LMS Rotating Machinery 2013

Rotating Machinery
Rotating Machinery Agenda

3
Torsional Vibration
2
Order Fundamentals
4
Gears, Motors, Bearings,
Pumps
5
Resonances
1
Angle Domain
6
Balancing
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 2
Pumps
TransError, Sidebands.
Order Fundamentals
RPM, 1
st
order, 2
nd
order
Angle Domain
Within one revolution
RPM Fluctuation
Torsional Vibration
Balancing Resonances
13.98 14.44 s
1635.46
1764.56
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Why is understanding Rotating Machinery important?
Warranty Costs
Often driven by perceived issues via vibration from customers
Example: JD Powers Ride Comfort

Competitive Advantage
Distinguish your product from competition
Example: Washing machine walking

Performance/Fuel Economy
Eliminate vibration that effects product performance
Examples: Torque Converter lockup. Knock sensors. Production Line

Durability
Reduce Vibration Levels. Torsional Inputs. Dynamic Loading

Noise
Eliminate unwanted noise
Example: Piston slap in engine, screaming pumps

Product Development Process
C
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t

o
f

C
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e

Concept Detail
Drawing
Prototype Production Field
Failure
Troubleshoot
Rotating Part
Engineer
Rotating Part
Validate
Rotating Part
Concept
Modeling
Electric Motor
Noise
Objective
Sound Pressure Level
Tones/Narrow-Band
Subjective
No Disturbing Noise

Vibration
Unbalance
Mode-Free Bands
Price
Module ~$6-11 per
Features and Volume

Kinematics
Dynamics
Stress
Rotation and Torque
Unbalance
Mechanical Commutation
Durability
Motor Flange (PP plastic)
Durability to >7000 h
Shake n Bake
Sine/Random -2275C
Engine
Piston Noise
Valve Impact Noise
Combustion profile
Gear rattle
Torsional vibrations
Engine surface vibration
Engine knock
Engine ancillaries
Unbalanced inertia forces
Cylinder to cylinder
variation of combustion
Bending of crankshaft
Valve train dynamics
Bearing forces
Camshaft bending
Vehicle Chassis
Driveline Boom
Wheel Imbalance
Tire Uniformity
Driveline Endurance
Washing Machine
Wind Turbine
GEARBOX
LOW SPEED
SHAFT
ROTOR
BLADES
HUB
NACELLE
HIGH SPEED SHAFT
with MECHANICAL
BRAKE
ELECTRICAL
GENERATOR
ELECTRONIC
CONTROLLER
COOLING
UNIT
TOWER
Production Equipment
Increase production/speed -> Increase Vibration/Decrease Life
Pain: Set Register deviations from 20 m may become
visible up of a modern sheetfed press
Dental Equipment
Green Revolution brings new challenges!
Turbo Whine - Tones
Cylinder deactivation - Vibration
Battery cooling fans - Whine
Direct injection engines Ticking Sounds
Hybrid engine shutoff No powertrain masking
Electric Motors Spin backwards and forwards!
Order Fundamentals
Pumps
TransError. Sidebands.
Order Fundamentals
RPM. 1
st
order. 2
nd
order
Angle Domain
RPM Fluctuation
Torsional Vibration
Brackets. Accessories
13.98 14.44 s
1635.46
1764.56
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Fourier Transform
Any real world signal can be expressed by adding up a unique set of sine waves
Complicated signals become easier to understand
No information is lost when converting

Frequency
(Hz)
Time
(seconds)
Amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude
Fourier Transform
Basics of Sine Waves
Amp
time
1 second
Basics of Sine Waves: Frequency
Amp
time
1 second
Amp
time
1 second
Basics of Sine Waves: Amplitude
Amp
time
1 second
Amp
time
1 second
Basics of Sine Waves: Amplitude
Amp
time
5 Peak
0
-5
5
3.5 RMS (.707 of Peak)
10 Peak-to-Peak (2xPeak)
What is an Order?
An order is a vibration and/or acoustic
response of a structure due to a
rotating component of a physical
structure.
Order Fundamentals
Shaft spins at 600 rpm

What is Frequency?
Order Fundamentals

What is Frequency?
600 Rev
Minute
x
1 Minute
60 Second
= 10 Rev
Second
Order Fundamentals
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Frequency
Hz
0
100
50
Spectrum of Shaft
Spinning at 600 rpm
Order Fundamentals

What is Frequency?
Order Fundamentals

What is Frequency?
6000 Rev
Minute
x
1 Minute
60 Second
= 100 Rev
Second
Order Fundamentals
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Frequency
Hz
0
100
50
Spectrum of Shaft
Spinning at 6000 rpm
Order Fundamentals

What is Frequency?
Order Fundamentals

What is Frequency?
3300 Rev
Minute
x
1 Minute
60 Second
= 55 Rev
Second
Sweep
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Frequency
Hz
0
100 50 200 150 250 300
Sweep from 600
to 6000 rpm
10 Hz
Sweep
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Frequency
Hz
0
100 50 200 150 250 300
Sweep from 600
to 6000 rpm
100 Hz
Sweep
A
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p
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Frequency
Hz
0
100 50 200 150 250 300
Sweep from 600
to 6000 rpm
Sweep
A
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p
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Frequency
Hz
0
100 50 200 150 250 300
Sweep from 600
to 6000 rpm
Sweep
A
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Frequency
Hz
0
100 50 200 150 250 300
Sweep from 600
to 6000 rpm
Sweep
A
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Frequency
Hz
0
100 50 200 150 250 300
Sweep from 600
to 6000 rpm
Sweep
A
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Frequency
Hz
0
100 50 200 150 250 300
Sweep from 600
to 6000 rpm
600 rpm 6000
1st Order
Order Fundamentals
Shaft 1 at 600 RPM

Pulley on Shaft 1 is 3x
pulley diameter on Shaft 2

What is rpm for Shaft 2?
Shaft 2
Shaft 1

Pulley
Ratio:
3 to 1
Order Fundamentals
Shaft 1 at 600 RPM


What is rpm for Shaft 2?

Answer: 1800 rpm
Shaft 2
Shaft 1

Pulley
Ratio:
3 to 1
Order Fundamentals
Shaft 1 at 600 RPM


What is frequency for
Shaft 2?
Shaft 2
Shaft 1

Pulley
Ratio:
3 to 1
Order Fundamentals
Shaft 1 at 600 RPM


What is frequency for
Shaft 2?

Answer: 30 Hz
Shaft 2
Shaft 1

Pulley
Ratio:
3 to 1
Order Fundamentals
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Frequency
Hz
0
100
50
Spectrum of Shaft 1
spinning at 600 rpm. Shaft
2 spinning at 1800 rpm
Shaft 2
Shaft 1

Pulley
Ratio:
3 to 1
Order Fundamentals
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Frequency
Hz
0 100 200
Spectrum of Shaft 1
spinning at 6000 rpm. Shaft
2 spinning at 18000 rpm
Shaft 2
Shaft 1

Pulley
Ratio:
3 to 1
300
400 500
Sweep
A
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Frequency
Hz
0
100 50 200 150 250 300
Shaft 2
Shaft 1

Pulley
Ratio:
3 to 1
Sweep
A
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p
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Frequency
Hz
0
100 50 200 150 250 300
Shaft 2
Shaft 1

Pulley
Ratio:
3 to 1
30 Hz
Sweep
A
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p
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Frequency
Hz
0
100 50 200 150 250 300
Shaft 2
Shaft 1

Pulley
Ratio:
3 to 1
300 Hz
Sweep
A
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Frequency
Hz
0
100 50 200 150 250 300
Shaft 2
Shaft 1

Pulley
Ratio:
3 to 1
Sweep
A
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Frequency
Hz
0
100 50 200 150 250 300
Shaft 2
Shaft 1

Pulley
Ratio:
3 to 1
Sweep
A
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Frequency
Hz
0
100 50 200 150 250 300
Shaft 2
Shaft 1

Pulley
Ratio:
3 to 1
Sweep
A
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Frequency
Hz
0
100 50 200 150 250 300
Shaft 2
Shaft 1

Pulley
Ratio:
3 to 1
Sweep
A
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Frequency
Hz
0
100 50 200 150 250 300
Shaft 2
Shaft 1

Pulley
Ratio:
3 to 1
What if all speeds are
relative to Shaft 2?
Sweep
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Frequency
Hz
0
100 50 200 150 250 300
Shaft 2
Shaft 1

Pulley
Ratio:
3 to 1
What if all speeds are
relative to Shaft 2?
How to Measure?
Remote Optical Probe:
Reflective Tape needed on shaft
Zebra Tape Example
TL RUNUP
DEMONSTRATION
Project: Orders.lms
Colormap (ie, Campbell Diagram)
0.00 2000.00 Hz
Point1 (CH1)
900.00
3500.00
r
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T
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1

(
T
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-20.00
80.00
d
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P
a
AutoPower Point1 WF 251 [984.96-3482.9 rpm]
Frequency
R
P
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Campbell Map Sweep vs 2D Steady State
0.00 6400.00 Hz
Point1 (CH1)
0.00
4.50e-3
A
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P
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0.00
1.00
A
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F AutoPower Point1 1084 rpm
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Frequency
Resonance or Forcing Frequency?
Colormap (ie, Campbell Diagram)
0.00 2000.00 Hz
Point1 (CH1)
900.00
3500.00
r
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T
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1

(
T
1
)
-20.00
80.00
d
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P
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Frequency
R
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Resonance is apparent
Order vs Frequency
900.00 3500.00 2000 3000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2200 2400 2600 2800 3200
rpm
Tacho1 (T1)
20.00
70.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
d
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P
a
F Order 6.00 Point1
RPM
What frequency?
2700 RPM, 6
th
Order:
2700 RPM/60 RPM = 45 Hz
45 Hz * 6 order = 270 Hz
Frequency and Orders
Amp
time
1 second
Amp
1 revolution
2
nd
Order
2 Hertz
Event per Second
Event per Revolution
Frequency Order
Order Example #1:
Fan spins at 6000
rpm.

What is frequency
of main shaft?
Order Example #1:
100 Hz
(6000 rpm/60)
Fan spins at 6000
rpm.

What is frequency
of main shaft?
Order Example #1:
100 Hz
(6000 rpm/60)
Fan spins at 6000
rpm.

What is frequency
of main shaft?
0
200 400 600
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Order Example #1:
Fan spins at 6000
rpm.

What is frequency
of blade pass?
Order Example #1:
Fan spins at 6000
rpm.

What is frequency
of blade pass?
600 Hz
100 Hz x 6 blades
1
2
3
4
5
6
600 Hz
100 Hz x 6 blades
Order Example #1:
Fan spins at 6000
rpm.

What is frequency
of blade pass?
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
200 400 600
A
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Order Example #1:
Fan spins at 6000
rpm.

What is order of
blade pass?
1
2
3
4
5
6
Order Example #1:
Fan spins at 6000
rpm.

What is order of
blade pass?
6
th
order
1
2
3
4
5
6
Order Example #1:
Fan spins at 6000
rpm.

What is order of
blade pass?
6
th
order
1
2
3
4
5
6
Independent of rpm
Imbalance
1
st
ORDER is due to
Imbalance of spinning shaft
VL ENGINE
DEMONSTRATION


Order Example - 2 stroke
2 Stroke, 2 Cylinder
Engine at 600 rpm.

What is combustion
frequency?
Engine at 600 rpm.

What is combustion
frequency?
10 Hz x 2 cylinders
=
20 Hz
Engine at 600 rpm.

What is combustion
order?
2 Stroke. 2 Cylinder
Engine at 600 rpm.

What is combustion
order?
2
nd
order
4 stroke. 6 cylinder
engine.

What is combustion
order?
4 stroke. 6 cylinder
engine.

What is combustion
order?
3
rd
Order
Combustion occurs over 2 revs
1 cycle
1st revolution 2nd revolution
Intake Compression
Power Exhaust
Torsional Vibration
Pumps
Order Fundamentals
RPM. 1
st
order. 2
nd
order
Angle Domain
RPM Fluctuation
Torsional Vibration
Balancing
Resonances
13.98 14.44 s
1635.46
1764.56
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What is Torsional Vibration?
0.00 19.00 s
200.00
2200.00
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F 1:Tacho1
What is unusual
about this RPM-
time curve?
Torsional Vibration
0.00 19.00 s
200.00
2200.00
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F 1:Tacho1
13.98 14.44 s
1635.46
1764.56
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RPM is not
steadily
increasing.

Small fluctuations
up/down occur.
What is Torsional Vibration?
Torsional vibration is a fluctuation
(reversal) in the speed of a rotating
component.
Torsional Vibration: Causes
Non-constant RPM generated by motion of
crankshaft. connecting rod and piston:

Piston motion is not constant during
combustion cycle (combustion versus
compression)

Piston has inertia properties to overcome

Entire mechanism does not output smooth
torque (example: top dead center change of
direction)
Problems caused by Torsional Vibration
Durability Problems
Flexible Coupling wear
Worn Gear teeth/failed gears

Vibration Comfort
Vibration of the steering wheel. seats. pedals

Noise problems
Engine start/stop noise
Resonance of long drive shafts. causing interior noise
Meshing and rattle noise problems from gearboxes
Resonance in auxiliary drives (generators. compressors.
and steering pumps)

Synchronization Problems
Reduced performance
Reduced fuel economy

TORSIONAL VIBRATION
HOW TO MEASURE?
Measuring Torsional Vibration: Order Cut Example
Pulses converted to RPM
Perform multiple FFTs
on rpm vs time trace
V

time
time
Time or rpm
D
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a

r
p
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Order Cut
from
Waterfall
15.00 500.00 Hz
1000
3500
r
p
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0
61
r
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0.00 19.00 s
200.00
2200.00
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AC vs DC
RPM
time
+
RPM
RPM
Overall RPM (DC)
Torsional Vibration (AC)
Net RPM (AC and DC)
frequency
Pulses per Rev: Maximum Torsional Order
Amp
For a 50 Hz Sine
Wave. what
should sampling
rate be?
time
time
Amp
For a 50 Hz Sine
Wave. what
should sampling
rate be?
100 Hz
Twice the frequency of
interest
rev
Amp
For a 50
th
Order
torsional
vibration. What
should pulse per
revolution be?
rev
Amp
For a 50
th
Order
torsional
vibration. What
should pulse per
revolution be?
100 ppr
Twice the order of interest
1 Pulse/Rev versus Multi Pulse/Rev
Same shaft
Blue 120 ppr
Green - 1 ppr

0.00 8.50 s
800.00
3600.00
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F 3333:Torsion
F 1:Tacho1
Maximum Torsional Order
0.00 7000.00 Hz
Torsion (V1)
1000.00
3500.00
r
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T
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1

(
T
1
)
-20.00
80.00
d
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r
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74.74
AutoPower Torsion WF 251 [1013.4-3497.3 rpm]
Nothing Shows Here
because of pulse/rev
limit
Units and Display Tip
Virtual channels: Torsional Vibration
TL TORSIONAL
DEMO
Project: Torsion2.lms
How to Measure? Magnetic Pickup
Magnetic Pickups:

Works on Gears

No external power
required

aerodyneng.com
How to Measure? FEAD example
How to Measure? Shafts
!
Overlap on Ends
causes
discontinuity
Offline Overlap: Uncorrected
Big dips in RPM
Overview
Top Even Spacing

Bottom Uneven spacing
due to overlap
}
Zoomed in
for detail
}
Offline Overlap: Corrected
ZEBRA_MOMENTS_TO_ANGLE
ZEBRA_MOMENTS_TO_RPM

Corrected
LMS
Test.Lab
10 SL1
Zebra Tape Example
31.26 57.71 s
4379.83
5019.96
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0.72
0.86
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F 6:Ring_Gear
Torsional Vibration Resonance
Torsional Vibration can be
amplified by resonance:

Crankshaft in Engine
Drive Shaft
Virtual Channels :Torsional Vibration difference
VL FLEXIBLE
TORSIONAL DEMO
Database: Shaft with U-Joints




Problems caused by Torsional Vibration
Durability Problems
Flexible Coupling wear

Vibration Comfort
Vibration of the steering wheel. seats. pedals

Noise problems
Engine start/stop noise
Resonance of long drive shafts. causing interior noise
Meshing and rattle noise problems from gearboxes
Resonance in auxiliary drives (generators. compressors.
and steering pumps)

Synchronization Problems
Reduced performance
Reduced fuel economy

Driveline Torsional Vibration
Ever-tightening fuel
economy requirements
are driving lower torque
converter locking limits

Cylinder deactivation
technology

Diesel engines

1000.00 3500.00 rpm
Tacho1 (T1)
0.00
1.40
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0.00
1.00
A
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F Order 2.00 TorsionAngle
Different types of dampers: friction. spring. etc
Trans
Diff'l
Wheel/Brake
Wheel/Brake
Engine

Damper
Torsional Spring
4-8
20-50
50-90
90
130
750
1350
300
750
60
120
1350
1950
Eliminated with
Turbine Damper
Driveline Torsional Modes are a function of the rotational inertia and stiffness
of the driveline elements.
AMESIM
DEMO
Database: Boom and Clunk.ame
Gears, Motors, Pumps,
Bearings, ...
Pumps
Order Fundamentals
RPM. 1
st
order. 2
nd
order
Angle Domain
RPM Fluctuation
Torsional Vibration
Balancing
Resonances
13.98 14.44 s
1635.46
1764.56
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Gears
Gears and Bearings
Gear Issues:
Transmission Error
Sidebands
Gear Whine
Gear Rattle

Order Example #2:
48 Tooth Gear
spins at 600 rpm.

What is shaft
frequency?
Order Example #2:
48 Tooth Gear
spins at 600 rpm.

What is shaft
frequency?
10 Hz
600rpm/60
Order Example #2:
48 Tooth Gear
spins at 600 rpm.

What is shaft
frequency?
10 Hz
600rpm/60
0
20 40 60
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Order Example #2:
48 Tooth Gear
spins at 600 rpm.

What is frequency
of gear mesh?
Order Example #2:
48 Tooth Gear
spins at 600 rpm.

What is frequency
of gear mesh?
10 Hz x 48 teeth =
480 Hz
Order Example #2:
48 Tooth Gear
spins at 600 rpm.

What is frequency
of gear mesh?
10 Hz x 48 teeth =
480 Hz
0
20 40 60
Order Example #2:
48 Tooth Gear
spins at 600 rpm.

What is gear mesh
order?
Order Example #2:
48 Tooth Gear
spins at 600 rpm.

What is gear mesh
order?
48
th
order
Transmission Error
50 tooth gear
25 tooth gear
50 tooth gear
spins at 100 rpm.
What is rpm of 25
tooth gear?
Transmission Error
50 tooth gear
25 tooth gear
50 tooth gear
spins at 100 rpm.
What is rpm of 25
tooth gear?
200 rpm
Transmission Error
50 tooth gear
25 tooth gear
50 tooth gear
spins at 100 rpm.
What is rpm of 25
tooth gear?
200 rpm
Transmission Error means it
is not 200 rpm
Transmission Error
Transmission Error of 0
means no loss, perfect
transmission
50 tooth gear
25 tooth gear
Transmission Error = Actual RPM Gear2 Theoretical RPM Gear2

Where Theoretical RPM at Gear2 = Actual RPM Gear1 x Gear Ratio
Gears: Transmission Error

Can Gear rotation
speeds effect
Transmission Error?
TL GEAR
TRANSMISSION
ERROR DEMO
Project: gear_trans_error.lms
Transmission Error Calculation Procedure
Gear1
rpm
Gear2
Theory
rpm
time
1. Measure RPM of driving and
driven gear vs time

2. Calculate theoretical rpm of driven
gear

3. Subtract difference of theoretical
gear speed and actual driven gear
speed vs time

4. Perform FFT on rpm difference
(overall or versus time)
Difference
rpm
time
time
Gear 2
Actual
rpm
time
0.00 5.00 order
Derived Order (rpm)
0.00
0.03
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1.0024
Curve 1.0024 order
0.0192
Multiple Gear1 rpm by Gear Ratio
Subtract Gear2Actual-Gear2Theory
2
3
4
Transmission Error Causes
Perfectly Meshed
Gear 1
Gear 2
Eccentric Not Perfect Circle
Manufacturing
defect can cause
Gear to be
oblong/eccentric
Gear 1
Gear 2
Gear 2
Eccentric - Not Perfect Circle
Manufacturing
defect can cause
Gear to be
oblong/eccentric
Gear 1
Gear 2
Gear 2
Eccentric Not Perfect Circle
Manufacturing
defect can cause
Gear 2 to be
oblong/eccentric
rev
Gear 2
vs
Gear1
Gear 2
Gear 2
0.00 1.00 s
-1.10
1.10
R
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0.00 1.00 s
-1.00
1.00
R
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Modulation
100
th
Order Gear Mesh
2
nd
Order Ampitude Modulation
due to Eccentric Gear
Modulation -> Sideband
0.00 1.00 s
-1.00
1.00
R
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0.00 1.00 s
-1.10
1.10
R
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90.00 110.00 Hz
0.00
1.00
A
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100th Order
100
th
Order Gear Mesh
2
nd
0.00 1.00 s
-1.00
1.00
R
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a
l
g
0.00 1.00 s
-1.10
1.10
R
e
a
l
g
90.00 110.00 Hz
0.00
1.00
A
m
p
l i t
u
d
e
g
100th Order
100
th
Order Gear Mesh
2
nd
90.00 110.00 Hz
0.00
0.64
A
m
p
l i t
u
d
e
g
Spectrum2_per_rev_mod
+/- 2 order
Off Center Rotation
Gear 1
Gear 2
Shaft mis-
alignment and/or
resonance causes
gear 2 to spin off
center
Center of Rotation shift
Off Center Rotation
Gear 1
Gear 2
Shaft mis-
alignment and/or
resonance causes
gear 2 to spin off
center
Off Center Rotation
Gear 1
Gear 2
Shaft mis-
alignment and/or
resonance causes
gear 2 to spin off
center
0.00 1.00 s
-1.00
1.00
R
e
a
l
g
0.00 1.00 s
-1.10
1.10
R
e
a
l
g
Modulation
100
th
Order Gear Mesh
1
st
Order Amplitude Modulation
due to Off Center Shaft Rotation
0.00 1.00 s
-1.00
1.00
R
e
a
l
g
0.00 1.00 s
-1.10
1.10
R
e
a
l
g
100
th
Order Gear Mesh
1
st
Order Amplitude Modulation
90 110 100 95 105
Hz
0.00
1.00
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
g
100th Order
90 110 100 95 105
Hz
0.00
0.64
A
m
p
l i t
u
d
e
g
Spectrum1_per_rev_mod
+/- 1 order
Gear Sidebands
90 110 100 95 110
Hz
0.00
1.00
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
g
Offset Rotation
Eccentric Gear
Gear Mesh Only

Sideband Order
(+/-)

Problem
0
None
1
Offcenter Shaft
Rotation
-Shaft Resonance
-Imbalanced Shaft
-Improper install
2
Eccentric Gear
- Manufacturing Issue
Sidebands
0.00 5000.00 Hz
VIBR:2:+Z (CH2)
899.96
2909.99
r
p
m
T
A
C
H
:
9
9
9
9
:
+
R
X

(
T
1
)
-50.00
50.00
d
B
m
/
s
2
AutoPower VIBR:2:+Z WF 202 [899.96-2910 rpm]
Sidebands vary
by rpm/load in
real life
Gear whine: Noise
generated by the loading
and unloading of the
individual teeth around
the point of engagement
Gear rattle: Noise
induced by teeth
impacting each other
at non-powered gears
fluctuating with lash
clearance
Gearbox Major Noise Types
FREQUENCY
R
P
M

R
P
M

FREQUENCY
Whine
Gearbox Rattle vs Whine
Example: Gear Rattle/Backlash
Gear Simulation Approaches
Definition
Analytical method (reference: Cai / ISO / )
Accounts for varying stiffness of the contact
Width of the tooth varies
Number of teeth that are in contact varies
(e.g. helical gear)
Applies the force to a single point at the tooth
center

Gear types supported
Spur and helical

Advantages
High solving speed
High level of detail

Limitation
Heavy manual modeling work (geometry,
kinematics, dynamics)
Solution is GTSE! (see next slide)

p
b
h
k
Meshing
path
Pitch point
Force
Applied
Gear Train Super Element (GTSE)
Definition
One interface for creating a complete
(multi-stage) gear train
Uses the same analytical algorithm as
the Gear Contact Force (Cai, ISO)
Includes the definition and creation of
bodies, joints, contacts and geometry of
the whole train

Advantages
Fast and easy modeling
Fast solving speed (analytical contact)
Automatic detailed geometry creation
and possible import of existing geometry
The gear contact force element can be
used in a standalone mode but the
feature is included in the GTSE as well
AMESIM GEAR
RATTLE DEMO
Bearings
Bearings
Various types
Ball bearings
Roller bearings
Needle bearings
Tapered roller bearings
Spherical roller bearings
Thrust bearings

Widely used: from bicycles to
aerospace. control systems. axles.

Bearing Parts
Outer Race
Inner Race
Rolling Elements
Bearings
Inner shaft spins at
600 rpm.

What is bearing ball
pass frequency?
Bearings
Inner shaft spins at
600 rpm.

What is bearing ball
pass frequency?
600 rpm/60 x 8 =
80 Hz
Bearing Parts
Bearing Frequencies
Bearing Defects and their frequencies
FTF: Fundamental Train Frequency: Defect in
the cage

BSF: Ball Spin Frequency: Defect in the ball =
2 Ball defect Frequency
Ball Defect Frequency: Defect in the ball
when it tends to roll rather than spin

BPFO: Ball Pass Frequency Outer race: Defect
on the outer race

BPFI: Ball Pass Frequency Inner race: Defect
on the inner race

Combinations of the above
|
|
.
|
\
|
= o cos 1
2
1
dp
dr
RPM FTF
Bearing frequencies
|
|
.
|
\
|
= o cos 1
2
1
dp
dr
RPM FTF
|
|
.
|
\
|
= o cos 1
2
1
2
2
dp
dr
z
dr
dp
RPM BSF
|
|
.
|
\
|
= o cos 1
2
1
dp
dr
z RPM BPFO
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = o cos 1
2
1
dp
dr
z RPM BPFO
Rolling element irregularities and defects
FTF: Fundamental Train Frequency: Defect in the cage

is contact angle between load and rolling plain

BSF: Ball Spin Frequency: Defect in the ball = 2 Ball defect
Frequency
Ball Defect Frequency: Defect in the ball when it tends to
roll rather than spin

BPFO: Ball Pass Frequency Outer race: Defect on the outer race

BPFI: Ball Pass Frequency Inner race: Defect on the inner race

Combinations of the above

Example Defect Frequencies for a Bearing
RPM
BSF
Ball Spin
FTF
Fundamental Train
BPFO
Outer Race
BPFI
Inner Race
100 3.979451 0.675251 6.077258 8.922742
500 19.89726 3.376254 30.38629 44.61371
1000 39.79451 6.752509 60.77258 89.22742
1500 59.69177 10.12876 91.15887 133.8411
2000 79.58902 13.50502 121.5452 178.4548
2500 99.48628 16.88127 151.9315 223.0685
3000 119.3835 20.25753 182.3177 267.6823
3500 139.2808 23.63378 212.704 312.296
4000 159.178 27.01004 243.0903 356.9097
Pitch Diameter = 1.548 inches
Ball Diameter = 0.3125 inches
Number balls = 9
Example Defect Frequencies for a Bearing
RPM
BSF
Ball Spin
FTF
Fundamental Train
BPFO
Outer Race
BPFI
Inner Race
100 3.979451 0.675251 6.077258 8.922742
500 19.89726 3.376254 30.38629 44.61371
1000 39.79451 6.752509 60.77258 89.22742
1500 59.69177 10.12876 91.15887 133.8411
2000 79.58902 13.50502 121.5452 178.4548
2500 99.48628 16.88127 151.9315 223.0685
3000 119.3835 20.25753 182.3177 267.6823
3500 139.2808 23.63378 212.704 312.296
4000 159.178 27.01004 243.0903 356.9097
Pitch Diameter = 1.548 inches
Ball Diameter = 0.3125 inches
Number balls = 9
2.387
Order
.405
Order
3.646
Order
5.354
Order
Bearing Defects
Good Bearing
Bad Bearing
Bearing defect can become failure due to:

Bearing defect starts as surface erosion (of bearing
or race). possibly due to hard contaminants
scraping bearing material
FFT on Impact Event
time
frequency
FFT
Bearing Defect Impact
Impact Event Frequency Analysis (Simplfied)
0.00 3.00 s
Time
0.00
4000.00
H
z
H
i
g
h
P
a
s
s
5
0
0

(
C
H
2
)
0.00
0.01
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
V
0.00 3.00 s
-0.01
0.34
R
e
a
l
V
Impacts are 0.6
seconds apart.
What is frequency?
Impact Event Frequency Analysis (Simplfied)
0.00 3.00 s
-0.01
0.34
R
e
a
l
V
0.00 3.00 s
Time
0.00
4000.00
H
z
H
i g
h
P
a
s
s
5
0
0

(
C
H
2
)
0.00
0.01
A
m
p
l i t
u
d
e
V
Impacts are 0.6
seconds apart.
What is frequency?
1.66 Hz
1/time interval or
1/0.6
0.00 2000.00 Hz
0.00
300e-6
A
m
p
l i t u
d
e
V
0.00
1.00
A
m
p
l i t u
d
e
1.57
Real Life Bearing Data
8.20 11.80 s
-40.00
30.00
R
e
a
l
g
0.00
1.00
A
m
p
l i t
u
d
e
F 4:Outer Race Faulted Bearing 2000 RPM:None
F 5:Outer Race Good Bearing 2000 RPM:None
Difficult to see
impacts associated
with defect.

Bandpass filtering
required.
Envelope
0.61 0.65 s
-0.10
0.12
R
e
a
l
V
4:HighPass500:None
5:Envelope_of_HighPass:None
ENVELOPES

Envelope done by Hilbert
Transform
Hilbert Transform separates slowly
varying envelope from rapidly
varying signal
Step by Step Envelope
t
t
t
Bandpass Filter (based on accel resonance)
Envelope
FFT
Hz
Amp
frequency
FFT
1
2
3
Identification of bearing defects
Frequency analysis
FFT of Time signal
Peaks in the spectrum
Compare VS known defect frequencies
Compare VS spectrum of good bearing

Use of location
Maximum amplitude along axis of static load

Use of calculated or derived variables
Cepstrum
Envelope analysis
In case machinery faults have a modulating effect
Gearboxes (cracks. broken teeth). bearings (defects on inner/outer race). Turbine-
blades (cracks. distorted)

Identification of bearing defects
Cepstrum
Step 1 FFT of signal to identify bandwidth of interest
Step 2 Band Pass Filtering according to step 1
Step 3 Calculate Real or Complex Cepstrum
Step 4 Identify the 1/frequencies and compare with defect frequencies

Envelope detection
Step 1 FFT of signal to identify bandwidth of interest
Step 2 Band Pass Filtering according to step 1
Step 3 Calculate Hilbert transform
Step 4 Calculate Envelope
Step 5 FFT of envelope
Step by Step Envelope
t
t
t
Bandpass Filter (based on accel resonance)
Envelope
FFT
Hz
Amp
frequency
FFT
1
2
3
Bearing Simulation
Many levels of detail possible:
Simple Lumped Model
First is simple lumped stiffness and damping
Using ideal or measured stiffness and
damping for the bearing
Used as component in larger system
Discrete Detailed Model
Rigid Body
More detailed and accounts for local loads in
the bearing
Capture transient dynamic behavior
Discrete Detailed Model with Flexible Body
mesh geometry and solve for modes of
deformation
Get more accurate loads for the bearing and
the supporting structure than the rigid body
model
Flexible contact captures local deformation
and is the most accurate method
Sample Discrete Bearing Model
Primary components:
Inner Race
Outer Race (not shown)
Cage
Rollers
Skeleton sketch for layout
Skeleton is only a Part document, not a
body, it controls the size and position of
all bodies in the model
Use of a sketch skeleton in this manner
only works if bodies are coupled with
force elements
Design Table controls all major
geometry and dynamic parameters
One approach to how a bearing could
be designed. The various radius values
control the cutting of the Cage
Results are contact forces and
displacement, velocity, and acceleration
of the rollers, cage, and rotating race
VL Bearing Demo
Bearing Simulation
Electric Motors
Basics of Electric Motors
Motors
AC Motor
DC Motor
Basic Parts: Brush, Stator, Rotor, Commutator

Controllers
DC Motor Controller
Wave Rectifiers - Voltage = Speed, Current = Torque
Pulse Width Modulation Voltage (via Pulse width) = Speed, Current = Torque
AC Motor Controller
Pulse Width Modulation - Switching Frequency = Speed, Pulse Width = Torque(ie
current)
AC Motor
DC Motor
Order Example Motor Speed
DC Brushless
Motor with 12
copper windings.

What is
commutation
order?
Order Example Motor Speed
DC Brushless
Motor with 12
copper windings.

What is
commutation
order?
12
th
Order
Electric Motors: AC/DC Power Transformation
Amp
AC Power
Amp
DC Power
Motor
Controller
Regulate Torque
and Speed via
Voltage and
Current
Example: AC to DC (and vice versa) Power Conversion
Examples:
Alternator charging battery in car
Alternator: Full Wave, 3 phase rectifier
Battery: DC power
AC to DC power
Electric Drive
750 V DC Battery
AC Drive Motor
DC to AC Power
Control via Pulses: Changing Frequency
FFT
FFT
1
3 7
1 3 7
Frequency Different
Control via Pulses: Changing Width
Note: Original Frequency
of Signal 1 and 2 is same,
only Pulse Width Different
Blue Original Frequency
Red Half Pulse Width
Green Long Pulse Width
Signal 1
Signal 2
Pulse Width Modulated
Pulse Wave
Unmodulated
Pulse
Wave
Modulate
d
(PWM)
Sine Wave
Sine Wave
Motor Inertia Smooths Pulse Wave Signal
Pulse Wave
Modulated
(PWM)
Sine Wave
Pulse Width Modulated Drive (Switching Frequency)
sideband switching orders that don't track with the wheel.
Electric Motor and
Combustion Engine Orders
Electric Motor
Control Switching
Frequencies
Hybrid Electric Drive
Pulse Width Modulated Drive
AC to DC Motor Controller
Single Phase AC Power
110 V, 60 Hz (USA)
220 V, 50 Hz (Europe)
degrees
240
120
Amplitude
V
Volts
Amplitude
360
DC Voltage Level =0
DC Motor Controller
110 V, 60 Hz (USA)
240
120
Amplitude
V
Volts
Amplitude
360
degrees
Half Wave Rectified
DC Voltage Level =
Vpeak/Pi
DC Motor Controller
110 V, 60 Hz (USA)
Amplitude
V
Volts
Amplitude
degrees
DC Voltage Level
2*(Vpeak/Pi)
240
120 360
Full Wave Rectified
DC Motor Controller
3 Phase AC Power
60 Hz (USA)
50 Hz (Europe)
Carried on 3 wires
degrees
240
120
Amplitude
V
Volts
Amplitude
360
DC Voltage Level =0
DC Motor Controller
degrees
Amplitude
V
Volts
Amplitude
240 120 360
Half wave rectified 3 x Line Frequency Normal Operation
3 Phase AC Power

Line Frequency:
60 Hz (USA)
50 Hz (Europe)
DC Voltage Level
Hz
A
m
p

DC Motor Controller
Full wave rectified 6 x Line Frequency Normal Operation
Volts
Amplitude
degrees
240 120 360
3 Phase AC Power

Line Frequency:
60 Hz (USA)
50 Hz (Europe)
DC Voltage Level
Hz
A
m
p

DC Motor Controller with Problem
Full wave rectified 5
th
order Controller problem
Volts
Amplitude
degrees
240 120 360
3 Phase AC Power

Line Frequency:
60 Hz (USA)
50 Hz (Europe)
Hz
A
m
p

Problem
Frequencies
High 2
nd
, 3
rd
, 4
th
and
5
th
order on Full
Rectified 3 Phase
power indicates
problem
Summary of Motor Controller Frequencies
Electrical Expected Frequencies
Single Phase, Half Rectified Wave 1 x Line Frequency
Single Phase, Full Rectified Wave 2 x Line Frequency

Three Phase, Half Rectified Wave 3 x Line Frequency

Three Phase, Full Rectified Wave

6 x Line Frequency

Electric Motors: AC/DC Power Transformation
Amp
AC Power
Amp
DC Power
Motor
Controller
Regulate Torque
and Speed via
Voltage and
Current
Hydraulic Pump
Hydraulic Pumps
Various types
Vane
Piston
Gerotor
Screw
Gear

Controls pressure in hydraulic lines
Hydraulic Vane Pumps
Hydraulic Vane
Pump with 8 vanes.

What is pressure
pulsation order?
low
high
Hydraulic Vane Pumps
Hydraulic Vane
Pump with 8 vanes.

What is pressure
pulsation
frequency?
8x rotation
speed
low
high
Pulse amplitude versus freq
Higher number of compartments = smaller fluctuations
Odd number of vanes smaller fluctuations rather than even guaranteed overlap
Shape of compartment and bleed back valves
AC vs DC Pressure
Pressure
time
+
Pressure
Pressure
Average Pressure (DC)
Pressure Pulsation (AC)
Net Pressure (AC and DC)
If AC Fluctuation > DC Pressure
Pressure
time
+
Pressure
Pressure
Average Pressure (DC)
Pressure Pulsation (DC)
Net Pressure (DC)
Cavitation
Formation of vapor bubbles in hydraulic line or pump

Cavitation is when vapor bubble collapses (instantaneous when bubble reaches high
pressure line)

Can be violent event, damage hydraulic lines and pumps

Many possible causes:
Line resonance
Pump intake creates vacuum
Valve-Pump interaction
High frequency actuators
Phase diagram
temperature
p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
boiling
l
i
q
u
i
d
s
o
l
i
d
g
a
s
cavitation
AMESIM HYDRAULIC
CIRCUIT DEMO WITH
CAVITATION
Cavitation Observations
Hydraulic system can be sized to perform function,
but dynamic performance can be easily overlooked

Dynamic interaction of complete system: valves,
pumps, lines, etc

Balancing
Pumps
Order Fundamentals
RPM. 1
st
order. 2
nd
order
Angle Domain
RPM Fluctuation
Torsional Vibration
Balancing
Resonances
13.98 14.44 s
1635.46
1764.56
A
m
p
l i t u
d
e
r p
m
F 1:Tacho1
Balancing
Two shafts spinning.

Which one vibrates more?
Front View Shaft 1
Front View Shaft 2
Mass Added
Balancing


Answer:
Shaft 2!
Front View Shaft 1
Front View Shaft 2
Mass Added
Balancing


600 rpm
6000 rpm
Mass Added
Mass Added
Balancing


6000 rpm

600 rpm
6000 rpm
Mass Added
Balancing


6000 rpm

600 rpm
6000 rpm
Mass Added
Imbalance
Imbalance:

is the product of mass and
distance (radius)
customary unit of measure is g-
cm or oz.-in.
Complex quantity

Force due to imbalance (where =
has unit's rad/sec2):
2 2
e e I mR F = =
Imbalance force
increases
exponentially with
speed
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Shaft Speed, RPM
C
e
n
t
r
i
f
u
g
a
l

F
o
r
c
e
,

N
40 g-cm
20 g-cm
Imbalance force
increases
exponentially with
speed
Balance Example
Fan and Shaft are each 99.5% balanced.
Is fan/shaft assembly 99.5% balanced?
Fan
Shaft
Balance Example
Fan
Shaft
NO
Balance Example
Fan
Shaft
NO
Balance Example
Fan
Shaft
NO
Balancing
How to fix?
Front View Shaft 2
Mass Added
Balancing
How to fix?

Mass on each side
Front View Shaft 2
Mass Added
Balancing
How to fix?

Eliminate Mass
Front View Shaft 2
Mass Added
Types of Imbalance
Static Imbalance
Where (Principal Inertia Axis) PIA is displaced parallel to
geometric centerline.

Couple Unbalance
Where (Principal Inertia Axis) PIA intersects the geometric
centerline at center of gravity (CG).

Dynamic Unbalance
Where (Principal Inertia Axis) PIA and geometric centerline do
no coincide (run parallel) or touch.

Static
PIA
Geometric
Centerline
Center of Gravity
Static
PIA
Geometric
Centerline
Center of Gravity
Causes of Imbalance
Shaft Bending Resonance
If shaft is above 70% of its natural frequency (critical speed) it
is considered to be a flexible rotor. and the PIA and geometric
centerline do not correspond.

Bearing Clearance/Radial Endplay

Improper Installation
Shaft offset from center of rotation
Static
Geometric
Centerline
Imbalance Example: Power Generator
Imbalance Example: Power Generator
During periods of in-
use, large rotors/shafts
will droop.
Upon startup,
generators must be run
a low speeds for long
time, to allow the main
shaft to straighten
When the generator is
run at high speed, the
imbalance forces
prevent the shaft from
straightening, causing
high vibration.
Generator
VL
IMBALANCE
DEMO
Database: Shaft with U-Joints
and Added Mass
Drive Shaft Durability due to Imbalance
Drive Shaft Durability due to Imbalance
Imbalance
weights
induce
jump-rope
mode

Prop shaft
must
survive
maximum
expected
imbalance

Virtual strain
gauges
must be
below
certain
target
Production Line Equipment Story:

Line Speed Increased
Large Roller (with Gears) goes from 100 rpm to 300 rpm
Production equipment vibrates at unacceptable levels
Gear Mesh frequency is much higher

Changing Gears does not reduce the vibration. Why Not?
Production Line Equipment Story:

1
st
Order Imbalance is problem Very sensitive to speed
Imbalance on shaft holding gears causes mesh
frequency amplitude increase

Solution: Balance roller reduced gear mesh by factor of 6
Faster
Baseline
Frequency
V
i
b
r
a
t
i
o
n

A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

1
st
order
imbalance
Gear Mesh
How to Measure Imbalance?
1 tach. 1 response of system
Find a speed
Measure 1
st
order
Baseline
With Known Mass added at specific angle
Determine Influence Coefficent
Amplitude and phase at speed of response (usually acceleration in gs)
Trial Mass (kg and location in angle)
This effectively calibrates the vibration plane to the mass plane
Influence Coefficient
relates Vibration Plane to
Imbalance
Influence Coefficient (IC)
Influence Coefficent (IC) Relates vibration at response to imbalance
IC = Change in Response/Change in Imbalance

Change in Response = Baseline vs TrialMass
Change in Imbalance known due to weight and angular placement and radius

Assumptions:
All response due to imbalance
Linear IC between response and imbalance
Influence Coefficient
relates Vibration Plane to
Imbalance
Find a Speed for Balancing
Optimal Speed
Just Imbalance
Imbalance + Resonance
g
g
rpm
rpm
Shaft Centerline Measurement
Front View Shaft 1
Proximity probe X
Proximity probe Y
t
t
seconds
X
Y
-0.24 0.24 Real
mm
-0.24
0.24
R
e
a
l
m
m
0.00
1.00
R
e
a
l
14.61 14.74 s
14.61 14.74
1:1
X
Y
Shaft Centerline Plot

-0.24 0.24 Real
mm
-0.24
0.24
R
e
a
l
m
m
0.00
1.00
R
e
a
l
14.61 14.63 s
14.61 14.63
1:1
Indicates how
well shaft rotates
around center
TL SHAFT
CENTERLINE
DEMO
Angle Domain
Pumps
Order Fundamentals
RPM. 1
st
order. 2
nd
order
Angle Domain
RPM Fluctuation
Torsional Vibration
Balancing
Resonances
13.98 14.44 s
1635.46
1764.56
A
m
p
l i t u
d
e
r p
m
F 1:Tacho1
Angle Domain Introduction
Engine
Front
Crankshaft
Optical Probe
0 10
Engine runup from 600 to 6000 rpm with 1 pulse/rev in 10 seconds
Why does time between
pulses change?

Time
seconds
0 10
V
rpm
Angle Domain Introduction
Engine
Front
Crankshaft
Optical Probe
0 10
Why does time between
pulses change?

Answer: Engine gets faster!
Time
seconds
0 10
V
rpm
Engine runup from 600 to 6000 rpm with 1 pulse/rev in 10 seconds
Transform Time to Angle
Time Data V
Time
seconds
V
Revolutions
Angle
1 rev 1 rev 1 rev 1 rev 1 rev
Angle Data
View data in angle domain
Angle
domain
makes
revolutions
uniform
distance
apart
Insights revolution/degree domain
Cylinder #5 Pressure
Vibration on Block
1 revolution
How to go from time to angle?
0 10
Time
seconds
0 10
V
rpm
Integrate RPM
Time
seconds
0 10
RPM is Speed. Angle is Distance Traveled
degrees
Now we can relate
each time
instance with a
particular angle!
Transform Data vs Time to Data vs Angle
Vibration/sound
amplitude
degrees
Vibration/sound
amplitude
time
Now we can relate
each time
instance with a
particular angle!
Resampling
Vibration/sound
amplitude
degrees
Resampling and angle domain resolution:

360 points/rev = 1.0 degree

High Resolution
required
How to Measure?
Incremental Encoder Features:

High Pulse per Revolution: 360. 720.
1800. etc (A and B)

Single Pulse Revolution (INDEX)

Distinguish Forward and Backward
Incremental Encoder
How to Measure?

INCREMENTAL
ENCODER DEMO
Engine Analysis
Question: Is it useful to look
at data over 1 revolution
for a 4 stroke engine?
Engine Analysis
NO
Engine Analysis
NO -
1 combustion cycle occurs
over 2 revs
Combustion occurs over 2 revs
1 cycle
1st revolution 2nd revolution
Intake Compression
Power Exhaust
Angle Maps
0.00 719.00
0.00
72000.00
1.30
13161069.00
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
P
a
22.61
0.00 719.00
0.00
72000.00
-7.73
6.88
R
e
a
l
g
22.61
0.00 719.00
block:+Z (CH18)
-7.00
6.00
R
e
a
l
g
0.00
1.00
A
m
p
l i t u
d
e
F Angle block:+Z 3009.8 rpm
Averaged
0.00 719.00
PCYL1 (CH1)
-1000000.00
13000000.00
R
e
a
l
P
a
0.00
1.00
A
m
p
l i t u
d
e
F Angle PCYL1 3009.8 rpm
Averaged
Maximums from 2 conditions
0.00 719.00
0.00
72000.00
-7.73
6.88
R
e
a
l
g
22.61
0.00 100.00 #
26.00
102.00
A
m
p
l i t
u
d
e
g
F Maximum block:+Z Cyl5Accel
Cycles
Maximum Acceleration versus Angle
0.00 720.00 Real
26.00
102.00
R
e
a
l
g
0.00
1.00
R
e
a
l
0.00 73000.00
X X value at Maximum block:+Z Cyl5Accel
TL ANGLE DOMAIN
DEMONSTRATION
Project: angle_data.lms
Problems where angle domain helps
Piston Slap
Combustion Noise
False Knock detection
Injector Noise
Valve Timing
Example: Piston Slap
P
i
s
t
o
n

S
l
a
p

P
i
s
t
o
n

S
l
a
p

P
i
s
t
o
n

S
l
a
p

Solution:
Offset Piston Rod
Example: Pilot Injection
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

angle
Normal Cylinder Pressure
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

angle
Pilot Ignition Cylinder Pressure
Example: Pilot Injection
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

angle
Pilot Ignition Cylinder Pressure
Pilot Ignition:

1.Reduces Noise

2.More gradual pressure
buildup in cylinder
(pressure rise rate)

3.More fuel combusted
PLAY PILOT
IGNITION DATA
Project: angle_data.lms

Example: Pilot Ignition
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

angle
How to analyze:

1.Derived channels: Differentiate
Cylinder Pressure

2. Frame Statistics AD: Take Maximum
of Differentiated data
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
/
s

angle
Take Max
Example: Pilot Ignition
Example: Spark Timing
d
B
(
A
)

O
v
e
r
a
l
l

L
e
v
e
l

Spark Timing
degrees
0 -2
-4
-6 -8 -10
2
T
o
r
q
u
e

N
/
m

80
78
76
74
* Note: This is generalized graph
200
190
180
170
AMESIM ENGINE
DEMO
Resonances
Pumps
Order Fundamentals
RPM. 1
st
order. 2
nd
order
Angle Domain
RPM Fluctuation
Torsional Vibration
13.98 14.44 s
1635.46
1764.56
A
m
p
l i t u
d
e
r p
m
F 1:Tacho1
What causes
Vertical
Lines?

1.

0.00 2000.00 Hz
Point1 (CH1)
900.00
3500.00
r
p
m
T
a
c
h
o
1

(
T
1
)
-20.00
80.00
d
B
P
a
Colormap of Runup
Natural Frequency
(rad/sec) frequency natural = =
m
k
n
e
Natural frequency is the frequency at which a system naturally vibrates once it
has been forced into motion

ground
m
c k
x(t)
f(t)
Single Degree of Freedom System
Resonant Frequency
Resonance is the buildup of a large amplitude that occurs when a structure is
excited at its natural frequency

f
= 0.4
f
= 1.01
f
=1.6
Frequency
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

n
= 1.0
3 Single Degree of Freedom Systems with
same mass, stiffness and damping
Aircraft Flutter
Natural Frequency
k = 1 N/m
k = 4 N/m

k = 9 N/m

What will happen to the natural frequency as the beam stiffness is increased?
Assume the mass of the beam is 1 kg and the excitation frequency is constant

n
k
m
=
n
= 1 rad/s

n
= 2 rad/s

n
= 3 rad/s

A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

Frequency
31.26 57.71 s
4379.83
5019.96
A
m
p
l i t
u
d
e
r
p
m
0.72
0.86
A
m
p
l i t
u
d
e
F 6:Ring_Gear
Torsional Vibration Resonance
Torsional Vibration can be
amplified by resonance:

Crankshaft in Engine
Drive Shaft
More Resonances
Accessory brackets
Mount Brackets
Rigid Body Modes
CAE-Test Correlation

LMS Rotating Machinery 2013

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