Compressed Air Systems

Overview
Compressed air stores and transmits energy for use by equipment. Just as electric potential will perform work to return to lower voltage, pressurized air performs work to return to atmospheric pressure. With a compressed air system a single compressor motor can supply power to machines all over the plant, thus eliminating the need for numerous and dispersed electric motors. This advantage must be balanced against the relative inefficiency of compressed air systems, which can be as low as 10% or less. Air compressors are often the single largest pieces of electrical equipment in plants. On a national scale, they are the second largest consumers of industrial electricity use. Thus, they naturally attract our attention. Moreover, they are frequently not sized or operated in an optimal manner and the potential savings for improving the system are great. Total Industrial Electrical Consumption 1972 (billions kWh) Total Industrial Motor Drive (except HVAC) Pumps 143 Compressors 83 Blowers and Fans 73 Machine Tools 40 Other Integral-hp Applications 52 DC Drives 47 Fractional-hp Applications 20 Other (Electrolytic, direct Heat, HVAC, Lighting, etc.) Total The principal components of a compressed air system are: Compressor After-cooler Receiver tank Dryer Air distribution system Pneumatic tools

458

142 600

Compressed Air Systems

Source: Compressed Air Systems, DOE/CS/40520-T2, 1984. The components of a compressed air system are described in the sections that follow.

Compressors
The basic types of compressors are: Reciprocating (piston) Rotary (screw) Centrifugal (>200 hp) Compressors are either: Water cooled Air cooled Very large compressors (>500 hp) are almost always water cooled. Compressors are either: Single stage (Ptotal = P1) Multi stage (Ptotal = Pstage1+ Pstage2 + )
often with intercooling between stages (more efficient, but higher first cost)

Compressed Air Systems

Reciprocating compressors Single acting (compression on one-side of piston) Double acting (compression on both sides of piston) Noisy Unloaded power = 0 to 30% of full load power

Source: Compressed Air Systems, DOE/CS/40520-T2, 1984.

Source: Condensed Air Power Data, Ingersoll-Rand, 1984.

Compressed Air Systems

Two-stage reciprocating air compressor with intercooler and double acting pistons (Source: Ingersoll-Rand product literature). Power draw is 100% at full load, 78%, 46% and 39% at part loads, and 27% when unloaded.

Compressed Air Systems

Rotary-Screw Compressors Double helical screws compress air Quiet, reliable Unloaded power = 60% to 70% of full load power

Source: Condensed Air Power Data, Ingersoll-Rand, 1984.

Centrifugal Very large compressors only Always multi-stage

Source: Condensed Air Power Data, Ingersoll-Rand, 1984.

Compressed Air Systems

Rotary Vane Compressor

Compressed Air Systems

Compressor Sizing All compressors are most efficient at full load, hence the compressor is most efficient if sized to meet the average facility load. If sized to meet the average load, however, it won't be able to handle the peak load. This is called the "part-load dilemma". The standard sizing procedure is find the sum of the scfm requirements of all the individual equipment, add 10% for leakage, and then size the compressor to meet this load. The other standard sizing method is to buy a new compressor that is bigger than the old compressor. Both of these methods regularly result in oversized compressors. As an example, consider the following case: Number Tools Tool Type A 10 Tool Type B 5 Total 15 scfm/tool 20 10 Diversity factor 20% 40% Total scfm 200 50 250 Average scfm 40 20 60

Most compressors deliver about 4 scfm per brake hp. Sizing for the average and peak loads results in very different compressors: Average load: 60 scfm / 4 scfm/hp = 15 hp Peak load: 250 scmf / 4 scfm/hp = 60 hp Solutions to the part-load dilemma are: 1. Size AC for average load, but add storage capacity in system for peaks. 2. Buy 2 (or 3) x 10 hp compressors so 1 (or 2) is always fully loaded and the part-load penalty is small for the second compressor. This also adds redundancy for machine failure and servicing. The compressor is usually set to run at a discharge pressure high enough to meet the requirements of the equipment that requires the highest line pressure. Compressor Costs Costs for 100-hp air compressors 1/2008 are shown below. 1. Ingersoll Rand EP100, 434CFM @ 125PSIG, $26,790 2. Atlas Copco, GA75-125 100HP, 414@125PSIG, $24,948 3. Gardner Denver, EBP saverII 100HP, 440CFM@125PSIG, $27,125 4. Gardner Denver VS-70-94HP variable speed drive, $31,125 5. Kaeser CSD100S, 100HP, 417CFM @ 125PSIG, $24,755 6. Kaesar CSD100, 100HP, 494CFM @ 125PSIG, $28,263

Compressed Air Systems

Compressor Controls
Compressor controls typically seek to maintain the system air pressure within some pressure range. A typical pressure range may is between 100 psig and 110 psig, for an average pressure of 105 psig. If the pressure range is too narrow, the compressor will cycle on and off too frequently. There are three main control strategies for maintaining the pressure within such a range. On/Off Control In on/off control, the compressor turns on and begins to add compressed air to the system when the system pressure falls to the lower activation pressure. The compressor continues to run and add compressed air to the system until the system pressure reaches the upper activation pressure. It then turns itself off. On/off control may also employ a timer to reduce short-cycling. On/off control is very efficient, since the compressor draws no power whenever the pressure is within the required range. Reciprocating compressors are the only type of compressor that can utilize on/off control. Load/Unload Control Rotary screw and centrifugal compressors are designed to keep running at all times. In load/unload control, the compressor loads and begins to add compressed air to the system when the system pressure falls to the lower activation pressure. The compressor continues to run and add compressed air to the system until the system pressure reaches the upper activation pressure. It then runs unloaded until the system pressure drops to the lower activation pressure. When running unloaded, it is not adding compressed air to the system. When unloaded, rotary screw compressors typically partially close the air inlet valve and bleed the remaining compressed air into atmosphere. Load/unload control is more energy efficient than the modulating control described in the next section. However, most rotary screw compressors still draw 50% to 60% of full load power while running unloaded. Thus, it is important that the idle-trip or sleep mode is activated so that the compressor turns off if it runs unloaded for more than 10 minutes.

Compressed Air Systems

Multistep and Modulating Control Reciprocating compressors with multistep control have two or more part-load operating points with controls to select the most efficient point. In rotary-screw compressors, the most common type of modulating control varies the position of the inlet valve from full open to full closed in response to compressor output pressure. The valve will be fully closed when the pressure reaches the upper activation pressure and the compressor will run unloaded. The Figure below shows the typical relationship between fraction of full-load power consumption and fraction of full-load output capacity for compressors in modulation mode.

Typical relationship between fraction of full-load power consumption and fraction of full-load output capacity for compressors in modulation mode (Improving Compressed Air System Performance: A Source Book For Industry, U.S DOE, 2002). Idle-Trip Control Most compressors come with an automatic or sleep or idle trip control mode, in which the compressor shuts itself off if it runs unloaded for about 10 minutes. In addition, the compressor will remain off for a specified period of time before restarting to avoid short-cycling. Running the compressor in automatic mode can result in significant energy savings during periods of light demand for compressed air. On most compressors, the idle trip time is preset at the factory for 10 minutes, but can be adjusted to up to 30 minutes. Setting Activation (Cut-in and Cut-out) Pressures When operating in load/unload control mode, most compressors are preset at the factory to load when the air pressure falls below 100 psig and to unload when the air pressure climbs about 110 psig. The cut-in pressure is the pressure at which the compressor loads, and the cut-out pressure is the pressure at which the compressor unloads. Older compressors use analog knobs and newer compressors use digital switches to adjust the cut-in and cut-out pressures. In most older compressors, one knob adjusts the cut-in pressure and another knob adjusts the differential between the cut-in and cut-out pressures.
Compressed Air Systems 9

These pressures can be modified to meet individual circumstances. In general, energy use increases by about 1% for every 2 psig in operating pressure. Thus, it is advisable to operate the compressor at the lowest possible pressure. Increasing the pressure band tends to decrease cycling and may enable the compressor to turn itself off more often. However, large pressure bands also increase the variation in plant compressed air pressure, which may adversely affect some operations. For optimal energy efficiency, the activation pressures of multiple compressors should be staged. For example, the lag compressor should be set to operate from 100 psig to 110 psig, and the lead compressor set to operate from 102 psig to 112 psig. Although effective, sequencing compressors 2 psig apart with 10 psig pressure bands can create a rather wide variation in compressed air pressure in the plant. If this is a problem, the pressure bands can be decreased to as little as 5 psig as long as the compressors do not cycle excessively. For example, in the preceding example, the lag compressor could be set to operate from 100 psig to 105 psig, and the lead compressor set to operate from 102 psig to 107 psig. Precise control of pressure set points is easier with digital controls compared to spring-activated analog controls. Many new compressors are equipped with digital controls. Older spring activated analog controls can be replaced with digital controls. A digital pressure sensor/switch costs between $300 and $400 (IMF Efector Inc., 800-329-8246, www.ifmefector.com).

Lubrication
Air compressors require regular oil changes. Synthetic oil typically costs about three times as much as standard oil, but lasts about four times as long. Thus, the use of synthetic oil can reduce the number of oil changes from four times to once per year. In addition, manufacturers report that the use of synthetic oil improves the efficiency of the motor.

Aftercoolers
Most compressed air systems are equipped with an aftercooler to cool the air as it leaves the compressor. A separator, with a drain trap, should be installed immediately after the aftercooler to remove moisture condensed from the air. The drain trap should be frequently inspected and cleaned. A clogged drain trap will push water farther into the compressed air system. If the aftercooler uses water, a temperature-based flow-control valve should be installed on the waster discharge side of the aftercooler to conserve water.

Receiver Tanks
Receiver tanks store compressed air. This stored compressed air can satisfy temporary demands for compressed air without causing large pressure drops in the system. This enables smaller compressors to satisfy the variable loads. Because smaller compressors run more continuously than large compressors, this can result in significant energy savings. Thus, adequate compressed air storage is a key component of an energy-efficient compressed air system. Receiver tanks are generally sized to hold about 10 seconds of compressor capacity. For example,

Compressed Air Systems

10

25 hp compressor x 4 cfm/hp = 100 cfm x 10/60 min = 17 ft3 However, in applications where the compressed air demand varies significantly, we typically recommend much greater storage volumes to modulate system pressure and enable smaller compressors to meet the load. The typical price for compressed air storage vessels is about $4 per gallon. A drain trap should be installed at the low point on the receiver. The drain trap should be frequently inspected and cleaned. A clogged drain trap will push water farther into the compressed air system.

Dryers
The air leaving the aftercooler and receiver tank has a relative humidity of 100%. Without further drying, condensation would occur in the distribution pipes and pneumatic equipment as the air cools. To avoid this problem, most compressed air systems include a dryer. The two most common types of dryers are refrigeration dryers and desiccant dryers. Refrigeration dryers cool the air to a dew-point temperature of about 35 F and remove condensate. According to manufacturer data, the power required for a refrigerated dryer is about 0.006 kW/scfm. For example, assuming a 200-hp compressor generates 4.2 scfm of compressed air per horsepower, the output capacity of the compressor at full load is about 840 scfm. Basing the size on full load conditions, the power draw of a refrigerated dryer would be about: 840 scfm x 0.006 kW/scfm = 5.0 kW Desiccant dryers adsorb water into desiccants that must be regenerated by electric resistance heat and compressed air blasts. Desiccant dryers typically reduce the dew point temperature of the compressed air to - 40 F, which is much dryer than the compressed air leaving refrigerant dryers. A picture of a purge-type desiccant dryer is shown below. Compressed air flows upward through the left desiccant tank where moisture is adsorbed by the desiccant (in an exothermic reaction which warms the desiccant and air). A portion of the dry air leaving the left desiccant tank is expanded to about 45 psig and directed downward through the right tank to purge moisture from the tank. After five minutes, the cycle is reversed and compressed air is dried in the right tank while the left tank is being purged.

Compressed Air Systems

11

To accommodate low-load conditions, the purge pressure of 45 psig in some purge-type desiccant dryers can be adjusted downward. In addition, some purge-type desiccant dryers also come with a demand-cycle operating mode rather than the timed-cycle operating mode. In the demand-cycle operation, a dew-point analyzer determines the whether the on-line tower has additional adsorptive capacity at the end of the five-minute cycle. If so, the tower switch-over is delayed. Electric-heating desiccant dryers use between 2% to 8% of the compressed air for drying, in addition to the electric heat. Unheated purge-type desiccant dryers use between 14% and 18% of the compressed air for purging. Desiccant dryers typically reduce the dew point temperature of the compressed air to - 40 F, which is much dryer than the compressed air leaving refrigerant dryers. To dry the air to this level, desiccant dryers use much more energy than refrigerant dryers. For example, assuming a 200-hp compressor generates 4.2 scfm of compressed air per horsepower, the output capacity of the compressor at full load is about 840 scfm. Assuming the efficiency of the motor is 90%, the power draw of the compressor for purging the desiccant in an unheated purgetype dryer would be about: 840 scfm x 15% x 0.25 hp/scfm x 0.75 kW/hp / 90% = 26 kW This is about five times as much electricity as a refrigerated dryer would use; thus, desiccant dryers should be avoided except in special applications which require very dry air.

Compressed Air Systems

12

Condensate Traps and Drains

Condensate is removed from the compressed air system by automatic traps and drains. Automatic traps remove condensate as needed, in much the same way as steam traps. Drains are typically controlled by a solenoid valve on a timer that opens at a prescribed interval. Traps and drains are common locations for compressed air leaks and should be inspected regularly. In general, automatic traps are preferable to drains since they should open to remove condensate only as needed. Thus, automatic traps can open frequently when a lot of condensate is fixed the compressed air or infrequently when the air is dry. Automatic traps cost about $400 each and are sometimes referred to as no-air loss drains. Condensate traps or drains should be located: After the after cooler Underneath the receiver tank At low points in the system After filters, regulators and other devices that result in a large pressure drop. In some plants, the condensate removal system does not function properly and cocks are left partially open over weekends so water doesnt accumulate in the compressed air lines. This is a major source of waste and the condensate removal system should be inspected and evaluated to find more efficient methods, such as automatic traps, to remove condensate.

Filters, Regulators and Lubricators

Filters, regulators and lubricators are frequently located in a grouped F-R-L sequence. The filter removes particulates entrained in the compressed air and may have a trap or drain at the bottom. Filter cartridges should be replaced when the pressure drop across the filter exceeds about 7 psig. According to a compressed air service company, a filter cartridge for a filter on a 1-inch line passing about 170 scfm costs about $30 and takes about 10 minutes to replace. Most filters have float drains that open to discharge condensate when the condensate level reaches a set point in the filter. The seats on these drains can become damaged or dirty allowing compressed air to continually leak through the drain. According to a compressed air service company, replacement float drain assemblies cost about $18 and take about 10 minutes to replace. According to a compressed air service company, a good preventative maintenance program would replace filter cartridges about every 1 year or 8,000 hours of service. Regulators reduce downstream air pressure. Regulators have pressure gauges and valves to adjust the downstream pressure. Lubricators add lubricating oil. Lubricators look like filters, but have a clear bubble or screw assembly on top for adding oil. F-R-L groups are common locations for leaks and should be inspected regularly. In addition, if the all machines in a plant or area use regulators to reduce air pressure, it would save energy and compressor wear and tear to reduce the operating pressure of the compressor instead of reducing line pressure with regulators.

Compressed Air Systems

13

Distribution System
The air distribution system includes headers, branch lines, hoses, valves and fittings. The system should be designed with low pressure-drop valves and fittings so that the total pressure drop from the compressor to the farthest air-using machine is no more than 10 psi. Common pressures are 100 psig at the compressor and 90 psig at the farthest machine. Rules of thumb for sizing are:

Main line: size from average cfm to get P = 3 psi Branch line: size from cfm peak to get P = 3psi Feed lines: size from peak cfm to get P - 1 psi Hose: can generate P = 4 to 5 psi (proper selection of hoses is important!)

The most efficient layout utilizes a loop design for the header pipe and a single compressor entry location. Adding compressors at multiple locations tends to increase the time each compressor runs unloaded and increases energy use. The distribution system can also be used as added storage capacity. Thus, large headers serve both to minimize pressure drop and increase storage.

Pneumatic Tools
Most pneumatic tools are designed to operate at 90 psig. Operating at a higher pressure shortens tool life. Operating at a lower pressure may compromise the ability of the tool to perform its task.

Compressor Data
Our field data collection sheet is shown on the next page. These data assist in identifying and quantifying savings opportunities.

Compressed Air Systems

14

UD-IAC AIR COMPRESSOR DATA SHEET Audit Number: Date: Time of measurements: Air compressor demand at time of measurements (full, break, etc.): Prepared by: Description Air compressor number x of y Location Serves (plant or specific machines) Rated power (hp) Compressor Type (screw, recip, centrifugal) Cooling type (water, air) Operating schedule Control type (manual, sleep) Heat reclaimed (yes/no) Activation Loaded (psi) Pressures Unloaded (psi) Initial tank pressure (psi) Line pressure in plant (psi) Highest required pressure in plant (psi) Loaded cycle time (seconds) Total cycle time (seconds) Percent cycle time loaded (loaded/total) Loaded run time (hours) Total run time (hours) Percent run time loaded (loaded/total) Loaded amps (1 ,2 ,3 ) Unloaded amps (1 ,2 ,3 ) Voltage (volts) Air temperature at intake port (F) Outside air temperature (F) Comments: Measured / observed value

Compressed Air Systems

15

Data Logging
Monitoring compressor energy consumption and pressure throughout a compressed air system gives valuable information to optimize the system. We recommend logging compressor energy consumption, pressure at the compressor outlet, and at pressure at multiple points in the air distribution system. 1) Use pressure data to determine static pressure drop in the distribution system. Recommended static pressure drop is less than 10 psi between the compressor and the most remote point. 2) Use pressure data to identify if pressure fluctuations result in insufficient air-pressure for specific equipment. If so, locate additional air storage near the equipment that needs more air, rather than increase the total pressure for the system. 3) Use compressor energy consumption data together with manufacturer data to determine the average and peak air flow. You may be able to reduce the size or numbers of compressors. 4) Use compressor energy consumption data when the plant is not operating to indicate the cost of air leaks. Depending on the results, institute an aggressive leak identification and repair program. 5) Use compressor energy consumption data to accurately determine the cost of compressed air. Use this information when deciding whether to use pneumatic or alternate power equipment. 6) Use compressor energy consumption data to optimize a strategy to control multiple compressors. Compressed air flow measurement equipment tends to be expensive for large flow rates/pipes. Digital flow sensors with LED displays and 4-20 mA output for data loggers for 1-inch NPT and -inch NPT pipe cost about $600 (IMF Efector Inc., 800-329-8246, www.ifmefector.com).

Compressor Energy Use

The following figures show typical brake horsepower requirements for reciprocating, rotary-screw and centrifugal compressors when compressing air to 100 psig. Based on these data, we use an average a figure of 4 scfm/hp when estimating compressor efficiency unless we have more precise data.

Source: Compressed Air Systems, DOE/CS/40520-T2, 1984.

Compressed Air Systems

16

In compressor applications, it is common for the motors to be loaded at more than their rated output. Thus, a 50-hp motor may generate more than the expected 50 hp x 4 scfm/hp = 200 scfm. If it runs at service factor 1.15 when fully loaded, it would generate about (1.15 x 50 hp) x 4 scfm/hp = 57.5 hp x 4 scfm/hp = 230 scfm.

Thermodynamics of Air Compression

Air compressors work by increasing the pressure and decreasing the volume of air. Three thermodynamic models of compression are shown below. The right compression line represents isentropic compression, in which air is compressed adiabatically with no internal reversibilities. The left compression line represents isothermal compression, in which the air is cooled to keep the air temperature constant during compression. Isentropic compression has no cooling and isothermal compression has the maximum cooling possible. Actual compression processes lie somewhere in between isentropic and isothermal compression, and are called polytropic compression.

Source: Cengal, Y. and Boles, M., Thermodynamics, 1998, WGB-McGraw-Hill. The required compressor work is the product of the pressure and volume. In the figure above, this is represented as the area to the left of the compression lines. Isothermal compression requires less compressor work because the cooling is responsible for part of the decrease in volume. Some air compressors utilize two stages of compression with intercooling between the stages to further reduce compressor power. The power savings from two-stage compression with intercooling are shown graphically below.

Compressed Air Systems

17

Source: Cengal, Y. and Boles, M., Thermodynamics, 1998, WGB-McGraw-Hill. Assuming that air can be treated as an ideal gas, it can be shown that Pvk = constant during the compression process, where P = absolute pressure, v = specific volume, k = 1 for isothermal compression, k= 0.2857 for isentropic compression of air and 1.0 < k < 0.2857 for polytropic compression.

Low-Pressure Blowers
Low pressure blowers provide compressed air at pressures up to 20 psig using much less electricity than traditional air compressors, which generate about 4.2 scfm/hp when operating at about 100 psig. For example, a 135-hp positive displacement blower provides 1,114 scfm of air at a supply pressure of 20 psig. The scfm per hp is about: 20 psig: 1,114 scfm / 135 hp = 8.3 scfm /hp

Similarly, the positive displacement Gardner Denver Cycloblower (which can provide between 75 and 6700 cfm at pressures up to 20 psig) requires 43 bhp to provide 310 scfm at 20 psig and 17.7 bhp to provide 423 scfm at 5 psig. The The scfm per hp at these operating conditions are: 20 psig: 310 scfm / 43 hp = 7.2 scfm /hp 5 psig: 423 scfm / 17.7 hp = 24 scfm /hp

Whole-System Inside-Out Approach to Savings Opportunities

In our experience, application of the whole-system inside-out approach leads to the greatest savings for the least first cost. Begin by minimizing end-uses of compressed air, then investigate the distribution system for leaks and excess pressure drops. After the required quantity of

Compressed Air Systems

18

compressed air has been minimized and the lowest pressure setting identified, investigate the compressors for energy savings opportunities. Minimize End Uses Of Compressed Air Is compressed air the best source of power for the job? Use blowers instead of compressed air. Use valves and sensors to shut of compressed air when not needed Use Venturi nozzles to reduce compressed air flow. Manufacturers of Venturi nozzles that amplify flow by up to 20 to 1 include:
Arizona Vortex Tube Manufacturing Company 51235 N. 296th Avenue Wickenburg AZ 85390 Phone : 520 684 5030 Fax : 520 684 4916 www.arizonavortex.com EXAIR Corporation 1250 Century Circle North Cincinnati Ohio 45246-3309 www.exair.com

Fix Leaks In The Distribution System Leaks are expensive! Most compressed air systems lose between 5% and 20% of compressed air to leaks. We recommend inspecting the compressed-air system for leaks once a week by listening for leaks when all machinery is off except the air compressor. To estimate leakage rates from compressed air systems at 100 psig, we use the following table. Equivalent Hole Diameter Leakage Rate scfm 1/64 " 0.25 1/32 " 0.99 1/16 " 3.96 1/8 " 15.86 1/4 " 63.44 3/8 " 142.74 Source: Compressed Air Systems, DOE/CS/40520-T2, 1984. The values in this table were computed from the S.A. Moss equation (Ingersoll-Rand Condensed Air Power Data, 1998) W(lb/s) = 0.5303 x A (in2) x C x P (psia) / T (R )

where C = 0.97 for a smooth edged hole and C = 0.61 for a sharp edged orifice. The equation can be modified to show air leakage in standard cubic feet per minute at T = 70 F = 530 R and the density of air at 70 F is 0.7494 lb/ft3 such that:

Compressed Air Systems

19

V (scfm) = 0.5303 x / 4 x [D (in)]2 x 0.61 x P (psia) / [ 530( R) x 0.07494 lb/ft3] x 60 s/min V (scfm) = 8.8356 x [D (in)]2 x P (psia) We also assume that most compressors use 0.25 hp per scfm of compressed air. Example Annual electricity savings from fixing a single 1/16-inch diameter leak if a 90% efficient compressor runs 8,000 hours per year and electricity costs $0.06 /kWh would be about: 4 scfm x 0.25 hp/scfm x 0.75 kW/hp / 90% x 8,000 hr/yr x $0.06 /kWh = $400 /yr Use Outside Air For Compression Theory W = m cp (T2 - T1) For polytropic expansion: T2 = T1 (P2/P1)k W = m cp T1 [(P2/P1)k -1] Fraction savings = (WT1high - WT1low) / WT1high Fraction savings = (T1high - T1low) / T1high Example 50 hp compressor running 5,000 hr/yr at 480 V Measure: loaded (53 A) 60% of time and unloaded (40 A) 40 % of time Compress outside air if inside air = 90 F when outside air = 65 F and avg outside air = 50 F Wloaded = 53 A x 480 V x 3 x 84% PF = 37 kW Wunloaded = 40 A x 480 V x 3 x 78% PF = 26 kW Waverage = (60% x 37 kW) + (40% x 26 kW) = 33 kW Tout = 65 F, Tin = 90 F, dT = 90 65 = 25 F = constant Toa,avg = 50 F hence T1lo = 50 F, T1high = 75 F Fraction savings = [(75 + 460) R (50 + 460) R ] / (75 + 460) R = 4.7% Wloaded,new = 37 kW x (1-0.047) =35.3 kW Waverage,new = (60% x 35.3 kW) + (40% x 26 kW) = 31.6 kW Demand savings = 33 kW 31.6 kW = 1.4 kW Demand savings = 1.4 kW x $14.62 /kW-mo x 12 mo/yr = $246 /yr Usage savings = 1.4 kW x 5,000 hr/yr x $0.02 /kWh = $140 /yr Total savings: $246 /yr + $140 /yr = $386 /yr Cost of 16 ft of 3" PVC pipe w/ fg insulation = $50 + (4 hr x $25 /hr labor) = $150 Simple payback = $150 / $386 /yr x 12 mo/yr = 5 months Reduce Operating Pressure Theory W = m cp (T2 - T1) For polytropic expansion: T2 = T1 (P2/P1)k k = 0.2857 for isentropic expansion of air W = m cp T1 [(P2/P1)k -1]

Compressed Air Systems

20

Fraction savings = (WPhigh - WPlow) / WPhigh = [(P2high/P1)k - (P2low/P1)k] / [(P2high/P1)k - 1] Fraction savings = (P2highk - P2lowk) / (P2highk - P1k) Example 50 hp compressor running 5,000 hr/yr at 480 V Measure: loaded (53 A) 60% of time and unloaded (40 A) 40 % of time Reduce pressure from 110 psig to 100 psig Loaded power: 53 A x 480 V x 3 x 84% PF = 37 kW Unloaded power: 40 A x 480 V x 3 x 78% PF = 26 kW Average power: (60% x 37 kW) + (40% x 26 kW) = 33 kW Percent full-load power when unloaded: 26 kW / 37 kW = 70% P1 = 14.7 psia P2high = 110 psig + 14.7 psi = 124.7 psia P2low = 100 psig + 14.7 psi = 114.7 psia Fraction savings: (3.9700 3.8763) / (3.9700 2.1553) = 5.1% Loaded power, new: 37 kW x (1-0.051) = 35.1 kW Average power, new: (60% x 35.1 kW) + (40% x 26 kW) = 31.5 kW Demand savings: 33 kW 31.5 kW = 1.5 kW Demand savings: 1.5 kW x $14.62 /kW-mo x 12 mo/yr = $263 /yr Usage savings: 1.5 kW x 5,000 hr/yr x $0.02 /kWh = $150 /yr Total savings: $263 /yr + $150 /yr = $413 /yr Implementation cost: none Simple payback: immediate Reduce Unloaded Run Time Rotary screw, centrifugal and some reciprocating compressors run continuously, but only add air to the compressed air system when the pressure of the system is between the activation pressures (typically 100 psig to 110 psig). When a compressor is running, but not adding compressed air to the system, it is said to be unloaded. Unfortunately, rotary screw compressors typically draw between 50% and 70% of full-load power even when running unloaded. Thus, there is a huge energy penalty for running unloaded. The fraction of time a compressor runs unloaded is determined by the relationship between the capacity of the compressor and the demand for compressed air. If the compressor is under or properly sized, it will run loaded most of the time. If a compressor is oversized for the load, it will quickly raise the pressure to the upper bound of the activation pressure and then run unloaded for an extended period of time. There are two primary strategies for minimizing the time that compressors run unloaded. The first is simply to purchase or operate a smaller compressor. In our experience, this is frequently cost effective whenever a compressor is loaded less than half the time.

Compressed Air Systems

21

Example 50-hp air-cooled screw compressor loaded 10 sec and unloaded 35 sec. Assume compressors generate 4 scfm/hp Compressor loaded 10 sec / 45 sec = 25% of the time, thus compressor is oversized. Loaded power: 71 Amps x 480 Volts x x 0.84 kW/kVA = 49.6 kW Unloaded power: 45 Amps x 480 Volts x x 0.78 kW/kVA = 29.2 kW Average power: (25% x 49.6 kW) + (75% x 29.2 kW) = 34.3 kW

Annual elec: 34.3 kW x 9 hr/dy x 5 dy/wk x 50 wk/yr = 77,175 kWh/yr Percent full-load power when unloaded: 29.2 kW / 49.6 kW = 59% Power output at full load: 49.6 kW x 90% eff / .75 kW/hp = 59.5 hp Service Factor: 59.5 hp / 50 hp = 1.19 Average compressed air output: 59.5 hp x 4 scfm/hp x 25% = 59.5 scfm Percent time loaded for 25-hp recip to supply same output: 59.5 scfm / (25 hp x 4 scfm/hp) = 60% 25-hp recip power: 25 hp x .75 kW/hp / 88.5% = 21.2 kW 25-hp recip elec: 21.2 kW x 60% x 9 hr/dy x 5 dy/wk x 50 wk/yr = 28,620 kWh/yr Demand savings: (34.3 kW 21.2 kW) x $14.62 / kW-mo x 12 mo/yr = $2,298 /yr Elec savings: (77,175 kWh/yr 28,620 kWh/yr) x $0.02 /kWh = $971 /yr Total savings: $2,298 /yr + $971 /yr = $3,269 /yr Cost of 25-hp air cooled recip: $7,000 Simple payback = $7,000 / $3,269 /yr x 12 mo/yr = 26 months The second strategy for reducing the time that compressors run unloaded is to stage multiple compressors so that unneeded compressors are turned off when not needed, rather than running unloaded. To stage multiple compressors, set the lower activation pressure of the baseload compressor a few psi higher than the lower activation pressure of the lag compressor. Additional lag compressors should activate at increasingly lower pressures. For example, the baseload compressor may be set at 105 psig, the first lag compressor at 103 psig and the second lag compressor at 101 psig. If the compressors are staged in this manner, the lag compressors never load unless the baseload compressor cannot meet the plants demand for air. This alone, will not result in energy savings since the lag compressors will continue to run unloaded while drawing a significant fraction of full-load power. However, most compressors have a sleep or automatic mode in which the compressor will turn off if it runs unloaded for 5 or 10 minutes. Staging activation pressures and setting the compressors to run in sleep mode can dramatically reduce energy use while delivering the same system performance. This can be done manually or using dedicated compressor control equipment, which can also be programmed to rotate baseload duty.

Compressed Air Systems

22

Example Current: primary comp is 50-hp air-cooled screw with 30-hp air-cooled recip backup. 50-hp cycle time: 5 minutes loaded and 10 minutes unloaded Fraction time loaded: 5 min / 15 min = 33% Recommend: baseload 30-hp and run 50-hp in automatic mode as lag for peaks Loaded power = 61 Amps x 480 V x 3 x 84% PF = 42.6 kW Unloaded power = 44 Amps x 480 V x 3 x 78% PF = 28.5 kW Average power: (33.3% x 42.6 kW) + (66.6% x 28.5 kW) = 33.2 kW Annual energy: 33.2 kW x 6,000 hr/yr = 199,200 kWh/yr Power output at full load: 42.6 kW x 90% eff / 0.75 kW/hp = 51.1 hp Service Factor: 51.1 hp / 50 hp = 1.02 Average compressed air output: 51.1 hp x 4 scfm/hp x 33% = 67.5 scfm Percent time loaded for 30-hp recip to supply same output: 67.5 scfm / (30 hp x 4 scfm/hp) = 56% 30-hp recip power: 30 hp x .75 kW/hp / 89% eff = 25.3 kW 30-hp recip elec: 25.3 kW x 56% x 6,000 hr/yr = 85,008 kWh/yr Demand savings: (33.2 kW 25.3 kW) x $14.62 / kW-mo x 12 mo/yr = $1,386 /yr Elec savings: (199,200 kWh/yr 85,008 kWh/yr) x $0.02 /kWh = $2,284 /yr Total savings if 50-hp lag never loads: $1,386 /yr + $2,284 /yr = $3,670 /yr Total savings if 50-hp lag loads and increases demand: $2,284 /yr Implementation cost: none Simple payback = immediate Use Cooling Air For Space Heating Adiabatic compression of air to 100 psig results in outlet air temperatures of 350 F to 500 F. When the air is cooled to room temperature, about 80% of the work added to the air is removed as waste heat. In air-cooled compressors, the temperature of the exiting cooling air is typically between 80 F and 120 F and can be used for space heating or other lowtemperature heating applications. To use this heat for space heating, we recommend equipping air-cooled compressors with ducts and dampers to direct warm air from compressor into the plant during winter and out of the plant during summer. This damper system would also keep the compressor room cool, thereby increasing the lifetime and efficiency of the compressor. The net amount of heat added to a plant from an air compressor that is currently exhausting the cooling air depends on the way the air compressor is ventilated. For example, consider the two scenarios below where warm air from the compressor is being exhausted from the plant. The first scenario is shown below. Figure 1A is the current ventilation in which outside air is brought to the compressor then exhausted to the outside during winter. Figures 1B and 1C show two possible ways of changing the ventilation system to use heat from the compressor to reduce the space cooling load. In Figure 1B, outside air is still used for
Compressed Air Systems 23

cooling, and then directed into the plant. Figure 1C shows an alternate system with no outside air. O O

Qc

Qc

Qc

Figure 1A, 1B and 1C. 1A is the current ventilation, 1B is proposed ventilation using outside air, and 1C is proposed ventilation with no outside air. If the compressor cooling air is currently coming from the outside and is exhausted to the outside as in Case 1A, then the net heat from the air compressor to the plant is zero. If the proposed ventilation system is to continue to draw cooling air from outside and then direct the warm air into the plant, as in 1B, then the net heat into the plant, Qnet, is Qnet = Qc [V x pcp x (Tp To)] where pcp is the product of air density and specific heat (0.018 Btu/ft3-F), V is the volume flow rate of cooling air through the compressor, Qc is the heat from the compressor, Tp is the temperature of air in the plant ad To is the outside air temperature. The second term in this expression, V x pcp x (Tp To), is a penalty for bringing more cold outside air into the plant. Depending on the outside and plant air temperatures, this penalty could exceed Qc, in which case the ventilation system would actually be increasing space heating requirements. The preferred system is shown in 1C. In this case, no additional outside air is brought into the plant and the Qnet heat gain from the compressor is simply Qc. Another scenario where warm air from the compressor is being exhausted from the plant is shown below. In Figure 2A, cooling air is supplied from inside the plant then exhausted to the outdoors. The recommended system is shown in Figure 2B, where plant air is recirculated through the compressor.

Compressed Air Systems

24

O P

Qc

Qc

Figure 2A and 2B. 2A is the current ventilation system, and 2B is the proposed ventilation system that recirculates plant air through the compressor. In Figure 2A, the compressor is actually adding to the space heating load by increasing infiltration into the plant. The net space heating energy loss is: Qloss = V x pcp x (Tp To) If the ventilation system were changed to B, then the net heating energy gain would be the sum of the heat added by the compressor, Qc, and the elimination of the previous loss. Qnet = Qc + [V x pcp x (Tp To)] Example 50 hp compressor running 5,000 hr/yr at 480 V Measure: loaded (53 A) 60% of time and unloaded (40 A) 40 % of time Initial ventilation as in 1A and proposed as in 1C. Loaded power: 53 A x 480 V x 3 x 84% PF = 37 kW Unloaded power: 40 A x 480 V x 3 x 78% PF = 26 kW Average power: (60% x 37 kW) + (40% x 26 kW) = 33 kW Assume can capture 70% of input energy for space heat for 2,500 hr/yr Space heat: 33 kW x 70% x 2,500 hr/yr x 3,413 Btu/kWh = 197 MBtu/yr Assume gas costs $7 /MBtu and gas furnace is 80% efficient Gas cost savings: 197 MBtu/yr x 80% x $7 /MBtu = $1,724 /yr Implementation cost for ducts and dampers: $1,000 Simple payback: $1,000 / $1,724 /yr x 12 mo/yr = 7 months

Water 1) Replace water-cooled compressors with air-cooled compressors when possible 2) Install a temperature-controlled valve on the discharge side of the cooling water to reduce cooling water consumption. The valve must always allow some flow to function properly.

Compressed Air Systems

25

3) Replace once-through cooling systems with closed-loop fin-tube radiator type cooling systems.

References
1) Compressed Air Systems, U.S. Dept. of Energy, DOE/CS/40520-T2, 1984. 2) Cengal, Y. and Boles, M., Thermodynamics, 1998, WGB-McGraw-Hill. 3) Condensed Air Power Data, Ingersoll-Rand, 1984.

Example Recommendations

Compressed Air Systems

26

Air Compressor Analysis of VSD Compressor

Equipment A 75-hp Ingersoll-Rand Nirvana VSD compressor, Model #1RN75H-CC, is used to supply plant air. The 75-hp compressor is located on the plant floor in the Powder building. The compressor draws plant air for compression. The compressor also draws plant air for cooling and discharges it into the room. Controls The 75-hp compressor is a variable-speed compressor, thus the motor speed is slowed down or sped up in order to meet plant air demand. When the air discharge pressure falls to a set load activation pressure, the compressor motor speeds up to meet demand and slows when the set-point pressure is met. We observed the compressors load/unload cycle and observed from its digital gage that its load activation pressure was 131 psig and its unload activation pressure was 134 psig, for an average of 133 psig. End Use According to maintenance, the majority of compressed air is used to run pneumatic pumps for the water treatment process. Compressed air is also used to support the plants tooling processes. According to maintenance, the highest pressure requirement in the plant is 85 psig, which is for the water treatment pumps. We measured the pressure of the compressed air line and found it to be about 130 psig. Thus, the average pressure drop through the air headers and lines is about: 133 psig 130 psig = 3 psig Compressor Power Draw We logged the power draw of the lead 75-hp VSD compressor between about 9:58 am and 2:46 pm. The graph below shows the power draw of the compressor over this period.

Compressed Air Systems

27

A closer look at the power draw from 10:58 to 11:12 is shown below. This figure shows the compressor unloading to about 27 amps, and then drawing about 47 amps when it reloads.

A closer look at the power draw from 11:24 to 11:50 is shown below. This figure shows the compressor unloading to about 27 amps, then completely unloading to about 0 amps, then drawing about 98 amps when it reloads.

Compressed Air Systems

28

A closer look at the power draw from 12:40 to 12:54 is shown below. This figure shows the compressor modulating without unloading at about 43 amps, and then stepping up to about 55 amps.

Summary of Logging Data During the logging period, four distinct periods of demand are evident. The 4 periods are: Period 1: 9:58 am 12:09 pm Period 2: 12:09 pm 12:44 pm Period 3: 12:44 pm 1:25 pm Period 4: 1:25 pm 2:46 pm Period 1 During this period the compressors highest current draw was 41 Amps and lowest current draw was 22 Amps. According to the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA), 75-hp motors running close to full-load have a power factor of about 0.83 kW/kVA. According to management, the voltage supplied to the compressors is 480 V. Thus, the high and low power draws of the compressor were about: High: 41 A x 480 V x 0.83 kW/kVA x 3 / 1,000 W/kW = 27 kW Low: 22 A x 480 V x 0.83 kW/kVA x 3 / 1,000 W/kW = 15 kW During this period, the compressor operated at the higher power draw about 78% of the time and the lower power draw about 22% of the time. Thus, the average power draw was about: (78% x 27 kW) + (22% x 15 kW) = 24 kW Period 2

Compressed Air Systems

29

During this period the compressors highest current draw was 43 Amps and lowest current draw was 29 Amps. Thus, the high and low power draws of the compressor were about: High: 43 A x 480 V x 0.83 kW/kVA x 3 / 1,000 W/kW = 28 kW Low: 29 A x 480 V x 0.83 kW/kVA x 3 / 1,000 W/kW = 19 kW During this period, the compressor operated at the higher power draw about 63% of the time and the lower power draw 37% of the time. Thus, the average power draw was about: (63% x 28 kW) + (37% x 19 kW) = 25 kW Period 3 During this period the compressors highest current draw was 50 Amps and lowest current draw was 39 Amps. Thus, the high and low power draws of the compressor were about: High: 50 A x 480 V x 0.83 kW/kVA x 3 / 1,000 W/kW = 33 kW Low: 39 A x 480 V x 0.83 kW/kVA x 3 / 1,000 W/kW = 26 kW During this period, the compressor operated at the higher power draw about 61% of the time and the lower power draw about 39% of the time. Thus, the average power draw was about: (61% x 33 kW) + (39% x 26 kW) = 30 kW Period 4 During this period the compressors highest current draw was 32 Amps and lowest current draw was 29 Amps. Thus, the high and low power draws of the compressor were about: High: 32 A x 480 V x 0.83 kW/kVA x 3 / 1,000 W/kW = 21 kW Low: 29 A x 480 V x 0.83 kW/kVA x 3 / 1,000 W/kW = 19 kW During this period, the compressor operated at the higher power draw about 52% of the time and the lower power draw about 48% of the time. Thus, the average power draw was about: (52% x 21 kW) + (48% x 19 kW) = 20 kW Total Period 1 accounted for 46% of the total logging time, Period 2 for 12% of the time, Period 3 for 14% and Period 4 for 39%. The average power draw during the logging period was about: (46% x 24 kW) + (12% x 25 kW) + (14% x 30 kW) + (39% x 20 kW) = 26 kW Assuming a service factor of about 105% and a motor efficiency of 93%, the full load power draw of the compressor is about: 75 hp x 0.75 kW/hp x 105% / 93% = 63 kW

Compressed Air Systems

30

If so, the average fraction of full-load power (FP) at which this compressor operates is about: FPavg. = 26 kW / 63 kW = 0.41 Compressed Air Output According to Ingersoll-Rand specifications, the rated compressed air output of a 75-hp Nirvana air compressor at 140 psig is 307 scfm. According to Ingersoll-Rand literature, the fraction of fullload power (FP) is equal to the fraction of full-load air output (FC) for a Nirvana VSD compressor. However, no VSD is 100% efficient. In addition, motor efficiency falls off at very load loads. Thus, we will assume a relationship of: FP = 0.1 + (1.0 - .0.1)FC If so, the average fraction of full-load capacity was about: FC = (FP - 0.1) / (1.0 - .0.1) = 0.34 Thus, the average air output was about: 307 scfm x 0.34 = 106 scfm

Compressed Air Systems

31