradicated , many no longer believe that chemical treatments exists, or can be developed , that will allow safe and profitable large scale, pest free monoculture. These are, in fact, superior to chemical based pest control for four reasons: 1. It is scientifically more advanced. 2. It is less costly and maximizes profits. 3. It is better for small scale traditional producers. 4. It can assure environmental and human safety. Thus, sustainable pest control is ecologically sound, economically viable, socially just and humane. 5.3 Pesticide management practices Pesticides management practices are important procedure to reduce the pollution of pesticide as well as their harmful effect. Appropriate application methods, following using procedures, proper storage system and also the disposal of pesticide contamination reduce the pesticide contamination.

Management practices The evaluation of soil-pesticide interactions can be used to reduce the pollution potential of pesticides.

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First, the most effective pest control method should be selected based on Cornell recommendations. In cases in which various chemicals can economically be applied to remedy an infestation, the pesticide with the least environmental impact should be selected. This includes the evaluation of the site-specific leaching and surface loss potentials (Supplements A, B, and C). In addition, the chemical's toxicity to human and aquatic life and the importance of the affected water bodies as drinking water supplies or natural habitats need to be considered. Pesticides should be applied when they are most effective, which is influenced by temperature and moisture conditions. Pests under dormant or stressed conditions may be less susceptible to pesticide treatment. Pesticide efficacy can also be reduced by continuous use of pesticides of similar chemistry, which can cause pesticide resistance. Pesticide applications should be avoided under adverse weather conditions. Finally, pollution from pesticides can be reduced by proper operation, safety, and maintenance practices. Rules for Using Pesticides We should do to Use the proper pesticide at the proper time to manage a pest. Measure the material accurately. Over dosage seldom kills more insects, diseases, or weeds and, in fact, may harm non target plants, animals, or people. Measure and mix the materials in a well-ventilated area. Wear rubber gloves when handling pesticides. When applying the materials, wear long pants, long sleeves, gloves, shoes or boots (not sandals), and a wide-brimmed hat to protect your neck. When spraying pesticides outside, remove or cover food and water containers used by pets. Do not contaminate fish ponds or streams. Never spray when children or pets are nearby.

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Use a sprayer separate from that used for insecticide or fungicide applications for applying herbicides to avoid accidentally injuring sensitive plants with herbicide residue.

Do not leave mothballs where children can get them; mothballs resemble candy. Cleanliness We need to follow the following guidelines

Never smoke, drink, or chew gum or tobacco while handling pesticides. Avoid inhaling sprays, dusts, or vapors. Have soap, water, and a towel available. If we spill concentrated pesticide on ourself, wipe it off immediately and then wash thoroughly with soap and water.

Launder clothes worn when applying pesticides separate from the rest of your laundry. Afterward, clean the washing machine by running an empty cycle with hot water and detergent. Storage To keep pesticide in safe, we should obey the rules including:

To avoid long-term storage, purchase only what you will use within the season. Store pesticides and pesticide equipment in a locked cabinet or room. A cool, dry, well-ventilated storage area is best. Post a sign, KEEP OUTPESTICIDE STORAGE, on the cabinet or door to the room in which pesticides are stored. Never store pesticides with or near food, medicine, or cleaning supplies. Do not store herbicides with other pesticides because the vapors from the herbicides may be absorbed by other pesticides.

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Management of pesticide Container Finally, after use of pesticide the remaining amount and the keeping container is necessarily managed to reduce pesticide pollution. We should keep attention in the following steps: Minimizing Concentrated and Persistent Pesticide Residues We can minimize pesticide residues by: Purchasing no more pesticide than can be used in one season; Measuring, mixing and loading only enough pesticide spray to do the job; Applying all the pesticide spray mixture onto the target area as directed by the label; and Select the most benign, immobile product to do the job.

Managing Pesticide Residues at the Point of Application We should follow the following procedures for managing these materials at the point of application: Washing the exterior of application equipment at a designated cleanup area so that the wastewater does not enter groundwater, surface water, wells, storm drains, drainage ditches, streams, creeks, lakes or rivers. Managing small quantities (one gallon or ten pounds) of biodegradable pesticide-containing residues, Alternating the land used for such residue management and lightly cultivating the soil should speed up the biological breakdown of the residues A pesticide active ingredient that must be disposed may be managed at pesticide waste collection programs.

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Managing Empty Pesticide Containers By carefully decontaminating empty pesticide containers, we can eliminate having to dispose of the containers. At the time of emptying, decontaminate rigid containers, such as plastic pails or drums, metal pails or drums, and fiber containers by: Pressure or multiple rinsing (multiple rinse at least three times or as often as necessary to clean the container) Visually verifying that the residues have been removed from the inside and outside of the container Drying the containers interior surfaces before crushing Decontaminated metal and plastic containers should be recycled. If containers are to be discarded, contaminated containers must be disposed of as hazardous waste. 5.4 Reducing risk through use of engineering controls Because handling and applying pesticides is risky business, keeping pesticide exposure to a minimum should be a chief concern of any pesticide applicator. To reduce the risks associated with handling and applying pesticides, devices known as engineering controls can be used that help to reduce or practically eliminate exposure to toxic chemicals. Loading the Sprayer Closed Transfer Systems - Closed transfer systems allow concentrated pesticide to be moved from the original shipping container to the sprayer mix tank with minimal or no applicator contact. Many systems provide a method to measure the concentrated pesticide. Some systems also include a container rinsing system. Currently available closed transfer systems use a probe inserted into the pesticide container, a connector on the container that mates to a similar connector on the application equipment, or a vacuum-type (venturi) system that uses flowing water to transfer the chemical from the container.

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Induction Bowls - Induction bowls are metal, plastic or fiberglass hoppers attached to the side of the sprayer or the nurse tank that allow pesticides to be added to the mix tank without the applicator climbing onto the spray rig. Pesticides are poured into the bowl and water is added to flush out the bowl and carry the pesticide to the spray tank. Often a rinse nozzle is mounted inside the bowl for rinsing out empty pesticide containers. Direct Pesticide Injection System - Direct pesticide injection systems allow pesticides to be mixed directly with water in the sprayer plumbing system rather than in the main spray tank. The pesticide is pumped from its container and mixed with the water either in a manifold or at the main water pump. Only clean water is held in the main tank of the sprayer. An electronic controller and up to four pumps adjust the amount of concentrated pesticide that is injected into the water stream, allowing for variable application rates. Container Rinse System - Container rinse systems consist of a rinse nozzle and a catch bowl that traps the container washings (rinsate). The empty container is placed over the rinse nozzle and a jet of water cleans the inside of the container.

Reducing Contamination at the Boom Boom Folding/Extending - Manually folding booms can be a major source of operator contamination because the boom can be covered with pesticide from drift or dripping nozzles. Consider the use of hydraulic or mechanical folding methods. Diaphragm Check Valves - Typically, when a sprayer is shut off and as the system pressure drops, any liquid remaining in the boom piping drips from the nozzles, possibly dripping onto the boom or even the operator. Multiple Nozzle Bodies - Contamination can occur when operators change or unclog nozzles during an application. Multiple nozzle bodies (or turret nozzles) allow operators to switch between nozzles with a turn of the nozzle body rather than having to unscrew or undo a threaded or a bayonet fitting.

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Hand Wash Water Supply - Providing adequate wash water is essential (and often required). A simple container with a hand-operated valve can be mounted on the side of the sprayer to provide clean water for hand washing and personal hygiene. Drift and Contaminated Clothing in Cabs Cab Filtration Using Carbon Filters - Carbon filtration systems are used to remove pesticide odor and pesticide-laden mist from fresh air used in a tractor or self-propelled sprayer cab. Carbon filtration systems are often a standard feature on self-propelled sprayers. Now many factory installed tractor cabs offer optional filtration systems. In 1998, the American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) adopted testing standards for operator cabs used in pesticide application. Cabs certified under this standard meet the requirements for enclosed cabs contained in the Worker Protection Standard. Protective Clothing Lockers - To prevent contamination of the tractor or sprayer cab interior, protective clothing should be removed before entering the cab. A few sprayer companies offer a simple compartment (or locker) mounted to the side or front of the sprayer where protective clothing can be stored. Alternatively a locker can be fitted to the mixer wagon. Controlling Drift Low-Drift Nozzles - Low-drift nozzles create larger-size droplets than iconventional nozzles. The larger droplet sizes are less prone to drift, reducing environmental and operator contamination. Air Induction (Twin Fluid) Nozzles - These nozzles allow air to mix with the spray liquid, creating large, air-filled droplets that have virtually no fine, drift-prone droplets. The droplets explode when they contact their target and offer similar coverage to droplets from conventional, finer-spray nozzles. Cleaning the Sprayer Tank Rinse Systems - Tank rinse systems consist of a clean water supply tank mounted to the sprayer and one or more rotating discs or nozzles

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mounted inside the main sprayer tank. Water is pumped from the clean water tank to the rinse nozzles, which spray water around the inside of the spray tank. These systems are designed for in-field rinsing of the sprayer so that the tank washings can be applied to the field at label rates. Checking the sprayer Surveys have shown that many farmers are using inaccurate sprayers; faulty sprayers contribute to increased drift levels and waste money through inefficiency and overuse of chemicals. Sprayers must be regularly checked to ensure that proper maintenance has been carried out and that no outstanding repairs need to be done. Before attempting any work on a machine make sure that it is fully supported on stands and that all necessary protective clothing is on. Fitting the sprayer to the tractor The selected tractor must always be powerful enough to operate the sprayer efficiently under the working conditions that will be encountered. All its external services - hydraulic, electrical and pneumatic - must be clean and in working order. Tractors fitted with cabs must have efficient air filtration systems. All protective guards must be in place. Trailed sprayers are often close-coupled to the tractor, Checking the operation of the sprayer Parts fill the tank with clean water and move the sprayer to outcropped waste ground. Remove the nozzles. Engage the PTO and gently turn the shaft, increasing speed slowly to operating revs. Test the on/off and pressure relief valves, and check the agitation system. Flush through the spray lines, then switch off the tractor. Refit the nozzles and check the liquid system again for leaks.

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CHAPTER SIX TREATMENT METHODS

We can categorize treatment methods as Traditional disposal methods Modern innovative non-combustion destruction methods Potential innovative biological methods

6.1. Traditional Disposal Methods Among the traditional disposal methods storage, landfill and deep well injection are done frequently as methods of containment. A list of traditional Pesticides stockpile disposal methods are mentioned with their concerns in Table 15. Table 15 Traditional Pesticides Disposal Methods

Technology Storage

Comments Concerns: Spills, leaks & volatilization of Pesticides from storage are problematic both in tropical and temperate climates despite the use of the best available preventive measures.

Landfill Cap

Process: This is a method of containment. Landfill Caps: The design of landfill caps depends on the intended functions of the system. The most critical components of a landfill cap are the barrier layer and the drainage layer. Concerns: Constituents in buried wastes can and do escape into the surrounding environment, primarily through leaching into groundwater and volatilizing into the air.

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Deep injection

well Concerns: "Unsuitable because of the environmental risk and lack of control" (FAO 1996). Chemicals often releases from deep wells. Little is known about the long-term chemical behavior of chemicals that have been injected down deep wells- potential reactions between hazardous waste and underground rocks or the effects such reactions might have on migration and toxicity.

Cement kilns

Process: The main processes employed in making cement clinker can be classified as either "wet" or "dry" depending on the method used to prepare the kiln feed. Destruction efficiency1: The highly alkaline conditions in a cement kiln are ideal for decomposing chlorinated organic waste. Concern: Dioxin emissions from cement kilns burning

hazardous wastes are significantly higher than non-waste burning facilities. Dioxins have been detected in solid residues. High incineration Process: This has been one of the most applied remediation
o

temperature technologies. It is a high temperature (870 co to 1200 contaminated soil are fed into the incinerator,

C)

destructive ex situ treatment of polluted soil; the waste and/or

Incinerator design: Most incinerator designs are fitted with rotary system. Efficiency: Destruction & removal efficiencies2 of more than 99.99% are feasible.Concerns: pesticide released in stack gases and solid residues. kilns, combustion chambers equipped with an afterburner, a quench tower and an air pollution control

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Destruction Efficiency (DE) is the overall destruction of an hazardous

compound is calculated on the basis of total weight of the same into the process, minus the sum of the compound found in all products, by-products, and environmental releases, divided by the compound input. (DE is reported as a percentage).
2

Destruction and removal efficiency (DRE) is intended as the efficiency in

destruction and removal from a main stream, generally the flue gases. It is calculated similarly to DE, but as it is referred only to one stream may be useful to evaluate cleaning equipment, while may be misleading for a whole process evaluation. DRE is defined by DRE= (Win Wout) x 100/ Win, unit time. (Source: IPEN 2001, Rahuman et al. 2000) 6.2. Modern Innovation Non-Combustion Destruction Methods There are various non-combustion technologies on the process of Where, Win= mass of POPs feed to the

incinerator per unit of time, Wout= mass of POPs exhausted at the stack per

commercialization (Rahuman et al 2000, STAP/GEF 2004, USEPA 2005), which are listed with a brief description in Table 16. TABLE 16. SELECTION OF MODERN PESTICIDES DESTRUCTION TECHNOLOGIES Technology Gas-phase chemical reduction (GPCR) Process Description Process: In the first stage, contaminated soil is heated in a thermal reduction batch processor in the absence of oxygen to temperatures around 600oC. The treated soil is nonhazardous and is allowed to cool prior to its disposal on or off site. In the second stage, the desorbed gaseous-phase contaminants pass to a GPCR reactor, where they react with introduced hydrogen gas at temperatures ranging from 850 to 900oC.(Kummling 2001).

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Efficacy: Demonstrated high destruction efficiencies for PCBs, dioxins/furans, HCB, DDT. Applicability: All Pesticides Emissions: All emissions and residues are captured for assay and reprocessing if needed. Electrochemical oxidation Process: An electrochemical cell is used to generate

oxidizing species at the anode in an acid solution, typically nitric acid. These oxidizers and the acid then attack any organic compounds, converting most of them to carbon dioxide, water and inorganic ions at low temperature (< 80 C) and atmospheric pressure. Efficacy: Both technologies have demonstrated high

destruction efficiencies. Applicability: all Pesticides. Emissions: All emissions and residues can be captured for assay and reprocessing. Concerns: Limited detailed information about residues and process wastes. Supercritical water oxidation Process: At temperatures and pressures above the critical point of water (374C and 22.1 MPa) all dissolve freely and are treated with an oxidizing agent (e.g. oxygen or hydrogen peroxide) to produce carbon dioxide, water and hydrochloric acid. Efficacy: high destruction efficiency (99.99%) Applicability: all Emissions: All emissions and residues may be captured for assay and reprocessing if needed.

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Concerns:

Lack of detailed analytical data on process,

residues and emissions. Solvent Extraction Process: This ex-situ physiochemical technology uses an extracting chemical to dissolve target contaminants from soils in a final solution for treatment with recovery of the solvent used. This process produces relatively clean soil or sediment that can be returned to the original site or disposed on landfill. Applicability: All Concerns: Contaminants transferred to another phase must be destroyed through a secondary method. Source: IPEN 2001, Rahuman et al. 2000, STAP/GEF 2004, and USEPA 2005 6.3. Biological Treatments The treatment technology is commonly based on the use of microbial degradation and plant-vegetation. Two emerging methods on the brink of commercialization are1. Bioremediation and 2. Phytoremediation 6.3.1. BIOREMEDIATION Bioremediation is the intentional use of microorganism to eliminate environmental pollutants (Atlas & Parmer 1990; cited in Atlas & Bartha 1997) from sites where they have been released. Bioremediation results in the complete mineralization of contaminants. Aerobic processes require an oxygen source, and the end products typically are H2O and CO2 without the build up of intermediates.

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Anaerobic processes are conducted in the absence of oxygen, and the end products can include methane, hydrogen gas, sulfide, elemental sulfur, and nitrogen gas. Co metabolism Co-metabolism can be defined as the microbial transformation of an organic compound that is not used as an energy source of the microorganisms or as a constitutive element of the microbe. It features the transformation of one compound by enzymes from microorganisms capable of degrading another compound- the primary substrate or co-metabolite fortuitously. APPLICABILITY Co-metabolic transformations of many organochlorine pesticides, i.e., DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin, Heptachlor etc. and PCBs have been demonstrated in pure cultures of bacteria and fungi. Dehalogenation of highly chlorinated compounds such as DDT, Dieldrin is effective under anaerobic condition. A schematic diagram of co-metabolic process is shown in Fig 11.

Fig. 12. Co-metabolic process diagram of bioremediation

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Air Sparging Air sparging is an in situ technology in which air is injected through a contaminated aquifer. Injected air traverses horizontally and vertically in channels through the soil column, creating an underground stripper that removes contaminants by volatilization. This injected air helps to flush (bubble) the contaminants up into the unsaturated zone where a vapor extraction system is usually implemented in conjunction with air sparging to remove the generated vapor phase contamination.This technology is designed to operate at high flow rates to maintain increased contact between ground water and soil and strip more ground water by sparging. The diagram is shown in Fig 13.

Fig. 13. Air Sparging process diagram (source: FRTR 2005)

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Applicability The target contaminant groups for air sparging are VOCs and fuels. Only limited information is available on the process. Methane can be used as an amendment to the sparged air to enhance co metabolism of chlorinated organics. COMPOSTING: Contaminated soil is excavated and mixed with bulking agents and organic amendments such as wood chips, hay, manure, and vegetative (e.g., potato) wastes. Proper amendment selection ensures adequate porosity and provides a balance of carbon and nitrogen to promote thermophilic, microbial activity (FRTR 2005). A schematic diagram of composting technology is given in Fig 14.

Fig 14: Typical composting method (source: FRTR 2005 APPLICABILITY Some bacteria can naturally degrade chlorinated compounds and pesticides are present in compost and that composting may lead to the removal of pesticides from the environment.

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Application of Bioremediation in Treatment of Pesticides Successful bioremediation strategies must create unique niches of pesticidedegrading microorganisms in order to achieve extent of biodegradation. In aquatic systems and soil Pesticides partition strongly to solids, notably organic matter, avoiding the aqueous phase. This property is very important from the point of a remediation strategy. Because of sorption to solid particles the molecules of Pesticides may not available for biological attack. The transport of Pesticides molecule to a microbial cell is hindered. Therefore, bioavailability is one of the most important obstacles in application of bioremediation methods. The extent of microbial growth depends on the yield, the affinity of the organisms for pesticide as a growth substrate, and bioavailability. 6.3.2. PHYTOREMEDIATION/ PHYTOTECHNOLOGY The term phytoremediation (Phyto = plant and remediation = correct evil) is relatively new, coined in 1991 (USEPA 2000). The term has been used widely since its inception, with a variety of specific meanings. In this report the scope of phytoremediation in the treatment of chlorinated Pesticides is reviewed which is very cost effective treatment process. It may hold some economic as well as ecologic potential for the treatment of Pesticides waste for a country like Bangladesh. USEPA Annual Status Report (ASR 2004) stated Phytoremediation as an emerging green technology that uses plants to remove, degrade, or contain toxic chemicals in soils, sediments, groundwater, surface water, and air. It can be used as a stand-alone remediation alternative or as part of a broader site management alternative comprising a number of remediation technologies. Plants have grown naturally at contaminated waste sites and have been planted for aesthetic value or land stabilization. Phytoremediation may be applied in situ or ex situ to soils, sludge, sediments, other solids, or groundwater contaminated sites. It is best applied at sites with shallow contamination of pollutants.

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PHYTOREMEDIATION IN TREATMENT OF PESTICIDE This technology is suitable for long-term degradation of low contamination in soils. It is unlikely to be suitable for high strength Pesticides wastes. This is still at the basic research level; the potential for Pesticides degradation has not been explored but is unlikely to be feasible for high concentrations or stockpiles. Table 17 provides the types of Phytoremediation mechanisms involved for different types of organo-chlorine Pesticides in phyto-treatment. TABLE 17. PHYTOREMEDIATION FOR ELIMINATION OF PESTICIDE Types Phytoremediation Phytostabilization of Process involved Contaminants treated Plants control pH, soil gases, and Expected redox conditions of in some soil to chlorinated and immobilize Humification contaminants. solvents organic hydrophobic organic ompounds. for

compounds is expected. Rhizodegradation, phytostimulation, carbon and nutrients to spur soil rhizosphere bioremediation, or plant-assisted bioremediation bacteria growth by two or more orders of magnitude. Exudates by microbes. Live roots can pump oxygen to aerobes and dead roots may support anaerobes. stimulate degradation fungi and

Plant exudates, root necrosis, and Polychlorinated other processes provide organic biphenyl and compounds. (PCBs), other

organochlorine

mycorrhizal

Rhizofiltration

or Compounds taken up or sorbed by Hydrophobic roots (or sorbed to algae and organochlorine

contaminant uptake

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bacteria) Phytovolatilization

compounds

Volatile organic compounds are Chlorinated taken up and transpired. Some solvents recalcitrant organic compounds Pesticides, are more easily degraded in the atmosphere (photodegradation).

Phytodegradation or Aquatic and terrestrial plants take Halogenated phytotransformation up, store, and to products plant that are biochemically compounds, harmless used to or biomass, DDT degrade compounds byproducts, create new byproducts selected organic its metabolites .

further

broken down by microbes and other processes to less harmful products. Reductive and oxidative enzymes may be used in series in different parts of the plant

Source: Schnoor 1997

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The process mechanism of organochlorine Pesticides phytoremediation mechanism is shown in Fig. 15.

Physical effects-transpiration of Physical effects-transpiration of VOLATILES volatiles Hydraulic control of dissolved plume Hydraulic control of dissolved plume

PhyPHYTODEGRADATION-METABOLISM todegradation-Metabolism withWITHIN THE PLANT PRODUCTION, in the plant production, DEHALOGENASE & OXYGENASE dehalogenase & ENZYME WHICH HELP CATALYZE oxygenase ,enzyme, which help DEGRADATION Catalyze degradation Accumulation in roots Translocated in shoots & leaves ACCUMULATION IN ROOTS TRANSLOCATED IN SHOOTS & LEAVES

Enhanced rhizosphere biodegradation Enhanced rhizosphere

BIODEGRADATION

FIG. 14 MECHANISMS FOR ORGANOCHLORINE PESTICIDEDS PHYTOREMEDIATION

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ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF PHYTOREMEDIATION ADVANTAGE OF PHYTOREMEDIATION Phytoremediation has numerous advantages that foster acceptance on a broad scale. Primary advantages identified by USEPA (2001) and ITRC (2004) are summed up below: As a solar-driven system, phytoremediation takes advantage of natural plant processes, and thus lowers labor, equipment, and operational expenses than other traditional technologies. Lower air and water emissions and secondary waste production makes phytoremediation a safe treatment. Phytoremediation controls runoff and soil erosion. Reduces the movement of contaminants off-site and on-site It has been perceived to be a more environmentally friendly green and low-tech alternative to more active and intrusive remedial methods. Other benefits of phytoremediation include: reduced noise, fewer health risks for workers, increased biodiversity, and high public approval. LIMITATIONS OF PHYTOREMEDIATION Some limitations identified by USEPA (2001) and ITRC (2004) are given below: Root Growth: Remediation is based on contaminant contact with plant roots and cleanup is only as deep as the roots reach. Lengthy Time for Remediation: A longer time period is likely to be required for phytoremediation, as this technology is dependent on plant growth rates for establishment of an extensive root system or significant aboveground biomass. Phytotoxicity: Plants need to be tolerant of contaminants. High initial contaminant concentrations can be phytotoxic, and prevent plant growth.

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CHAPTER SEVEN REGULATIONS IN BANGLADESH

7.1. Acts and regulation in Bangladesh The pesticide policy of Bangladesh has undergone considerable changes over the last 30 years from 1971 to 1975 pesticides were distributed to farmers free of charge. In 1975, Department of Agriculture Extension (DAE) started selling pesticides at subsidized prices and continued till 1979. In 1979, the pesticide trade was privatized. Subsequently , with a view to promote import and use of pesticides , the government of Bangladesh (GOB) under look a policy of gradual liquidation of obstacles and barriers on import and trade of pesticides ; and by 1989-1990 most quantitative restrictions on pesticide import were removed. The importers are permitted to import unlimited quantities of pesticides on numerous types with minimum or no taxes duties. 7.1.1. The Pesticide Ordinance, 1971 The Pesticide Ordinance, 1971 provides the legal framework to regulate the import, manufacture, formulation, sale, distribution and use of pesticides in Bangladesh. According to the Chapter I, Section 3, subsection (n) of the Ordinance, pesticides means any substance or mixture of substances used or represented as a means for preventing, destroying, repelling, mitigating or controlling, directly or indirectly, any insect, fungus, bacterial organism, nematodes, virus, weed, rodent or other plant or animal pest; but does not include a substance, which is a drug within the meaning of the Drugs Act, 1940. As per Section 4, no person shall import, manufacture, formulate, repack, sell, offer for sale, hold in stock for sale, or in any manner advertise any brand of pesticide, which has not been registered. As per Section 8A(1), Any person may, after obtaining a license granted by the licensing authority, import, manufacture, formulate, repack, sell, offer for sale, hold in stock for sale, involve in pest control operation on commercial basis or advertise in any manner any brand of registered pesticide.

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These provisions make registration and license mandatory for dealing with any pesticide. Moreover, the pesticides must satisfy a big list of criteria for being eligible to be registered. The most relevant criterion worth mentioning here is it is not generally detrimental or injurious to vegetation, except weeds, or to human or animal health even when applied according to directions. One of the important provision of the Ordinance that empowers the Registration Authority to cancel the registration or deregistration is Section 7, which states if at anytime after registration of the brand of a pesticide, the Government is of opinion that the registration has been secured in violation of any of the provisions of this Ordinance or the rules or that the pesticide is ineffective against pests or hazardous to vegetation, other than weeds, or to human or animal life, the Government may after giving to the person on whose application it had been registered an opportunity of being heard, cancel the registration. Exercising this authority the Government has already cancelled the registration of many hazardous pesticides. Further the Section 21 to 28 of the Pesticide Ordinance provides the provisions of offences. Further the Section 21 to 28 of the Pesticide Ordinance provides the provisions of offences and penalty, power of court, Cognizance of offences, Power to try offences summarily and Indemnity. These provisions provide tools for prosecuting legal actions against any person dealing with pesticides not registered or pesticides have been deregistered.

7.1.2

The Pesticide Rules, 1985

The Rules describe the provisions regarding registration of pesticides, conditions to be fulfilled after registration of pesticides for manufacture and formulation, import of pesticides, license for manufacture/formulation, stock, repacking, sale of pesticides, advisory committee and laboratory facility, packaging and labeling, analysis and inspection of pesticides, transport of

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pesticides by rail, road and water, facilities during manufacture, safety precautions etc.. In addition to all, the worth mentioning provisions of the Rules is Section 56 under the title Disposal of used packages, condemned and surplus materials etc. which reads in its subsection (1): It shall be the duty of manufacturers, formulators, re-packers of pesticides and operators to dispose of packages, condemned or surplus materials and washing in a safe manner so as to prevent air, soil, water or other environmental pollution. Subsection (2) states that the used packages shall not be left outside to prevent their reuse and subsection (3) says that the packages shall be broken, burnt, incinerated and buried away from habitation and water ways. 7.1.3. Quality control Prior to the late 1979, all pesticides were imported by the government against standard specification (Generally WHO / FAO based), subjected them to quality control prior to the release for field use. From late 1979, pesticide trade has been transferred to the private sector. Since the transfer of the sale pesticides to the private sector, various manufacturers or their agents in Bangladesh are importing in quantities base on their own estimated market demands and are marketing them directly through Government approved wholesalers and retailers. Provision of Pesticide Ordinance 1971; however, private that they would be liable to penal action, including canceling of registration, if their contravene any provision of the law under which they are registered. Pesticide Formulation Company in the country has been providing with the recommend formulation integrated in International countries Safety as Guidelines by for pesticide Pesticide developing framed UNIDO.

formulation has been requested for proper adaptation of the Guidelines during formulation and handling of pesticides in the plant. Quality control I s done as per provision of the pesticide Act. Regular sampling is made at formulation plant, repacking factories and dealers shops. Samples are tested at the pesticide laboratory of plant Protection

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Wing Of Department of Agriculture Extension., he

process is the present

slow, due to limited facilities and shortage of skilled manpower .The government is aware of abuse of pesticides arising from inadequate technical know -how and sometimes improper implementation of pesticide Act and Rules .

17.2. CONVENTION ON PESTICIDE Because of the characteristics of persistence and long-range transport associated with these pesticides, an augmented approach on a global scale is necessary to encompass all source of pesticides pollution. This need has led to global pesticides agreement negotiations. There are various Action plan on pesticide problems. These are discussed below: Canadian Action on pesticides: PCBs have never been manufactured in Canada. Commercial;

manufacturing and processing uses of PCBs were restricted in Canada in 1977. Dioxins and furans were declared toxic under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act 1990. As a result of industry response to regulations in 1992 and 1994, have decreased b y almost 100% since 1988. In 1995, the federal government adopted the Toxic Substances Management Policy. The policy calls for the virtual elimination of these substances from the environment. U.S. action on pesticides: The U.S. has taken a leading role in multilateral negotiations to develop a legally binding instrument to eliminate certain pesticide and greatly reduce emissions of pesticide on a global basis. The global POPs agreement would initially cover the dirty dozen pesticides.

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The U. S. has taken strong action to reduce emissions of pesticide. None of the pesticide is in use in USA, today after strong actions are taken to remove their registrations.

The U.S. called for global action on pesticide at the 1995 Washington Conference on Land Based Sources of Marine Pollution. The Basel Convention

The Basel Convention, which entered into force on the 5th of May 1992, stipulates that any transboundary movement of wastes (export/import/transit) is permitted only when the movement itself and the disposal of the concerned hazardous or other wastes are environmentally sound. Key Objectives of Basel Convention: Reduce transboundary movements of hazardous wastes to a minimum consistent with their environmentally sound management; Dispose of hazardous wastes as close as possible to their source of generation; Minimize generation of hazardous wastes in terms of quantity and hazardousness. Obligations of the Basel Convention: Each Party shall take appropriate measures to: Ensure that the generation of hazardous wastes and the wastes within it is reduced to a minimum, taking into account social, technological and economic aspects; Ensure the availability of adequate disposal facilities, for the environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes and other wastes, that shall be located, to the extent possible, within it, whatever the place of their disposal; Ensure that persons involved in the management of hazardous wastes or other wastes within it take such steps as are necessary to prevent pollution due to hazardous wastes and other wastes arising from such

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management

and,

if

such

pollution

occurs,

to

minimize

the

consequences thereof for human health and the environment; Ensure that the transboundary movement of hazardous wastes and other wastes is reduced to the minimum consistent with the environmentally sound and efficient management of such wastes, and is conducted in a manner which will protect human health and the environment against the adverse effects which may result from such movement; The Stockholm Convention on Pesticides The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants was adopted and Opened for signature at the Diplomatic Conference held 22 to 23 May 2001 in Stockholm, Sweden. It shall enter into force when 50 Sates have ratified it. On Dec. 2003 the Stockholm Convention was signed by 151 countries including Bangladesh and ratifies by 41 States. Convention Status During the signature period (23 May 2001-22 May 2002): 150 countries + EU signed the Convention Ratification, acceptance or accession decisions: 22 Parties (to date)

The Stockholm Convention categories of POPs pesticide: The Stockholm Convention differentiates between two categories of POPs: i. intentionally produced POPs whose production and use are to be: a. eliminated in accordance with the provisions of Annex A; or b. restricted in accordance with the provisions of Annex B; ii. unintentionally produced POPs, for which Parties are required to take listed measures to reduce total releases derived from

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anthropogenic

sources,

with

the

goal

of

their

continuing

minimization and, where feasible, ultimately eliminated. Objectives of Stockholm Convention The Objectives of Stockholm Convention is to protect human health and the environment from pesticide. It will accomplish this by: Banning 8 pesticides Aldrin, endrin, Dieldrin, chlordane, heptachlor, Hexachloro-benzene, Mirex, and ToxaphaneImmediately. The bans will take effect as soon as the new treaty enters into force. Limiting DDT use to disease vector control while setting a long term goal of its elimination. Countries that need to will be allowed to continue using DDT against malaria, until effective and affordable alternatives are available to them. Control measures: The Stock Convention lists the measure to control production, import, export, use, and disposal of pesticides. The government should promote the best available techniques and practices to replace existing pesticide and not allow development of new ones. The Stock Convention also lists the following measures: To prepare inventions of sources of pesticides and prevent their discharges. To phase in better techniques for different new and existing technologies and sources To control emissions from the burning processes by promotion of the best available techniques.

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The Rotterdam Convention Objective of the Convention The Objective of the Convention is To promote shared responsibility and cooperative efforts among Parties in the international trade of certain hazardous chemicals in order to protect human health and the environment from potential harm and To contribute to their environmentally sound use by facilitating information exchange about chemicals and their characteristics, and by providing for a national decision-making. Scope of the Convention Applies to: Banned or severely restricted chemicals, and severely hazardous pesticide formulations

Does not apply to: Narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances Radioactive materials Wastes Chemical weapons

Current Status 27 chemicals listed in Convention: 17 pesticides 5 severely hazardous pesticide formulations 5 industrial chemicals

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7.3. Pesticide management in Bangladesh: In Bangladesh the use of pesticides dates back to the mid 50 s with the application of endrin in modern rice cultivation in around 1957/58. But unfortunately, no systematic record of pesticides use is available. The present act of pesticide is given in Chapter One in this part. Bangladesh Government cancelled the registration of a total of 27 active ingredients and 68 brands and banned a total of 10 active ingredients and 41 brands which mostly include WHO class 1a (extremely hazardous ) and 1b (highly hazardous) pesticides or those belonging to Ozone Depleting Factors. Some of the banned pesticides incidentally included pesticides, and thus present no POP pesticide is on the continuing list of registered pesticides Table18 status of different Pops pesticides in Bangladesh

Pesticide

Year

of

last Date 1st Import 6-5-87 6-5-87 6-5-87 Not known Not known Not known

of Year Banning 1-6-1997 r4-6-97 4-6-97

of Date of last Import 6-5-1997 7-5-93 7-5-97

Registration Chlordane Dieldrin Heptachlor DDT Endrin Aldrin Hexachlorobenzene Mirex Toxaphane Never used Never registered 14-12-1986 21-6-87 14-12-86 Never registered Never registered Never registered Never registered

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Presently, a total of 48 active ingredients and 122 brands of pesticides under PHP and a total of 95 active ingredients and 704 brands of pesticides under AP are in the registered list. All of the pesticides registered or legally marked in Bangladesh are imported from abroad. 7.3.1 The action plan for pesticides: Objectives: Complete banning of pesticides (Annex A & B) and elimination of pesticides wastes through environmentally sound destruction, transformation and /or disposal and prevention of their further release into the environment. Proposed Regulatory Strengthening Measures for pesticides: 1. Legislation/ regulation directed to manage the production, use , identification, labeling , removal, storage and disposal of pesticides; The Pesticide Ordinance, 1971 provides the legal framework to regulate the import, manufacture, formulation, sale, distribution and use of pesticides in Bangladesh. The Pesticide Rules, 1985 describe the provisions regarding registration, packaging and labeling. In Section 56 under the title Disposal of used packages, condemned and surplus materials etc. are discussed above. However, presently, Bangladesh has no guidelines for environmental sound disposal of pesticides. 2. Strengthening of regulations on pesticides in general and pesticides (Annex A & B) in particular through international conventions and regional co-operation. 3. Introduction of regulations to avoid that nobody will take nonownership stockpiles of pesticides through imposing national juridical principles like polluter pats principles.

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Implementation of the action plans: Strategy: As a member of international community, Bangladesh will under take necessary measures to protect the environment. To uphold the strategy the following approaches are required for pesticides: Initiation of creation ,gathering, collection, and processing of

information on sources of pesticides release and the levels Long term monitoring program Selecting destruction methods of existing stocks of pesticides Work plan: Implementation of action plan will require a work plan which includes a sequence of activities: I. Formation of co-operating body for all activities related to the fulfillment of the commitment from the Stockholm Convention. II. Distribution of institutional responsibilities III. Promulgation of new laws and regulations or amend and supplement the existing ones. IV. Establishing the structure of institutions responsible for establishment and implementation of pesticides. V. Development of legal regulations for establishment of pesticides monitoring VI. Setting up of timelines for establishment and implementation of pesticides monitoring VII. Distribution of funds through an authorized body VIII. Dispose f pesticide wastes IX. Determination of the mode and scope of reporting and informing the public X. Improve of the public education and information levels.

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CHAPTER EIGHT RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUTIONS Pesticide pollution is a serious problem not only for Bangladesh as well as for other developing countries. There are various problems in pest control and pesticide management which needs a special keen to solve pesticide pollution. The problems associated with pesticide pollution include: Economically un-development Illiteracy of the people, particularly farmers Lack of knowledge of pesticide use Lack of experts to learn the best way to how use pesticides Undoing the present experts Lack of legal and institutional support that can monitor the status of pesticide, their efficiency, harmful effect etc. Lack of proper act to control the banned pesticides to come in the local market and the un-implementation of present acts, laws and regulation Lack of pesticide trade act and manufacture act Less support to the Agricultural Extension workers in the field level Lack of co-relation among the various sectors in making the national pesticide action plan Future actions: To overcome the problems, we should take the necessary steps; Popularize sustainable agricultural practice Building up environmental awareness for pesticide use Strengthening and enforcing pesticides laws Need for a suitable national policy for pest control, pesticide use and their trade. Eradication of corruption to stop the large amount of pesticide coming in the black way with wrong manufacture formation Strengthening regional and international co-operation.

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Future action in agricultural practice: The pest management strategies should be an integrated approach,

developing safer pesticides, which are harmless and does not provide threat to human. There should be urgency among the pesticide developers and also among the consumers who will demand and afford for an alternative safe pest management practice. Favorable policy and regulatory guidelines should be established on this context. However, government organizations, local and international NGOs, product developers and consumers have to work on a same platform to drift away from the use of hazardous products and undesirable chemicals. Future research on pesticide management: There is no treatment plant of these hazardous chemicals that exist in our country. We have to find out the appropriate treatment methods to treat the contaminated sites and the stocks of pesticides. Incineration and low temperature thermal desorption are proven and frequently used methods for the remediation of these sites, while bioremediation and phytoremediation are innovative alternatives that are gaining support, really difficult and very costly. Other future researches: We have to give emphasis on the following points in order to perform future research work: Pest resistance crops by using biotechnology Formation of more eco and human friendly pesticide Eco-friendly agricultural accesses

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REFRENCES

1) S.K. Agarwal, (2005) Pollution Co. New Delhi,.

Management, Vol iv, A.P.H. Publication

(2) Merrington, G., Winder, L., Parkinson ,R., Redman, M., 2002) Agricultural pollution, Spon Press, London. (3) Inception Report 2005: Bangladesh: Preparation of the Persistent Organic Pollutants POPs) National implementation Plan under the Stockholm convention (4) Page maintained by Patricia Muir at Oregon State University. Last index.htmindex.htmpestback.htm updated October 18, 2002. pestback.htmpesttren.htmpesttren.htm (5) Whitaker, Adelynne H. Pesticide Use in Early Twentieth Century: Animal Disease Control, in Agricultural History, January, 1980. (6) Aspelin, Arnold L. and Arthur H. Grube Pesticides Industry Sales and Usage: 1996 and 1997 Market Estimates, EPA, Washington, DC (7) Briggs, Shirley A. U.S. Federal Regulation of Pesticides, 1910-1988, in Basic Guide to Pesticides: Their Characteristics and Hazards, Omega by Hemisphere Publ. Co., 1992 (8) Ennis, W. B., Jr., and McClellan, W. D. Chemicals in Crop Production , in Yearbook of Agriculture, 1964, USDA, Washington, DC. 1964 (9) Frear, Donald E.H. Chemistry of Insecticides and Fungicides, D. Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1942 (10) Georgia, Ada E. A Manual of Weeds, The Macmillan Co., New York, 1933 (11) Grodner, Mary L. Pesticide Regulation and Pesticide Education, Report by Pres. Of American Assoc. Of Pesticide Safety Educators to American Assoc. Of Pesticide Control Officials, March 10, 1997

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(12) Harper, Horace J. The Use of Sodium Chlorate in the Control of Johnson Grass, Journal of the American Society of Agronomy, Vol. 22, No. 5, May, 1930 (13) Jones, D. Price, Agricultural Entomology, in History of Entomology, Edited by Ray F. Smith, et. al., Annual Reviews, Palo Alto, CA, 1973 (14) Miller, Marshall Lee Federal Regulation of Pesticides, in Environmental Law Handbook, Ninth Edition, Government Institutes, Rockville, MD, 1987 (15) Mrak, Emil Pesticides and Their Relationship to Environmental Health, U.S. Dept of HEW, Wash., DC, 1969 44, 1991 (16) Ordish, George The Constant Pest; A Short History of Pests and Their Control, Charles Scribners Sons, New York, 1976 (See also, 150 Years of Crop Pest Control, Lecture to British Agricultural History Society, Norwich, April 9, 1968) (17) Perkins, John H. The Introduction of DDT to the United States; Reshaping Insect Control Technologies in Wartime. Miami Univ., Oxford Ohio, undated, circa 1975 (See also, Reshaping Technology in Wartime:the Effect of Military Goals on Entomological Research and Insect-control Practices, in Technology and Culture, Society for History of Technology, 1978) (18) Shepard, Harold H. The Chemistry and Action of Insecticides, First Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1951 (19) Stakman, E. C. The role of Plant Pathology in the Scientific and Social Development of the World, in Plant Pathology: Problems and Progress, 19081958, Edited by C. S. Holton, et.al., Univ.of Wis. Press, Madison, 1959 US EPA Suspended, Cancelled and Restricted Pesticides, 20T-1002, Washington, DC, Feb., 1990 (19) USDA Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture, Nov. 27, 1865,

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Washington, DC, 1865 (20) 1998 Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, December 1999 (21) BCPA: Bangladesh Crop Protection Association, 2003. (22) Pesticide Health http://population.wri.org/ Risk , World Resources Institute,

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Annex I The Pesticides Listed under the Stockholm Convention Useb

Category

Chemical

Stockholm Convention Annexa

Pesticides industrial chemicals

and Aldrin Chlordane Dieldrin Endrin Heptachlor Mirex Toxaphene

A, Part I A, Part I A, Part I A, Part I A, Part I A, Part I A, Part I B, Parts I, II

Insecticide Insecticide, termiticide Insecticide Insecticide, rodenticide Insecticide, termiticide Insecticide, termiticide Insecticide Insecticide

Produced intentionally; use restricted

DDT

Sources: Ritter et al1995.

a

Annex A substances: slated for elimination in the Stockholm Convention.

Annex B substances: to be reduced and ultimately eliminated, except where there is a specified acceptable purpose, i.e., vector control, or exemption (dicofol intermediate), in which case substance production and/or use is restricted. Annex C substances: continuing minimization and, where feasible, ultimate elimination of the total releases derived from anthropogenic sources.
b

Typical uses; not to be confused with use exemptions listed in the Convention.

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Annex II Synonyms and trade names for Pesticides (World Bank 2001)

Chemical Aldrin

Some Synonyms and Trade Names Aldrec, Aldrex, Aldrex 30, Aldrite, Aldrosol, Altox, Compound 118, Drinox, Octalene, Seedrin

Chlordane

Aspon, Belt, Chloriandin, Chlorkil, Chlordane, Corodan, Cortilan-neu, Dowchlor, HCS 3260, Kypchlor, M140, Niran, Octachlor, Octaterr, Ortho-Klor, Synklor, Tat chlor 4, Topichlor, Toxichlor, Veliscol-1068

DDT

Agritan,

Anofex,

Arkotine,

Azotox,

Bosan

Supra,

Bovidermol, Citox,

Chlorophenothan,

Chloropenothane,

Clorophenotoxum,

Clofenotane, Dedelo, Deoval, Detox, Detoxan, Dibovan, Dicophane, Didigam, Didmac, Dodat, Dykol, Estonate, Genitox, Gesafid, Gesapon, Dieldrin Endrin Heptachlor Alvit, Dieldrite, Dieldrix, Illoxol, Panoram D-31, Quintox Compound 269, Endrex, Hexadrin, Isodrin Epoxide, Mendrin, Nendrin Aahepta, Agroceres, Baskalor, Drinox H-34, Heptachlorane,

Heptagran, Heptagranox, Heptamak, Heptamul, Heptasol, Heptox, Soleptacx, Rhodiachlor, Veliscol 104, Veliscol heptachlor. Hexachloro Amaticin, Anticarie, Buntcure, Bunt-no-more, Co-op hexa, Granox, No -benzene Mirex bunt, Sanocide, Smut-go, Sniecotox Dechlorane, Ferriamicide, GC 1283

Toxaphene Alltex, Alltox, Attac 4-2, Attac 4-4, Attac 6, Attac 6-3, Attac 8, Camphechlor, Camphochlor, Chemphene M5055, chlorinated

camphene, Chloro-camphene, Clor chem. T-590, Compound 3956, Huilex, Kamfochlor, Melipax, Motox, Octachlorocamphene, Penphene, Phenacide, Phenatox, Phenphane, Polychlorocamphene, Strobane-T, Strobane T-90, Texadust, Toxakil, Toxon 63, Toxyphen, Vertac 90%.

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Annex III

How are pesticides named?

Technical Committee 81T of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has devised a system for naming pesticides, with the aim of ensuring that common names indicate similarities between related compounds, do not conflict with any other names, and are suitable for use in many languages. New common names for pest control chemicals are provisionally approved each year by the Committee, and are then used in the literature and on product labels. These names are equivalent to the generic names of pharmaceuticals.

International standards

ISO 257-2004 Pesticides and other agrochemicals Principles for the selection of common names ISO 765-1976 Pesticides considered not to require common names ISO 1750-1981 Pesticides and other agrochemicals Common names ISO 1750-1981/Add. 1-1983 Pesticides and other agrochemicals Common names, Addendum 1 ISO 1750-1981/Add. 2-1983 Pesticides and other agrochemicals Common names, Addendum 2 ISO 1750-1981/Amd. 1-1982 Pesticides and other agrochemicals Common names, Amendment 1 ISO 1750-1981/Amd. 2-1999 Pesticides and other agrochemicals Common names, Amendment 2 ISO 1750-1981/Amd. 3-2001 Pesticides and other agrochemicals Common names, Amendment 3

This compendium is not intended to include trade names or code numbers; these can be identified using publications such as The Pesticide Index, published by the Royal Society of Chemistry.

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Annex V

ALTERNATIVE MANAGEMENTOF PESTICIDES

PESTICIDES ALTERNATIVES Aldrin/ Dieldrin In cotton production, aldrin/dieldrin can be replaced IPM. To control termites, natural repellents may be used, as well as physical barriers, biological pathogens, and parasites. Chlordane DDT IPM and IVM can replace Chlordane. DDT is one of the more difficult pesticides to replace, because many countries are dependent on it for control of malaria. Alternative chemicals, biopesticides such as synthetic pyrethroids, IVM, habitat management and physical barriers can be used to replace DDT. Endrin Heptachlor IPM is effective as alternative management. IPM, biopesticides developed from shrubs have been useful. Development of alternative chemical to replace Heptachlor. HCB IPM, prevention of pollution, development of cleaner production mechanism in the industries, and alternative materials are options. Use of non-chlorinated solvents and processes instead of chlorinated one is a good practice. Mirex IPM, alternative repellents, physical barriers, biopesticides from shrubs can be used to prevent leaf cutter ants. Extreme heat or cold can be used in case of invasion of termites in the building materials. Toxaphene IPM is effective alternative management.

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Annex VI
IPM Tools Sustainable solutions of pesticides is to adopt IPM tools which includes the followingCultural Controls The use of crop rotation or crop mixtures to increase crop diversity, timed planting dates to avoid pests, include soil preparation, water management, nutrient management Host Plant Resistance Using resistant strains in plant breeding. Crop Compensation Crops can tolerate damage in certain stages of development without leading to yield losses. Phyto-sanitary Measures Efficient methods and routines for preventing the introduction and spread of new pests. Mechanical and Physical Controls Pest barriers, Insect traps Biological Controls Direct introduction of natural enemies of the pest such as insect predators, parasites, and disease pathogens, indirect encouragement of already present enemies Biorational Methods Deployment of pheromones to trap pests or disrupt mating, release of sterilized insects to limit reproduction, manipulation of the atmosphere in closed storage areas to kill pests Chemical Controls The use of less-toxic pesticides as a last resort. Certain pesticides of natural origin are compatible with IPM, causing minimum disturbance of natural control mechanisms. A well-known example is the botanical neem (Azadirecta indica). Page 5
Source: WWF 1999

Glossary

Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI): The World Health Organization defines an acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) as the dose below which they anticipate no ill effects of a chemical, which, during an entire lifetime, appears to be without appreciable risk to the health of the consumer on the basis of all the known facts at the time of the evaluation of the chemical by the Joint FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues. It is expressed in milligrams of the chemical per kilogram of body weight. Acute Toxicity: Describes the adverse effects resulting from a single exposure to a substance. Adsorption Retention of a molecule or molecules on a surface. Bioavailability The extent to which a contaminant is available to living things (i.e., biota). Lipophilic compounds (i.e., those attracted to lipids) tend to bind to soil organic matter or soil particles (particularly clay) and are, therefore, typically less available to biota than water-soluble compounds. A consortium or mixture of microbes has been identified that can degrade the PAH phenanthrene adsorbed to soil without first desorbing it (White and Alexander, 1996). This has important implications for bioavailability, since it appears that bacteria may not require certain contaminants to be in an aqueous phase before degradation occurs. Biomagnification Increasing concentrations of a chemical at increasing levels of the food chain due to the consecutive consumption of contaminated, lower trophic-level biota by higher trophic level biota. For example, consumption of grass contaminated with cadmium or methyl mercury will increase concentrations of these contaminants in cattle that feed on the grass. . Bioaccumulation: Increase in concentration of a pollutant from the environment to the first organism in a food chain. Bioavailability: Extent to which a pesticide residue can be taken up into an organism from its food and environment, and the rate at which this occurs (Duffus, 1993).

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Biodegradation: Conversion or breakdown of the chemical structure of a pesticide catalyzed by enzymes in vitro or in vivo, resulting in loss of biological activity. For hazard assessment, categories of chemical degradation include: 1. Primary - loss of specific activity. 2. Environmentally acceptable - loss of any undesirable activity (including any toxic metabolites). 3. Ultimate - mineralisation to small molecules such as water and carbon dioxide. (after Duffus. 1993) . Bioremediation The use of microorganisms to reclaim soil and water contaminated by hazardous substances. Biotransformation The modification of a molecule by a living organism. Bioventing Pumping air into the soil above the water table to provide oxygen to aerobic bacteria. Biotransformation pathway: Sequence of the changes occurring in the structure of a pesticide when it is introduced into a specific biological test system. Cometabolism (or cometabolic) The process by which a compound that cannot support the growth of microorganisms can be another growth-supporting substrate is present. The cometabolized compound is not used for energy or incorporated into the biomass of theorganism that modified it. Composting Decomposition of organic matter in a pile by microorganisms. Contaminated soil to be composed is often amended with a bulking material such as straw or hay. Compost piles differ from biopiles in that compost piles have elevated temperatures due to microbial activity. . Chronic Toxicity: Describes the adverse health effects from repeated (lower level) exposures to a substance over a longer period (months to years). Degradation The breakdown of a compound into different compounds. Dispersion Breaking up and spreading in various directions Dose (RfD): The U.S Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) defines a Reference Dose (RfD) as the dose below which they anticipate no ill effects. Endocrine disruptors: An endocrine disruptor is an exogenous chemical substance or mixture that alters the functions(s) of the endocrine system and

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thereby causes adverse effects to an organism, its progeny, or (sub) population. (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) task force on endocrine disruption (EDSTAC) 1997) Ex situ Involving excavation or extraction of contaminated soil or water. May involve transport of contaminated material away from the contaminated site, but not necessarily. Half Life: The time taken for the concentration of a substance to decrease 50% of its original value. Half-life based on degradation is to be preferred to disappearance into another compartment. In situ Treatment at the site of contamination without excavation. IARC Classes: International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC 1991) Group 1A-The agent (mixture) is carcinogenic to humans. This category is used only when there is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in humans. Group 2A-The agent (mixture) is probably carcinogenic to humans. This category is used when there is limited evidence of carcinogenicity to humans and sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals. Group 2B-The agent (mixture) is possibly carcinogenic to humans. This category is generally used for agents (mixtures) for which there is limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans in the absence of sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals. It may also be used when there is inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans or human data are nonexistent but there is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals. Group 3-the agent (mixture) is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans. Agents (mixtures) are placed in this category when they do not fall into any other group. Group 4-The agent (mixture) is probably not carcinogenic to humans.

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This category is used for an agent (mixtures) for which there is evidence suggesting lack of carcinogenicity in humans together with evidence suggesting lack of carcinogenicity in experimental animals. Innovative Treatment Technologies A technology that has been field-tested and applied to a hazardous waste problem at a site, but lacks a long history of full-scale use. Information about its cost and how well it works may be insufficient to encourage use under a wide variety of operating conditions. Innovative treatment technologies are better analyzed on a site-by-site basis. Kh: Henry's Law Constant is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of a compound in air to the concentration of the compound in water at a given temperature under equilibrium conditions. It provides an indication of the relative volatility of a substance (Montgomery, 1993). If KH < 10-7 atm m3/mol, the substance has a low volatility. If KH > 10-7 but < 10-5 atm m3/mol, the substance will volatilize slowly. Volatilization becomes an important transfer mechanism in the range of 10-5 < KH < 10-3 atm m3/mol. Values of KH > 10-3 atm m3/mol indicate volatilization will proceed rapidly (Montgomery 1993, cited in Ritter et al, 1995). 50% Lethal Dose (LD50): An LD50 value is the amount of a solid or liquid material that it takes to kill 50% of test animals in one dose. Landfarming Spreading contaminated soil thinly over land or a pad with a leachate-collection system. Minimal Risk Level (MRL): The U.S Centers for Diseases Control and Preventions Agency for Toxic Substances and Diseases Registry (ATSDR) defines a minimal risk level (MRL) as the dose below which they anticipate no ill effects. Mineralization The ultimate degradation and recycling of an organic molecule into inorganic materials, such as carbon dioxide and water. In phytoremediation, the mineralization or metabolism of contaminants within plant tissue is also referred to as phytodegradation.

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Natural attenuation A reclamation approach that relies on natural processes to remediate sites with no human intervention. The natural processes include physical/chemical mechanisms such as dilution, dispersion and adsorption of the contaminant. Biological processes, such as the unassisted growth of plants and microbial communities that break down contaminants, may be involved as well. Octanol-water partition coefficient (Kow, often expressed as log Kow) A measure of a chemicals affinity for water versus lipids or fats. A higher Kow indicates a greater affinity for lipids than water. Organic matter In soil, the organic fraction exclusive of undecayed plant and animal remains; also see humus. Phytotoxicity Toxicity in plants. Phytovolatilization In phytoremediation, refers to the movement of a contaminant out of the soil, into, through and out of a plant, and then into the atmosphere. Pesticide: Pesticide means any substance intended for preventing, destroying, attracting, repelling, or controlling any pest including unwanted species of plants or animals during the production, storage, transport, distribution, and processing of food, agricultural commodities, or animal feeds or which may be administered to animals for the control of ecto-parasites. The term includes substances intended for use as a plant-growth regulator, defoliant, desiccant, fruit-thinning agent, or sprouting inhibitor and substances applied to crops either before or after harvest to protect the commodity from deterioration during storage and transport. The term normally excludes fertilizers, plant and animal nutrients, food additives and animal drugs (Toxics link 2004).

Pesticide Residue: Pesticide residue means any specified substances in food, agricultural commodities, or animal feed resulting from the use of a pesticide. The term includes any derivatives of a pesticide, such as conversion products, metabolites, reaction products, and impurities considered to be of toxicological significance (Toxics link 2004).

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Rhizosphere The surface of plant roots and the region of soil directly surrounding the roots where microbial populations are affected by the presence of the roots. Rhizosphere Effect The direct effect of plant roots and their exudates on microorganisms, including the fact that microbial populations are usually larger within the rhizosphere than in the root-free soil. Soil structure The combination or arrangement of primary soil particles into secondary units or peds, with secondary units being classified on the basis of size, shape, and grade. Soil texture The relative proportions of sand, silt and clay in soil.

Threshold Limit Values (TLVs): They are guidelines (not standards) prepared by the American Conference of Governmental industrial Hygienists, Inc (ACGIH) to assist industrial hygienists in making decisions regarding safe levels of exposure to various hazards found in the workplace. Transfer In phytoremediation, refers to the movement of a contaminant out of the soil, into, through and out of a plant, and then into the atmosphere. Transformation Change or modification. Transpire (or Transpiration) The loss of water vapor from plants primarily through pores (stomata) in the leaves. Volatilization Transfer of a chemical into the atmosphere as a gas or vapour.

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