Master Thesis - Solar Air Collector

OPTIMIZATION OF
SOLAR AIR COLLECTOR

Optimization of solar air collector

P a g e | - 2 -


P a g e | - 3 -

OPTIMIZATION OF SOLAR AIR COLLECTOR

by

Piotr Matuszewski
Magorzata Sawicka

Supervisors
Prof. Per Heiselberg
Associate Prof. Rasmus Lund Jensen

Aalborg, 2010

P a g e | - 4 -


P a g e | - 5 -

ABSTRACT

The key case in this report is to investigate the solar air collector and to perform possible
optimizations of it. Whole research is done on a model of solar air collector produced by
Danish company SunEcoAir.
Firstly measurements concerning collector like air flow, temperature of air in the collector
and pressure loss are performed. Additionally parameters describing weather like wind
speed, solar radiation and outdoor temperature are checked. Simultaneously the power
produced by solar cell is also measured. Secondly in order to check the performance of the
collector the heat balance and efficiency is determined.
In order to optimize the performance several changes are made on the collector e.g.
changing size of inlets.
Than on the basis of measurements and DRY file yearly performance of the collector was
obtained. Additionally results from the measurements are compared with simulations.
Next solar air system is implemented into BSim in two different cases: firstly in summer
house which is used normally at the weekends, and secondly in a normal family house for
three people family.

Master Thesis, 10
th
semester
Indoor Environmental Engineering
School of Energy and Science
Aalborg University
Aalborg


P a g e | - 6 -


P a g e | - 7 -

Contents
OPTIMIZATION OF SOLAR AIR COLLECTOR ..................................................................................................... - 3 -
Abstract ............................................................................................................................................... - 5 -
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... - 11 -
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................ - 11 -
1.1.1 Advantages and disadvantages of solar air system ........................................................... - 12 -
1.1.2 Variations of solar air collectors ........................................................................................ - 13 -
1.2 SunEcoAir Solar Collector ...................................................................................................... - 14 -
1.2.1 Solar air collector operating principle ............................................................................ - 14 -
1.2.2 Solar air collector usage possibilities .............................................................................. - 17 -
1.3 Similar technologies to SunEcoAir ......................................................................................... - 18 -
1.3.1 Similar technologies .......................................................................................................... - 18 -
1.4 Literature review ................................................................................................................... - 20 -
1.4.1 Jensen S. . Test of the Summer House Package from Aidt Milj ................................. - 20 -
2 Heat balance .......................................................................................................................... - 25 -
2.1 Energy balance of the collector. ............................................................................................ - 25 -
2.1.1 Heat removal factor .......................................................................................................... - 25 -
2.1.2 Absorbed solar radiation ................................................................................................... - 27 -
2.1.3 Collector overall heat loss coefficient ............................................................................... - 27 -
2.1.4 Top loss coefficient ............................................................................................................ - 28 -
2.1.5 Energy loss through the bottom of the collector .............................................................. - 29 -
2.1.6 Edge losses ........................................................................................................................ - 29 -
2.1.7 Outlet Temperature .......................................................................................................... - 29 -
2.1.8 Efficiency of the solar air collector .................................................................................... - 29 -
3 Measurements ...................................................................................................................... - 31 -
3.1 Experimental setup ............................................................................................................... - 31 -

P a g e | - 8 -

3.2 Sampling frequency for 1 hour integration time ................................................................ - 32 -
3.3 Pressure drop ........................................................................................................................ - 34 -
3.3.1 Pressure drop on the flex pipe and diffuser ...................................................................... - 34 -
3.4 Temperature measurements ................................................................................................ - 36 -
3.5 Airflow measurements .......................................................................................................... - 38 -
3.6 Solar radiation measurements .............................................................................................. - 39 -
3.7 Pressure drop on the collector .............................................................................................. - 39 -
3.8 Wind measurements ............................................................................................................. - 39 -
3.9 Power supply from photovoltaic cell ..................................................................................... - 40 -
4 Results ................................................................................................................................... - 41 -
4.1 Collector working with high resistance ................................................................................. - 41 -
4.2 Fan working on a constant power ......................................................................................... - 44 -
4.3 Fan working on maximal power ............................................................................................ - 46 -
5 Optimisation .......................................................................................................................... - 49 -
5.1 Taking out one fan and inlet covers ...................................................................................... - 49 -
5.2 Making bigger inlets .............................................................................................................. - 52 -
5.3 Fan working in reverse direction ........................................................................................... - 54 -
6 Yearly Performance Of The Collector DRY .......................................................................... - 57 -
6.1 Calculation of heat balance ................................................................................................... - 58 -
6.2 Calculation of outlet temperature ........................................................................................ - 58 -
6.3 Efficiency of the solar air collector ........................................................................................ - 59 -
6.4 Temperature increase ........................................................................................................... - 59 -
6.5 Yearly performance of the collector ..................................................................................... - 60 -
6.6 Comparison of results from DRY and measurements ........................................................... - 63 -
7 Simulations in BSim ............................................................................................................... - 67 -
7.1 Model of the building ............................................................................................................ - 67 -

P a g e | - 9 -

7.2 Construction .......................................................................................................................... - 68 -
7.3 Systems .................................................................................................................................. - 69 -
7.3.1 Description of installed systems ........................................................................................ - 70 -
7.4 Simplifications ....................................................................................................................... - 71 -
7.5 Results ................................................................................................................................... - 72 -
7.5.1 Summer house................................................................................................................... - 72 -
7.5.2 Single family house ............................................................................................................ - 74 -
8 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................ - 77 -
8.1 Measurements ...................................................................................................................... - 77 -
8.2 Yearly performance calculations and simulations ................................................................. - 77 -
8.3 BSim simulations of usage collector in summer house and family house ............................ - 78 -
8.4 Recommendation .................................................................................................................. - 78 -
9 Appendix - Equipment ........................................................................................................... - 79 -
9.1 Temperature measurements ................................................................................................ - 79 -
9.1.1 Equipment ......................................................................................................................... - 79 -
9.1.2 Calibration ......................................................................................................................... - 81 -
9.2 Radiation measurements ...................................................................................................... - 81 -
9.2.1 Equipment ......................................................................................................................... - 81 -
9.2.2 Calibration ......................................................................................................................... - 84 -
9.3 Pressure loss .......................................................................................................................... - 84 -
9.3.1 Equipment ......................................................................................................................... - 84 -
9.3.2 Calibration ......................................................................................................................... - 85 -
10 Appendix Detailed Results Of Yearly Performance ............................................................ - 87 -
10.1 Monthly energy balance ........................................................................................................ - 87 -
10.2 Monthly temperature increase ............................................................................................. - 91 -
10.3 Monthly airflow ..................................................................................................................... - 95 -

P a g e | - 10 -

10.4 Monthly efficiency ................................................................................................................. - 99 -


P a g e | - 11 -

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Indoor climate in buildings
Indoor climate in a building depends on following parameters:
Air quality (air changes)
Humidity
Temperature
Light (windows)
First three of them can create a risk of health damages if the parameters will not be on the
right level (not enough air changes, too high humidity, too low temperature). It is important
to focus on these risks as they can cause asthma or other allergy types which are very
dangerous for peoples health. They can also have bad influence on the buildings, because of
damp, moulds, dust mites.
That is the reason why recently there is a growing interest not only in ventilation but also in
proper indoor environment. It can help to minimize risk of sick building syndrome, moulds or
others. One solution to improve the conditions in the building can be solar air system.
Solar air system
Solar air system is a type of system which collects solar energy and transforms it into heat.
The general idea is that the air is flowing through solar collector and heat from sun naturally
raises the temperature of the air. In other words cold, outside air is heated and delivered to
the room. The collector has on outer layer of glazing/polycarbonate which is exposed to sun.
Circulation of the air in the building can be by natural driving forces (buoyancy effect) or by
fan which is more certain. Optionally the fan can be powered by solar cell mounted on
collector.
Preheating of air supplied to buildings has gained much interest during recent years. The
advantage of this technology is that it is cheap and simple. It is especially efficient for
summer houses as it can work without anyones attendance. It can help to get rid of mould
and bad smells as well as increase the temperature inside without need of additional
heating. In this way the indoor environment in such houses is maintained on a good level
after winter.

P a g e | - 12 -

This type of air collector is similar to typical conventional water collector, but instead of
water there is air in pipes.
This collector may be:
Faade or roof-integrated panel which can be used for:
o Space heating
Double window with an internal adjustable blind which can be used for:
o Heating of ventilation air
Transparent double faade which can be used for:
o Heating of ventilation air
o Space heating
Glazed space like atrium, attic, sun space which can be used for:
o Preheating of ventilation air
o Solar chimneys (assist of natural ventilation),
Solar air system can perform many functions what constitute this system more economical.
1.1.1 Advantages and disadvantages of solar air system
Advantages:
Better absorbance of solar energy without restriction of direct solar gains in
comparison to typical solar passive technologies,
Better timing of solar heat with usage of thermal wall, when there is no sunshine
heat is released from the wall,
They reduce costs of energy consumption for the building,
In comparison with water collectors no chemicals for antifreeze are needed and in
case of damage they do not cause any loss for the building,
They can cooperate with HVAC systems, for example for preheating air,
They can be utilized for very low energy residence and commercial, institutional
buildings.
Limitations:
Very small heat capacity in comparison with water (air=0,0003 kWh/m
3
K;
water=1,16 kWh/m
3
K),
A lot of air should be supplied to a building to obtain a higher temperature inside.


P a g e | - 13 -

1.1.2 Variations of solar air collectors
Type 1 (ambient collector room )
Outside air is circulated through the collector directly to
the space which should be ventilated and heated. This
collector has got a very high efficiency because the outside
air is supplied directly to the collector.
This type of solar air collector can be used for vacation
cottages and spaces which are normally closed and used
only temporarily to minimize damp and mould.

Type 2 (collector room collector )
This system was created by Bara Constantini and that is the
origin of the name of this system. Air is circulated from the
bottom part of the room by collector (where the air is
heated) into upper part of the room which constitute
storage ceiling. All is driven by natural convection without
any fan support. The thermal mass ceiling releases the
heat into the room after sunset. In summer the air in the
collector can be released to the outside and replaced by fresh cold air from northern
part of the room.
This type of system can be utilized for apartment buildings.

Type 3 (collector shell collector )
Warm air is circulated between the collector and open
space buffer which is situated between outer insulated
wall and inner wall. This type of system minimizes heat
losses from the building what reduces energy consumption
for the building. This collector can be inexpensive and very
weak solar radiation causes this investment cost-effective.
This system is utilized in poorly insulated existing buildings
or new apartment buildings.

Type 4 (collector storage collector )
This is a popular type of solar heating system. Air is
circulated in close circuit from thermal mass wall or floor to
collector. Heat is released through the convection to
maximum 4-6 hours after sunset. Advantage of this system
Figure 1.1.2.1 Type 1 solar
air collector
Figure 1.1.2.2 Type 2 solar air
collector
air collector
air collector

P a g e | - 14 -

is a huge radiating surface (whole floor). Cooperation with fan increases the
efficiency of this system.
This system has got practical usage in buildings with large floor area.

Type 5 (collector storage collector plus room storage room )
This type of solar air collector is almost the same like
type 4 but in this case heat can be stored for longer time
and released when it is needed. Till now in only few
buildings this system was applied because of the costs of
having two independent systems of air channels.

Type 6 (collector heat exchanger collector plus heat exchanger load heat
exchanger )
This type combines hot air and water with use of heat
exchanger. Hot air which flows in collector diaphragm
heats up water for heating in building that supplies
conventional heaters or radiant floor or wall. Additionally
domestic hot water can be heated. This system can be
applied in existing buildings with traditional heating
systems with radiators or radiant floors.
1.2 SunEcoAir Solar Collector
This project will be focused on 1
st
type of solar air collector (ambient collector room)
made by Danish Company SunEcoAir.
Main ideas of this system:
Free heating system
Free ventilation in a building
Free dry buildings by hot air obtained from sun energy
1.2.1 Solar air collector operating principle
To understand usage of solar air collector there are factors that have influence on the
performance.

Figure 1.1.2.5 Type 5 solar air
collector
air collector

P a g e | - 15 -

Mounting angle of a collector
Suns height on the sky is changing almost every week of the year. The highest is in summer
when is the best time for collector and the lowest in winter. In order to obtain best
efficiency of the collector the sunshine should be fully used through the whole year. In
Denmark suns angles are between 57
o
in June and 10
o
in December. For a collector
operating through the whole year the best effect would be obtained when the panel was set
with angle 37,5
o
.
Winter sun at its lowest, minimum 10
o

Summer sun at its highest, maximum 57
o

Average set for the solar air collector 37,5
o

Heating power from the collector
This system has got a unique principle for air heating.
Air is transported from two inlets, which are situated
on the bottom of each corner on the back side of
collector. Next air is transported through the
channels and then air streams will meet in the
middle part of collector. Hotter air is flowing towards
the outlet where small support fan is situated. This
collector was basically tested on account of
Figure 1.2.1.1 Sun
angle for winter
Figure 1.2.1.2 Sun
angle for summer
Figure 1.2.1.3
Average sun angle
Figure 1.2.1.4 Air transfer in collector

P a g e | - 16 -

temperature difference between inlet and outlet. The results were that air was heated
maximally 26-44
o
C depending on the size of the collector.
Solar cell
This element converts energy from sunlight directly into electricity. The more intensive is the
sunlight the more electricity the solar cell produces. This electricity is later used to run the
fan without other sources of energy.
In the figure 1.2.1.5 a sun cell is shown, that was used for collector. It was mounted on the
roof so that no object would cast any shadow on it. Normally it is situated inside the
collector. Its disadvantage is that even small shadow causes big decrease of efficiency.
Normally efficiency of solar cells is very low and equals around 14%-17%.

Figure 1.2.1.5 Solar cell

P a g e | - 17 -

1.2.2 Solar air collector usage possibilities
It is the best solution for:
Weekend Cottage house,
Summer house,
Garden house,
Container for people,
Commercial buildings,
Caravans,
Garages,
Warehouses,
Basements,
Other buildings which have got problem with ventilation and heating in autumn-
winter season
Solar air collector provides fresh and hot air into a building for whole year. They are mostly
used to keep buildings dry without humidity and mould especially in winter when buildings
are not used. The system may in some cases prevent buildings from freezing, i.e. it will keep
temperature above zero inside a building. In hot climates collectors are used to dehumidify
dwellings. Capacity of this collector ranges from 70 m
3
/h to 250 m
3
/h depending on floor
area. Dump, humid and contaminated air is exchanged by fresh hot air. More intense
sunshine provides more effectiveness of the fan (which takes power from solar cell) and
ventilation. If the hotter air is needed, then less air flows through the collector and by
flowing longer through it, obtains higher temperature. Fan is controlled by an automatic
regulator which is powered by collector.

Installation of solar air collector
The solar air collector can be installed vertically or horizontally on southern part of the
building on the roof, outer wall or on frame near the building. The last solution is chosen if
there is a lot of trees or other buildings close to the building that can cast shadow on a
collector. Diffuser in building is connected with collector by isolated flex pipe.


P a g e | - 18 -

On the roof

On the outer wall

Advantages of usage of solar air collector (SunEcoAir):
Hot and fresh air through whole year in non-occupied buildings,
Air is heated up automatically and provided directly to the room,
It reduces risk of humidity and mould,
It is independent from power network,
It reduces risk from allergy, therefore it is healthy for people.
1.3 Similar technologies to SunEcoAir
1.3.1 Similar technologies
Three similar solar air collectors were found.
Figure 1.2.2.1 Installation of
the collector on the roof
Figure 1.2.2.2 Installation
collector of the wall

P a g e | - 19 -

Solarventi air collector Collector principle:
Special patented collector construction to
blow fresh and hot air through whole year.
Isolated back side constitutes aluminum
cover with a lot of small holes which operate
as a filter for fresh air through the fan. Power
energy for fan and thermostat is delivered
from photovoltaic module which is built in
collector. Capacity of this collector ranges
from 15 m
3
/h to 150 m
3
/h, maximum air
temperature increase 40
o
C (between inlet
and outlet).

Practical application:
- Summer houses,
- Cottage houses,
- Small temporarily used buildings.

Twin and Top Solar air collector (Grammer solar company)
TwinSolar and TopSolar collectors are
the best solution for houses which
want to have fresh and hot air through
the whole year. They prevent from
creating mould and moisture on inner
walls of buildings. They are
characterized by high effectiveness
and need short time to heat the air.
These collectors are very good for
places with low level of insolation.
Maximum increase of temperature is
up to 40
o
C with intensity 700 W/m
2
.
Theoretical efficiency equals to more
than 80%.

Practical applications:
- Dwellings,
- Sacred buildings,
- Summer houses,
- Mountain shelters.

Figure 1.3.1.2 Twin and Top Solar air collector

Figure 1.3.1.1 SolarVenti air collector

P a g e | - 20 -

JumboSolar air collector (Grammer solar company)
This type of collector consists of few
standard GLK type collectors with total
area of 20 m
2
. One module has got an area
of 2,5 m
2
. It can be connected to many
modules to build a system that is
necessary. System has got many
possibilities of regulation, installation.
Additionally there is a possibility to make a
close circuit ventilation air for summer
time. Principle of work is the same like for
a Top Solar system, difference is only
about the size of collector. JumboSolar
collector is designed for a buildings with
huge floor area where collectors can be
connected to create a bigger set. System is
connected with fan and with power which
is needed for system.

Practical applications:
- Multifamily houses,
- Sacred buildings,
- Factories,
- A covered market,
- Sports hall,
- Swimming pools,
- Hotels,
- Restaurants.

Figure 1.3.1.3 JumboSolar air collector

1.4 Literature review
1.4.1 Jensen S. . Test of the Summer House Package from Aidt Milj

This report had an aim to determine the efficiency of the Summer House Package from air
flow. This package consists of an air solar collector and a small fan driven by a solar cell
panel.
During measurements the Summer House Package was exposed to an artificial sun with a
constant radiation. The radiation was set to be perpendicular to the area of the collector and
cell panel. Additionally air was blown along the collector with speed of 3 m/s.


P a g e | - 21 -

In order to calculate the efficiency the following equation was used:

I A
T c
p

=

(1.4.1)

where:
flow rate through the collector [m
3
/h]
density of the air [kg/m
3
]
c
p
specific heat of the air [J/kgK]
T temperature difference across the collector [K]
A transparent area of the collector [m
2
]
I radiation from the artificial sun [W/m
2
]

Figure 1.4.1.1 The efficiency of the air solar collector of the Summer House Package dependent on the air
flow through the collector


P a g e | - 22 -

Figure 1.4.1.2 The pressure drop across the solar air collector of the Summer House Package (including
30 cm of flexible duct) dependent on the air flow through the collector

As the fan is driven by the solar cell panel, that is dependent on the solar radiation, the solar
air collector and air flow is dependent on the solar radiance as well.

Figure 1.4.1.3 The flow rate through the air solar collector dependent on the radiation on the solar cell panel

P a g e | - 23 -

When the radiation level is lower than 90 W/m
2
the fan starts working on lower speed that
cannot assure the even distribution of the air flow through the collector. Below the radiation
level of 15-55 W/m
2
the fan stops working.
Apart from above mentioned reasons the another parameter affecting the efficiency is the
influence of the incidence angle of the solar radiation. On the basis of measurements
performed in Thermal Insulation Laboratory an equation describing this influence was found:

) 2 / ( tan 1 V k
a
a
=
(1.4.2)

where:
a was found to be 2,91,
V incidence angle of the solar radiation [rad].
Therefore on the basis of that equation and measurements a graph was created:

Figure 1.4.1.4 The influence of the incidence angle on the efficiency


P a g e | - 24 -

Conclusions:
The air flow through the collector has an influence on its efficiency,
Solar radiation affects indirectly through the solar cell panel on the air flow,
Efficiency of the solar air collector and solar cell panel depend on the incidence angle
of the solar radiation.

Bibliography

[1] Robert Hastings, Solar air systems built examples, Solar Heating and Cooling
Executive Committee of the International Energy Agency (IEA), 1999
[2] Jensen S. ., Test of the Summer House Package from Aidt Milj Report no. 94-1,
Institute for Buildings and Energy. DTU, 1994
[3] www.sunecoair.com
[4] www.solarventi.com
[5] www.sunnylife.pl
[6] www.galileaenergy.com

P a g e | - 25 -

2 HEAT BALANCE

2.1 Energy balance of the collector.
In order to define the energy balance of the solar air collector the following equation shall be
used:
( ) [ ] ] [W T T U S F A Q
a fm L R c u
=
(2.1.1)

Where:
A
c
collector area [m
2
],
F
R
heat removal factor [-],
S absorbed solar radiation per unit area [W/m
2
],
U
L
collector overall heat loss coefficient [W/(m
2
K)],
T
fm
mean fluid temperature [K],
T
a
ambient temperature [K].
2.1.1 Heat removal factor
Heat removal factor relates the actual useful energy gain of a collector to the useful gain if
the whole collector surface were at the fluid inlet temperature.

In order to calculate the heat removal factor some partial equations need to be solved.
Radiation heat transfer coefficient:
] [
1
1 1
4
2
2 1
3
K m
W
T
h
fm
r
+

=

(2.1.2)

Stefan Boltzmann constant [W/m
2
K
4
],
T
fm
mean fluid temperature [K],
1
emittance of glass [-],
2
emittance of plate [-].


P a g e | - 26 -

Reynolds number:
] [ Re =
f
h
A
D m&

(2.1.3)

m&

- flow rate [kg/s],
D
h
hydraulic diameter; for flat plates is twice the plate spacing [m],
A
f
fluid area (air channel depth times width) [m
2
],
dynamic viscosity [kg/(sm)].

Nusselt number
] [ Re 0158 , 0
8 , 0
= Nu

(2.1.4)

Heat transfer coefficient
] [
2
K m
W
D
k
Nu h
h

=

(2.1.5)

k - thermal conductivity [W/mK].

Heat removal factor:
] [
)
1 1
(
1 '
1
1
(
(
(
(
+ +
+ =
r
L
h h
h
U
F

(2.1.6)

] [ )]
'
exp( 1 [
'
' ' =
p
L c
L c
p
C m
F U A
F U A
C m
F
&
&

(2.1.7)

] [ ' ' ' = F F F
R

(2.1.8)

Where:
m& - flow rate [kg/s],
C
p
specific heat [kJ/kgK]

P a g e | - 27 -

2.1.2 Absorbed solar radiation
( ) ] [
2
cos 1
) (
2
cos 1
) ( ) (
2
m
W
I I I R I S
g d b g d d b b b
|
\
|
+ +
|
\
| +
+ =

(2.1.9)

Absorbed solar radiation consists of three different radiations. Index b means beam
radiation (direct), index d diffuse radiation, index g ground-reflected radiation.
I irradiation [W/m
2
],
R
b
ratio of beam radiation on the tilted surface to that on horizontal surface [-],
transmittance [-],
absorptance [-],
(1 + cos)/2 and (1 - cos)/2 view factors from the collector to the sky and from the
collector to the ground respectively,
g
- ground reflectance [-].

For a vertical collector the above equation is transformed into:
( ) ] [ ) (
2
1
) (
2
1
) (
2
m
W
I I I R I S
g d b g d d b b b
+ + + =
(2.1.10)

2.1.3 Collector overall heat loss coefficient

] [
2
K m
W
U U U U
e b t L
+ + =
(2.1.11)

Where:
U
t
top loss coefficient [W/(m
2
K)],
U
b
the energy loss through the bottom of the collector [W/(m
2
K)],
U
e
edge losses [W/(m
2
K)].


P a g e | - 28 -

2.1.4 Top loss coefficient

( )
( )
( )( )
( ) N
f N
Nh
T T T T
h
f N
T T
T
C
N
U
g
p
w p
a pm a pm
w
e
a pm
pm
t
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+
(
133 , 0 1 2
00591 , 0
1
1
2 2
1
(2.1.12)

U
t
top loss coefficient [W/(m
2
K)],
N number of glass covers,
f = (1 + 0,089h
w
0,1166h
w
p
)(1 + 0,07866N),
C = 520(1 0,000051
2
) for 0 < < 70
For 70 < < 90use = 70,
e = 0,430(1 - 100/T
pm
),
collector tilt (degrees),
g
emittance of glass [-],
p
emittance of plate [-],
T
a
ambient temperature [K],
T
pm
mean plate temperature [K],
h
w
wind heat transfer coefficient [W/m
2
K],
Stefan Boltzmann constant [W/m
2
K
4
].

Wind heat transfer coefficient:
] [
6 , 8
2 4 , 0
6 , 0
K m
W
L
V
h
w
=

(2.1.13)

Where:
V wind speed [m/s]
L cube root of the house volume [m]


P a g e | - 29 -

2.1.5 Energy loss through the bottom of the collector

] [
2
K m
W
L
k
U
b
=
(2.1.14)

k insulation thermal conductivity [W/mK],
L thickness of insulation [m].

2.1.6 Edge losses

( )
] [
2
K m
W
A
UA
U
c
edge
e
=
(2.1.15)

(UA)
edge
edge loss coefficient-area product
2.1.7 Outlet temperature

] [ C
C m
Q
T T
p
u
i o
+ =
&

(2.1.16)

T
i
inlet air temperature [C].
2.1.8 Efficiency of the solar air collector

% 100 =
T c
u
G A
Q

(2.1.17)

Bibliography

[1] John A. Duffie, William A. Beckman, Solar engineering of thermal processes, John
Wiley and Sons, inc., 1991

P a g e | - 30 -


P a g e | - 31 -

3 MEASUREMENTS
3.1 Experimental setup
The solar air collector was mounted on the south west laboratory wall. Collector
investigated in a project is made by SunEcoAir company. Firstly no changes to the collector
were made.
The height of the collector equals to 1800 mm, width 700 mm and the thickness is 100 mm,
where 30 mm constitutes insulation on back wall, whereas side walls are insulated with 20
mm of polystyrene foam. Front of the collector constitutes one chamber polycarbonate.
Absorber of the collector is made from aluminum painted matt black. Two inlets for cold air
are situated in down parts of the collector and outlet is placed as a one hole in higher part in
which the fan is mounted too.
The picture of the model is shown below.

Figure 3.1.1: Picture of the collector with thermocouples mounted inside


P a g e | - 32 -

In order to get results, below mentioned measurements have to be performed:
Temperature measurements,
Air flow measurements,
Solar radiation measurements,
Pressure drop measurements,
Wind measurements,
Power supply from photovoltaic (PV).

Before the start of the measurements the sampling frequency and pressure drop on pipe
and diffuser (components of the package which were delivered with collector) were made.
3.2 Sampling frequency for 1 hour integration time

In order to obtain the most accurate results for an integration time of 1 hour the sampling
frequency has to be measured. It indicates the sufficient time to obtain results that are
closest to real values. In order to do that the average values of measured parameters with
different sampling frequency have to be compared and then the longest sufficient time has
to be chosen. Sampling times used to check the sampling frequency were: 10 sec, 20 sec, 30
sec, 1 min, 2 min, 5 min.

Figure 3.2.1: Average results for temperature of air at the inlet with different sampling frequency

11,50
11,60
11,70
11,80
11,90
12,00
12,10
12,20
12,30
12,40
0,0000 0,0200 0,0400 0,0600 0,0800 0,1000 0,1200
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

[
o
C
]
Sampling frequency [1/s]
Temperature of air at the inlet

P a g e | - 33 -

Figure 3.2.2: Average results for pressure loss with different sampling frequency

Figure 3.2.3: Average results for airflow rates with different sampling frequency

0,62
0,64
0,66
0,68
0,70
0,72
0,74
0,0000 0,0200 0,0400 0,0600 0,0800 0,1000 0,1200
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

l
o
s
s

[
P
a
]
Pressure loss 0 - 20 Pa
13,05
13,10
13,15
13,20
13,25
13,30
13,35
13,40
0,0000 0,0200 0,0400 0,0600 0,0800 0,1000 0,1200
A
i
r
f
l
o
w

[
m
3
/
h
]
Airflow rate

P a g e | - 34 -

Figure 3.2.4: Average results for sun radiation on the collector with different sampling frequency

From the above presented charts it can be concluded that the sampling frequency is 0,05
1/s. This means that all the measurements in the project will be performed with 20 seconds
step.

3.3 Pressure drop
3.3.1 Pressure drop on the flex pipe and diffuser
The air to the room is supplied by a flex pipe added to a set. In order to calculate the
pressure loss on the collector, the pressure loss on the flex has to be known. Measurements
are performed by means of a micromanometer, an orifice, a fan and an inverter to control
the airflow. On the second micromanometer the pressure loss on the flex pipe could be
read.
This measurements are performed because the pressure drop on the orifice connected to
the measurements setup should be lower than the pressure drop on collector, flex and the
diffuser. Otherwise the orifice can block the airflow.
130,00
132,00
134,00
136,00
138,00
140,00
142,00
144,00
146,00
0,0000 0,0200 0,0400 0,0600 0,0800 0,1000 0,1200
R
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

[
W
/
m
2
]
Sun radiation on the collector

P a g e | - 35 -

Figure 3.3.1.1: Pressure drop on the flex pipe.

Additionally to the flex pipe there is an adjustable diffuser. Therefore a pressure loss was
also measured in three different positions of the opening: one when it was maximally closed,
one when it was maximally opened and one just in the middle.

Figure 3.3.1.2: Pressure drop on flex pipe with maximally opened diffuser

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
30 40 50 55 62 70 80 85 88 95 105 111 118 123 135 143 152
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

d
r
o
p

[
P
a
]
Air flow [m3/h]
Pressure drop on flex pipe
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
55 62 70 80 85 88 95 105 111 118 123 135 140 145
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

d
r
o
p

[
P
a
]
Air flow [m3/h]
Pressure drop on maximally opened diffuser

P a g e | - 36 -

Figure 3.3.1.3: Pressure drop on flex pipe with maximally closed diffuser

Figure 3.3.1.4: Pressure drop on flex pipe and diffuser in a middle position.

3.4 Temperature measurements
The temperature in the solar collector needs to be measured to obtain the temperature
distribution. For this purpose the K-type thermocouples were used. Thermocouples were
placed in different locations in the collector and outside of it. Some of them were situated
directly on the heated surface - on the plate, some to measure the air temperature in the
collector were mounted in small silver coated tubes (see Appendix 9.1 Temperature
measurements).
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
41 46 50 54 57 61 64 70 75 80 85 90
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

d
r
o
p

[
P
a
]
Air flow [m3/h]
Pressure drop on maximally closed diffuser
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
55 62 70 80 85 88 95 105 111 118 123 130
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

d
r
o
p

[
P
a
]
Air flow [m3/h]
Pressure drop on an opened diffuser

P a g e | - 37 -

Points at which the temperature was measured:
Temperature of the plate (in the collector),
Temperature of air (in the collector),
Indoor temperature (in the laboratory),
Inlet temperature after fan,
Outside temperature.
Below in Figure 3.4.1 position of all thermocouples on the collector is shown.

Figure 3.4.1: Position of the thermocouples


P a g e | - 38 -

Thermocouples placed on the left side (1, 2, 3, 4) are measuring air temperature, and these
on the right (5, 6, 7) are measuring plate temperature.

Figure 3.4.2: Position of the thermocouples on the collector

3.5 Airflow measurements
Airflow from collector is measured by pressure difference which is measured by an orifice
that is connected to a differential pressure transducer. The airflow is then calculated from an
equation given on the orifice. Two types of orifices were used depending from air flow
through the collector.

P a g e | - 39 -

3.6 Solar radiation measurements
The solar radiation is measured by several pyranometers. Two out of four pyranometers are
placed on the roof. These are: BF3 which is measuring total and diffuse radiation and Wilh.
Lambrecht Kg Pyrheliometer which is measuring total radiation. The other two will be
measuring local conditions in the neighborhood of the collector. CM21 will be measuring
total radiation on height of 2,5 meter from the ground and CM11 will measure ground
reflected radiation and is situated on half height of the collector 1,4 meter from the
ground. (see Appendix 9.2 Radiation measurements)
3.7 Pressure drop on the collector
In order to measure the pressure drop on the collector the differential pressure transducers
were used. The pressure difference was measured in three points: pressure difference
between inlet and in first case the outlet before fans and in second the outlet after fans. (see
Appendix 9.3 Pressure loss measurements).
3.8 Wind measurements
For a mathematical model there is a need to measure the velocity of the wind. It will be
made in two places: one to measure global velocity at 10 meters height and second to
measure local velocity near the collector. For measuring global velocity of wind a Wind
Master was used. It can measure wind speed and the direction in 3D.
Figure 3.8.1: Wind Master


P a g e | - 40 -

For the local velocity an anemometer was used. It can measure the wind speed and the
direction of it in 2D.

Figure 3.8.2: Anemometer to measure local velocity.
Wind Master and 2D anemometer are connected to MCG Plus the Universal Data
Acquisition System. Next this instrument is connected to a PC where the results are shown.
3.9 Power supply from photovoltaic cell
Additionally power supply from PV was measured. Into the circuit of power from PV to fan
the amperometer was connected. In this way the power supply from the PV can be
calculated.


P a g e | - 41 -

4 RESULTS
During measurements different parameters were measured. Those included three different
types of measurements:
When collector is working with high resistance created by a small orifice during
different weather conditions power for the fan is taken from solar cell,
When fan in the collector is working on constant power taken from outside source
different cases were considered and measurements were performed during cloudy
weather,
When fan is controlled by the weather, so by power produced by solar cell this use
of bigger orifice means smaller resistance in comparison to the first case.
All measurements were conducted for couple of days. Each result is an average for one hour.
In tables there are only some results presented to make them more readable.
The measurements were performed from beginning of April till May with partly cloudy
weather and sunny weather. The fan was working usually between 11 and 19 hour when
there was enough sun to run it.
4.1 Collector working with high resistance
High resistance created by a small orifice in this case causes smaller airflows and thus during
sunshine higher temperature increase. During those measurements fan was supplied with
power from solar cell.
Flow rate
[m
3
/h]
Temperature increase
[C]
Heat balance
[W]
Radiation
[W/m
2
]
Pressure drop
[Pa]
Efficiency
[%]
6,94 6,38 16,16 108,21 2,11 3,92
9,15 8,25 32,54 160,93 4,62 4,92
9,66 9,89 36,92 186,56 6,62 5,25
10,91 13,25 46,09 245,73 10,19 5,75
12,32 16,79 58,52 299,29 13,30 9,68
12,71 17,71 60,98 350,30 15,40 7,10
13,77 15,04 62,07 392,58 14,88 8,05
14,09 19,57 75,70 406,18 19,07 8,57
13,85 18,13 87,37 420,87 18,48 10,31
16,00 29,67 234,72 597,78 24,06 28,64
14,69 30,54 210,81 646,81 22,38 23,98
14,96 24,02 220,05 664,66 23,12 24,08
15,54 20,99 180,24 702,82 25,91 18,30
14,96 26,46 189,52 716,85 24,62 19,20
Figure 4.1.1: Results from measurements with collector working with high resistance

P a g e | - 42 -

Low sun radiation is a probable reason for both low temperature increase and airflow in first
few cases. The flow rate is small because the solar cell is not giving enough power for the
fan, and because of lack of sun the temperature increase is small as well. Additional reason
for the small flow rate is the high resistance produced by the orifice. Those conditions
explain poor efficiency and low airflow explains low pressure drop on the collector. With
increase of flow rate the temperature increase rises as well. The sun radiation runs the fan
and better heats up the air. With bigger airflows the pressure drop and efficiency are
increasing as well.
Interesting is the result of an airflow of 16,00 m
3
/h. There the efficiency of the collector rises
to almost 30%. This measurement was performed at the end of a sunny day. The collector
was already well heated up. Therefore despite lower radiation (comparing to the airflow of
15,54) the final results are better.
These results are obtained by small airflows. Therefore the temperature increase rises in
some cases to almost 30 degrees.

Figure 4.1.2: Collector with temperature distribution for an airflow equal to 16,0 m3/h

P a g e | - 43 -

Figure 4.1.3: Dependence of the flow rate from the solar radiation
In the figure 4.1.3 it can be seen that with an increase of the solar radiation, the flow rate
also increases. It is so because the fan is powered by a solar cell.

Figure 4.1.4: Dependence of the temperature increase from the solar radiation
With an increase of the radiation the temperature increase is bigger. By small airflows the air
is heated up longer when it flows through the collector, so in this case big temperature
increases can be obtained.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e

[
m
3
/
h
]
Radiation [W/m2]
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

[
o
C
]
Radiation [W/m2]

P a g e | - 44 -

Figure 4.1.5: Dependence of the efficiency from the solar radiation
Because of the growing radiation the temperature increase and airflow are bigger, therefore
with an increase of the radiation the efficiency is growing.

4.2 Fan working on a constant power
During these measurements fan is connected to a constant power supply. Series of
measurements for different voltage were made. The voltage was changed every 1,5 V and
the performance was checked. The sky was overcast at the day of the measurements, so it
can explain small temperature increase.
During those measurements some problems occurred. The collector has two fans: one that is
supplying air into the room and one that is exhausting warm air from inside to outside.
When measurements with maximum power around 12 volts were performed the first fan
was working with full speed influencing the other fan to run as well in this same direction
(they are arranged in series). This situation resulted in growth of the airflow and the
pressure loss. However, in reality, because of the controller, the fan can work on 70% of the
maximum power, so the second fan will probably create additional pressure loss.

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

[
%
]
Radiation [W/m2]

P a g e | - 45 -

Flow rate
[m
3
/h]
[C]
Heat balance
[W]
Radiation
[W/m
2
]
Pressure drop
[Pa]
Efficiency
[%]
32,51 2,35 36,90 59,38 6,65 12,72
32,72 2,51 34,27 55,87 6,37 12,68
36,05 2,37 48,46 69,87 11,12 13,59
36,06 2,29 50,92 72,66 11,20 13,64
38,43 3,09 68,04 103,03 17,34 13,97
38,75 2,83 65,27 95,99 16,79 14,13
49,74 2,79 55,91 74,27 29,01 15,89
58,90 2,09 54,33 64,64 39,63 17,45
72,26 1,69 49,11 53,72 56,21 19,28
72,97 1,54 45,31 49,83 55,88 19,49
Figure 4.2.1: Results from measurements when fan was working on a constant power
In this case with an increase of the flow rate the temperature increase decreases. Such small
temperature increases are caused by a small radiation. Additionally with increasing flow
rate, pressure drop and efficiency increase too.
From the table it can be seen that the heat balance depends on the radiation. The pressure
drop increases with an increase of the flow rate and so does the efficiency.

As in the first case it is similarly in this one. The bigger the sun radiation is, the bigger the
temperature increase.
In this case sun radiation does not have any influence on any other parameter.
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
3,5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

[
o
C
]
Radiation [W/m2]

P a g e | - 46 -

4.3 Fan working on maximal power
In this case the collector is working on power taken entirely from the solar cell so the airflow
depends on the solar radiation. The measurements are performed during a partly sunny
weather. Here the maximal airflow is researched so the temperature increase is not as big as
in the first case.
Flow rate
[m
3
/h]
[C]
Heat balance
[W]
Radiation
[W/m
2
]
Pressure drop
[Pa]
Efficiency
[%]
26,13 7,61 54,15 168,68 4,16 13,67
28,9 6,27 64,90 186,12 5,58 11,83
27,36 7,73 67,06 204,30 5,33 15,84
32,53 12,51 94,62 253,33 9,48 18,90
22,5 12,14 42,17 302,10 1,58 8,67
28,45 11,24 91,35 397,33 10,13 11,46
40,15 14,19 193,70 429,63 16,55 26,30
28,40 13,71 97,58 436,40 11,77 11,56
30,43 14,66 143,07 441,59 8,50 15,77
28,91 15,91 112,07 442,53 12,05 13,17
31,22 17,02 153,61 505,17 10,44 16,20
30,62 16,28 141,63 535,54 13,31 15,06
35,46 13,23 220,89 570,93 12,22 22,16
38,94 13,45 262,72 614,03 14,93 25,25
49,8 16,06 240,37 633,32 24,38 25,78
54,4 16,78 455,02 713,32 26,51 46,08
53,3 15,27 396,95 764,07 25,93 36,72
Figure 4.3.1: Results from measurements with fan working on maximal power
With an increasing airflow, the temperature increase rises but not as much as in first case
where by highest airflow the air was heated up by almost 30 degrees. In this case however
much bigger flow rates are obtained. The pressure drop rises with bigger airflows. Efficiency
equals to approximately 25% and higher. In cases with low temperature increase there was a
low sun radiation. Different results are caused by measurements performed during different
weather conditions.

P a g e | - 47 -

Figure 4.3.2: Dependence of the flow rate from the solar radiation
In this case the flow rate is much bigger than in the first case. It is so because of smaller
resistance. The flow slightly rises with radiation because the fan acquires more energy from
the solar cell.

As in previous cases the temperature increase rises with bigger radiation.
0,00
10,00
20,00
30,00
40,00
50,00
60,00
0,00 100,00 200,00 300,00 400,00 500,00 600,00 700,00 800,00 900,00
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e

[
m
3
/
h
]
Radiation [W/m2]
0,00
2,00
4,00
6,00
8,00
10,00
12,00
14,00
16,00
18,00
0,00 100,00 200,00 300,00 400,00 500,00 600,00 700,00 800,00 900,00
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

[
o
C
]
Radiation [W/m2]

P a g e | - 48 -

Figure 4.3.4: Dependence of the efficiency from the solar radiation
The efficiency increases with radiation so also with bigger airflows and higher temperature
increase.

0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
25,00
30,00
35,00
40,00
45,00
50,00
0,00 100,00 200,00 300,00 400,00 500,00 600,00 700,00 800,00 900,00
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

[
%
]
Radiation [W/m2]

P a g e | - 49 -

5 OPTIMIZATION
In order to perform a full research of the collector some changes in it can be made:
Taking out one fan and inlet covers,
Enlarging inlet holes.
5.1 Taking out one fan and inlet covers
First of all to decrease the pressure loss the second fan (that removes hot air from the room)
and both inlet covers were taken out.
The measurements were performed during a partly cloudy day and a sunny day.
Flow rate
[m
3
/h]
[C]
Heat balance
[W]
Radiation
[W/m
2
]
Pressure drop
[Pa]
Efficiency
[%]
24,0 6,13 28,84 106,05 3,01 8,21
23,79 5,43 24,69 117,67 1,88 7,69
26,5 6,39 48,09 124,26 4,98 11,49
27,6 7,67 48,98 136,93 5,88 12,56
27,56 6,88 46,72 138,98 7,21 11,16
28,73 6,46 60,56 145,67 8,52 11,81
27,8 7,51 54,40 164,74 6,57 10,01
26,33 7,19 32,67 165,15 3,02 8,11
27,09 7,66 48,62 176,83 5,24 9,15
29,3 9,23 58,45 180,60 8,33 10,85
31,9 10,79 72,85 190,45 12,56 13,73
29,91 8,15 60,85 197,46 6,75 11,47
32,1 8,08 90,46 228,61 12,96 14,81
33,1 10,79 80,98 240,48 13,54 12,77
34,6 9,98 93,09 240,93 15,58 13,82
33,1 12,48 111,15 297,24 12,16 19,12
36,3 13,69 135,11 315,59 18,31 27,00
37,31 16,29 112,25 344,34 13,44 15,99
37,93 16,00 188,06 399,42 13,38 30,49
39,4 13,65 138,71 400,25 21,34 18,17
39,1 14,70 181,24 470,58 20,41 23,15
45,6 16,55 129,40 495,91 28,75 16,25
44,97 19,26 159,51 546,02 20,46 15,61
47,5 22,96 205,05 630,63 30,88 18,85
47,11 14,79 325,48 637,90 22,56 35,28
47,59 17,10 260,34 662,71 24,10 25,73
Figure 5.1.1: Results from measurements of the collector with one fan and both inlets taken out

P a g e | - 50 -

The results are relatively similar to those performed before introduced changes. Because of
smaller maximum radiation (by almost 100 W/m
2
) than in previous case the flow rate was
smaller after changes. When we consider the fact that each result is an average for one hour
then the difference in radiation is relatively significant. The temperature increase is rather
similar in both cases. When the efficiency results are compared, the case before changes
obtains higher values but within the same radiation range in the second case the efficiency
was higher.
Below presented charts concern: a before changes collector, and a collector after first
changes when one fan and both inlet covers were taken out.

Figure 5.1.2: Flow rate dependent from radiation in two cases
In most cases the results obtained after changes are bigger from those before changes. By
the same radiation higher values were obtained. The reason for that might be lower
pressure losses (no fan and inlet covers).
0,0
10,0
20,0
30,0
40,0
50,0
60,0
0,00 200,00 400,00 600,00 800,00 1000,00
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e

[
m
3
/
h
]
Radiation [W/m2]
After 1st changes
Before changes
Log. (Before changes)

P a g e | - 51 -

Figure 5.1.3: Temperature increase dependent from radiation in two cases
Both cases obtain similar values. On the basis of temperature increase it is difficult to assess
in which case the performance of the collector was better.

Figure 5.1.4: Temperature increase dependent from radiation in two cases
The efficiency in both cases is similar. The advantage of the system after first changes is that
the pressure loss is lower. Consequently it can obtain higher airflows.
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
25,00
0,00 200,00 400,00 600,00 800,00 1000,00
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

[
o
C
]
Radiation [W/m2]
After 1st changes
Before changes
Log. (Before changes)
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
25,00
30,00
35,00
40,00
45,00
50,00
0,00 200,00 400,00 600,00 800,00 1000,00
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

[
%
]
Radiation [W/m2]
After 1st changes
Before changes
Wyk. (Before changes)

P a g e | - 52 -

5.2 Making bigger inlets
As the inlets originally made were smaller than the outlet, the next change was to make
them bigger. The area of them was enlarged to the area of the air channels in the collector.
The measurements were performed on a sunny day.
Flow rate
[m
3
/h]
[C]
Heat balance
[W]
Radiation
[W/m
2
]
Pressure drop
[Pa]
Efficiency
[%]
28,6 3,76 23,60 110,24 7,76 8,47
27,75 8,38 42,55 184,69 4,02 8,52
34,6 4,67 31,05 188,69 7,63 9,12
38,7 8,78 71,67 311,03 10,19 12,55
37,34 10,86 73,13 317,25 11,58 12,07
49,6 15,05 141,72 497,29 18,04 17,05
46,82 21,74 165,07 527,54 23,09 19,58
46,77 18,25 129,74 533,18 24,32 16,47
52,4 16,58 214,59 601,99 20,55 22,22
51,1 13,46 251,61 611,27 20,74 25,10
56,3 18,73 428,40 690,59 24,83 46,00
52,06 21,95 411,10 699,16 26,83 42,83
54,97 14,82 312,94 713,28 28,69 30,78
54,01 17,41 415,03 756,80 29,09 39,33
58,3 16,21 439,75 794,64 25,33 39,12
Figure 5.2.1: Results from measurements of the collector with bigger inlets
The airflow is bigger than in previous cases. If the fan was working on a constant power on
12 volts it would have obtained a maximal airflow of 80 m
3
/h. In reality it is working on 70%
of power and can obtain an airflow of 60 m
3
/h.
In this case, on the other hand, the temperature increase is smaller. An explanation for that
is that the bigger airflows are harder to be heated up. However if the efficiency is compared
then by high sun radiation the values are higher than before changes and obtain
approximately 40%.

P a g e | - 53 -

Figure 5.2.2: Flow rate dependent from radiation in three cases
In the figure above it can be seen that in the last case the flow rate is biggest. By the biggest
radiation the airflow is approximately equal to 60 m
3
/h. The collector after second change
obtains higher airflows in comparison to one before changes.

Figure 5.2.3: Temperature increase dependent from radiation in three cases
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 200 400 600 800 1000
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e

[
m
3
/
h
]
Radiation [W/m2]
Before changes
After 1st changes
After 2nd change
Log. (After 2nd change)
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 200 400 600 800 1000
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

[
o
C
]
Radiation [W/m2]
Before changes
After 1st changes
After 2nd change
Log. (After 2nd change)

P a g e | - 54 -

In most cases the temperature increase is smaller than after first changes but is still bigger
that it was before any changes. Therefore there is still an improvement comparing to an
original version of the collector.

Figure 5.2.4: Efficiency dependent from radiation in three cases
The trend line was created for the collector after 2
nd
change. Despite changes the efficiency
has not improved much. By bigger sun radiation it obtains much better results. However this
improvement cannot be seen by smaller values of radiation.

5.3 Fan working in reverse direction
Originally the collector had two fans and one of them was already checked. In this chapter
there are measurements performed on the other one. The task of this fan is to exhaust
warm air to the outside during summer time. The fan was powered by a solar cell. The
measurements are performed on a sunny day.

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
0 200 400 600 800 1000
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

[
%
]
Radiation [W/m2]
Before changes
After 1st changes
After 2nd change
Wyk. (After 2nd change)

P a g e | - 55 -

Flow rate
[m
3
/h]
Radiation
[W/m
2
]
Pressure drop
[Pa]
27,68 81,54 3,56
24,60 107,50 3,83
29,45 135,25 6,84
25,52 145,23 2,75
23,49 152,76 2,93
25,42 159,24 3,04
25,82 198,03 4,67
27,01 223,00 4,95
28,16 263,89 7,35
28,40 265,91 7,35
29,26 296,90 7,52
37,86 326,38 15,62
32,57 395,34 10,81
32,06 463,09 9,74
34,76 504,86 12,70
40,82 703,81 18,24
41,28 723,09 18,46
Figure 5.3.1: Results from measurements of the collector with reverse fan
Despite similar sun radiation the airflow is smaller than in case of the other fan. The reason
for that may be buoyancy forces against which the fan is working. The pressure drop is
smaller as well because of smaller airflow.

Figure 5.3.2: Flow rate dependent from radiation in case of reverse fan
Similarly to all other cases the flow rate increases with an increase of radiation.
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
25,00
30,00
35,00
40,00
45,00
0,00 100,00 200,00 300,00 400,00 500,00 600,00 700,00 800,00
F
l
o
w

r
a
t
e

[
m
3
/
h
]
Radiation [W/m2]

P a g e | - 56 -


P a g e | - 57 -

6 YEARLY PERFORMANCE OF THE COLLECTOR DRY
The measurements on the collector were performed in April and May. On the basis of
weather data from Danish Reference Year (DRY) and equations from Heat Balance (Chapter
2) the yearly performance of the collector can be estimated.
In order to simplify the calculations from the equation
( ) [ ] 0 =
a fm L R c u
T T U S F A Q
(6.1)

constant values of F
R
and U
L
were estimated. By using measurements, different values were
compared and such values of F
R
and U
L
were chosen, that the equations would give the
results as closest to 0 as it is possible. For further calculations they will equal:
F
R
= 0,3
U
L
= 5,5 W/m
2
K.

Figure 6.1: Comparison between calculated and measured values
From the figure 6.1 it can be seen that the approximation of F
R
and U
L
was relatively good.

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
0 100 200 300 400 500
C
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

h
e
a
t

b
a
l
a
n
c
e

[
W
]
Measured heat balance [W]
Comparison between calculated and
measured values

P a g e | - 58 -

6.1 Calculation of heat balance
( ) [ ] T U S F A Q
L R c u
=
(6.1.1)

F
R
, U
L
, A
C
are constant values,
S calculated on the basis of radiation (total, direct, diffuse) taken from DRY file,
T is the temperature difference between mean air temperature and ambient
temperature. This temperature difference will be calculated from equation created on the
basis of trend line made on chart temperature difference absorbed solar radiation (Figure
6.1.1). It is almost a linear correlation.
673 , 0 015 , 0 + = S T
(6.1.2)

Figure 6.1.1: Equation for temperature difference
6.2 Calculation of outlet temperature
To calculate the outlet temperature the following equation shall be used:
p
u
a o
C m
Q
T T
+ =
(6.2.1)

Q
u
is taken from calculations in 6.1,
T
a
values taken from DRY file,
C
p
specific heat
y = 0,015x + 0,673
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

[
o
C
]
Absorbed solar radiation [W/m2]
Temperature difference

P a g e | - 59 -

m airflow is dependent on solar radiation and temperature difference between mean air
temperature and ambient temperature. In order to develop an equation for the airflow the
coefficients a
1
a
9
in the below presented equation must be found.
2 2
9
2
8
2
7
2
6
2
5 4 3 2 1
T S a T S a T S a T a S a T S a T a S a a m + + + + + + + + =
(6.2.2)

On this basis of nine measurements, the unknowns were calculated by using linear equations
in Jordan Gauss elimination method and an equation for airflow was developed:
2 2 6 2 2
2 2
10 6850 , 5 01246 , 0 8434 , 0
8783 , 21 1037 , 0 9483 , 7 3858 , 618 1861 , 4 6311 , 513
T S T S T S
T S T S T S m
+ + +
+ + =
(6.2.3)
6.3 Efficiency of the solar air collector
% 100
=
T C
u
G A
Q
(6.3.1)

G
T
= I
b
+ I
d

6.4 Temperature increase
a o inc
T T T =
(6.4.1)


P a g e | - 60 -

6.5 Yearly performance of the collector
Only those hourly values were taken into consideration when the sun radiation exceeded
100 W/m
2
(because the fan starts working at minimum sun radiation of 100 W/m
2
). Then the
average value was calculated from those values and presented on the chart.

Figure 6.5.1: Yearly performance of the collector energy balance
During winter if there is enough sunshine to run the fan there are relatively high values of
energy balance as the sun is low on the sky and can shine directly on the collector. The solar
cell is in such position that it gains as much sunshine in the winter as it can. Values on the
chart show how much energy is delivered to the airflow to heat it up. However during winter
there are many days when the collector is not working because of low sunshine. During
summer they are smaller, but at the same time the energy balance is quite stable and the
collector works every day.
0,00
50,00
100,00
150,00
200,00
250,00
300,00
350,00
1
1
3
2
5
3
7
4
9
6
1
7
3
8
5
9
7
1
0
9
1
2
1
1
3
3
1
4
5
1
5
7
1
6
9
1
8
1
1
9
3
2
0
5
2
1
7
2
2
9
2
4
1
2
5
3
2
6
5
2
7
7
2
8
9
3
0
1
3
1
3
3
2
5
3
3
7
3
4
9
3
6
1
E
n
e
r
g
y

b
a
l
a
n
c
e

[
W
]
Day
Energy balance

P a g e | - 61 -

Figure 6.5.2: Yearly performance of the collector temperature increase

The biggest temperature increases are in winter. When there is enough sunshine to run the
fan the cold outside air can be heated up considerably in the collector. On the other hand
there are some days when it is not heated at all because of lack of sunshine. However the
sun cell was mounted in such way to gain maximum sun during winter. In summer the
temperature increases are lower but more stable. The collector works every day. Hot air is
heated up by only few degrees. The temperature is controlled by the controller all the time.
0,00
2,00
4,00
6,00
8,00
10,00
12,00
14,00
16,00
18,00
20,00
1
1
3
2
5
3
7
4
9
6
1
7
3
8
5
9
7
1
0
9
1
2
1
1
3
3
1
4
5
1
5
7
1
6
9
1
8
1
1
9
3
2
0
5
2
1
7
2
2
9
2
4
1
2
5
3
2
6
5
2
7
7
2
8
9
3
0
1
3
1
3
3
2
5
3
3
7
3
4
9
3
6
1
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

[
o
C
]
Day

P a g e | - 62 -

Figure 6.5.3: Yearly performance of the collector airflow
In the table an average airflow is presented so the values can be higher in some moments.
The maximum values can reach up to 60 m
3
/h. During the whole year collector is working
more less on the same amount of air but at different time of a day because of height of the
sun. Higher values are obtained during sunny winter and spring days.

Figure 6.5.4: Yearly performance of the collector efficiency
0,00
10,00
20,00
30,00
40,00
50,00
60,00
1
1
3
2
5
3
7
4
9
6
1
7
3
8
5
9
7
1
0
9
1
2
1
1
3
3
1
4
5
1
5
7
1
6
9
1
8
1
1
9
3
2
0
5
2
1
7
2
2
9
2
4
1
2
5
3
2
6
5
2
7
7
2
8
9
3
0
1
3
1
3
3
2
5
3
3
7
3
4
9
3
6
1
A
v
e
g
a
r
a
g
e

a
i
r
f
l
o
w

[
m
3
/
h
]
Day
Average airflow
0,00
10,00
20,00
30,00
40,00
50,00
60,00
1
1
3
2
5
3
7
4
9
6
1
7
3
8
5
9
7
1
0
9
1
2
1
1
3
3
1
4
5
1
5
7
1
6
9
1
8
1
1
9
3
2
0
5
2
1
7
2
2
9
2
4
1
2
5
3
2
6
5
2
7
7
2
8
9
3
0
1
3
1
3
3
2
5
3
3
7
3
4
9
3
6
1
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

[
%
]
Day
Efficiency

P a g e | - 63 -

The efficiency of the collector is biggest during winter. This is caused by high gains of energy
from sun. For calculations of efficiency the heat balance is used. In order to calculate the
heat balance the absorbed solar radiation needs to be calculated. In the equation for that
there is a ratio of beam radiation on the tilted surface to that on horizontal surface. During
winter it is very high as the sun is low on the sky. It can cause high results during wintertime.
The energy transferred to the airflow is bigger as the air is at low temperature and gains
much heat from the sun. During summer the sun radiation is more stable (not changing
much in comparison to winter) so the efficiency is similar at this time of year.
Partial monthly results of above presented parameters are placed in Appendix chapter 10
Detailed results of yearly performance.

6.6 Comparison of results from DRY and measurements
After measurements and simulations based on DRY file it was decided to compare these two
parts. Both of them were carried out on the basis of absorbed solar radiation which was
calculated on every hour from one day measurements: direct solar radiation, total solar
radiation and diffuse solar radiation. It means that both for calculations for measurements
and for simplified equations for simulations the same values of solar radiation were used.
This same was done with outdoor temperature.
Results of this comparisons will be presented on three different charts:
Heat balance - absorbed solar radiation
Efficiency absorbed solar radiation
Temperature increase absorbed solar radiation
All of this calculations were performed basing on the measurements without any changes in
the collector.


P a g e | - 64 -

On the chart below the correlation between heat balance and absorbed solar radiation is
presented. The results are very similar. The values from DRY are more stable. It is like that
because of the simplifications made for example: constant value of heat losses (U
L
) and heat
removal factor (Fr) which have got influence on heat balance calculations.

Figure 6.6.1: Comparison of heat balance from DRY file and measurements in reference to absorbed solar
radiation

In the table presented below there are one day average values of heat balance. They are
almost the same, difference equals to 1,2%, which is very small. It can allow to assume that
whole year heat balance gives very realistic results.
Heat balance DRY
[W/m
2
]
Heat balance measurements
[W/m
2
]
137,04 135,40
Figure 6.6.2: Daily average heat balance

0,00
50,00
100,00
150,00
200,00
250,00
300,00
350,00
400,00
450,00
9
8
,
9
9
1
1
6
,
7
0
1
4
9
,
3
5
1
8
6
,
3
3
1
9
1
,
5
7
2
0
3
,
4
6
2
2
8
,
5
4
2
9
7
,
0
7
3
1
0
,
7
3
3
4
3
,
5
1
3
9
1
,
4
4
4
4
4
,
9
5
4
6
1
,
5
0
4
7
0
,
7
7
4
9
9
,
4
9
5
0
1
,
7
3
5
2
6
,
9
6
5
8
5
,
1
0
6
3
0
,
9
7
7
0
9
,
6
7
1
0
3
3
,
7
5
H
e
a
t

b
a
l
a
n
c
e

[
W
]
Heat balance - DRY Heat balance - measurements

P a g e | - 65 -

On the next step the comparison based on efficiency was taken into consideration. The
values look similarly. In the calculations only values with radiation more than 100 W/m
2

were used, because with smaller radiation airflow is driven only by buoyancy forces.

Figure 6.6.3: Comparison of efficiency from DRY file and measurements in reference to absorbed solar
radiation

For daily averages efficiency values look to be very close to each other. Difference between
them equals to 2,5% which is on acceptable level.
Efficiency DRY
[%]
Efficiency measurements
[%]
18,40 17,93
Figure 6.6.4: Daily average efficiency

0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
25,00
30,00
35,00
40,00
45,00
9
8
,
9
9
1
1
6
,
7
0
1
4
9
,
3
5
1
8
6
,
3
3
1
9
1
,
5
7
2
0
3
,
4
6
2
2
8
,
5
4
2
9
7
,
0
7
3
1
0
,
7
3
3
4
3
,
5
1
3
9
1
,
4
4
4
4
4
,
9
5
4
6
1
,
5
0
4
7
0
,
7
7
4
9
9
,
4
9
5
0
1
,
7
3
5
2
6
,
9
6
5
8
5
,
1
0
6
3
0
,
9
7
7
0
9
,
6
7
1
0
3
3
,
7
5
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

[
%
]
Efficiency - DRY Efficiency - measurements

P a g e | - 66 -

The last comparison was carried out for temperature difference between outlet temperature
and ambient temperature. On the chart below it can be seen that the results are not so
similar as in the above presented cases.
The values from DRY are very stable. It is so because of constant values used in heat balance
equation, on the basis of which the outlet temperature is calculated. In case of
measurements the outlet temperature is measured.

Figure 6.6.5: Comparison of temperature difference from: DRY file and measurements in reference to
absorbed solar radiation

The daily average temperature difference looks quite similarly. Difference between this
values equal to 1,2 C what in case of solar collector is on good level.
Temperature difference DRY
[C]
Temperature difference measurements
[C]
10,30 11,50
Figure 6.6.6: Daily average temperature difference

To sum up comparisons between measured and calculated values can confirm that the
simulations made with a usage of DRY file are reliable and they can show an estimated
performance of the collector for whole year.

0,00
2,00
4,00
6,00
8,00
10,00
12,00
14,00
16,00
18,00
20,00
9
8
,
9
9
1
1
6
,
7
0
1
4
9
,
3
5
1
8
6
,
3
3
1
9
1
,
5
7
2
0
3
,
4
6
2
2
8
,
5
4
2
9
7
,
0
7
3
1
0
,
7
3
3
4
3
,
5
1
3
9
1
,
4
4
4
4
4
,
9
5
4
6
1
,
5
0
4
7
0
,
7
7
4
9
9
,
4
9
5
0
1
,
7
3
5
2
6
,
9
6
5
8
5
,
1
0
6
3
0
,
9
7
7
0
9
,
6
7
1
0
3
3
,
7
5
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
[
o
C
]
Temp increase - DRY Temp increase - measurements

P a g e | - 67 -

7 SIMULATIONS IN BSIM
In order to obtain more detailed simulations of energy balance and also to evaluate
additional values such as temperature increase and humidity simulations in BSim are also
conducted. They were performed for two cases:
For summer house with area around 35m
2

For typical family house with area around 70m
2

To carry out the simulation, the following systems have to be applied in BSim in both cases:
System Summer house Family house
Infiltration X X
Lighting X X
People load X X
Heating - X
Equipment X X
Figure 7.1: Systems installed in both cases
Because of lack of possibilities to put a collector on the wall in BSim, it was created by means
of two systems: ventilation system and additional windows on south wall of house with size
of collector. Fresh air supplied by collector will be simulated by means of ventilation system
and heat gains by additional window.
7.1 Model of the building
Separate models are made for summer house and for family house. The geometry is much
simplified to make the simulations easier to conduct. There is no division into rooms, the
area is a big space.
Figure below presents model of summer house used in BSim

P a g e | - 68 -

Collector
Figure 7.1.1 Model of summer house in BSim

Figure below presents model of family house used in BSim.
Collector
Figure 7.1.2 Model of family house in BSim
The weather data for both cases was taken from DRY.
7.2 Construction
BSim contains a material database for different components. All of envelope elements have
been chosen as typical for this type of houses. Additional window (which simulates collector)
is different than other windows. It has got very small g-value=0,25 but U-value equals to U-
value of wall.

P a g e | - 69 -

7.3 Systems
Various systems which can represent infiltration, lighting etc. are used in calculations for
BSim.
People load
This system describes heat load and moisture release from the occupants in the thermal
zone. Variations can be described by use of the schedule. Level of activity can be also
defined to specify how much heat is transmitted.
Heating
This model simulates heating by use of convectors or radiators that are controlled by
thermostats. Maximum power of the system can be set, as well as part of heat released by
means of convection. Use of heating is controlled by set point radiator works when indoor
temperature drops below it. It is also regulated accordingly to outdoor temperature.
This system is installed only in family house.
Infiltration
Infiltration is an uncontrolled leakage of air through building envelope. Calculation of
amount of infiltration air is based on two terms: one is based on temperature difference
between indoor and outdoor and the second on wind pressure difference.
Lightning
This system consists of general ceiling lightning. Working hours of the lightning are defined
by the schedule. Lux level can be set and in our case it equals 200 lux. If the lighting level is
below 200 lux then the artificial light is switched on.
Equipment
This system describes heat emissions in the current thermal zone from machines, appliances,
equipment, etc. Variation over the day, week and year can be defined in the schedule. Also
part to air value can be set, which defines proportions of heat emission that is supplied to
the room by means of convection.


P a g e | - 70 -

7.3.1 Description of installed systems

Summer house
Summer house is used from March to October only at the weekends.
System Values Control Schedule
Equipment
Part to air [-] 0,5 - -100% during weekends
8-21
-50% during weekends
22-7
Heat load [kW] 0,6

Lightning
Task lightning [kW] 0,05 - Light control:
Factor: 1
Lower limit (kW) : 0,1
Temp. Max: 28C

- During weekends
7-8, 17-21
General lightning [kW] 0,2
Lightning level [lux] 200
Lightning type [-] Incadesc.
Solar limit [kW] 0,2
Exhaust part [-] 0
People load
Number of people [-] 3
-

8-21
22-7
Heat generated [kW] 0,07
Moisture
generated
[kg/h] 0,06
Infiltration
Basic air change [1/h] 0,173
- 100% - 1-24 during
weekends
69% - 1-24 during rest of
the week
Temperature
factor
[1/h K] 0
Temperature
power
[-] 0
Wind factor [-] 0
Figure 7.3.1.1: Values used for systems in summer house

For simulations of the collector additional ventilation systems were installed in summer
house.
Venting
(Natural
ventilation)
Input: -Venting control:
SetPoint: -20C
SetP CO
2
: 0 PPM
Factor: 1[-]
April August, whole
week 10-19
September March,
whole week 11-16

Basic AirChange [1/h] 0,42
TmpFactor [-] 0
ToTmpPower [-] 0
WindFactor [s/m/h] 0

Max AirChange [1/h] 2

Figure 7.3.1.2: Values used for ventilation system in summer house


P a g e | - 71 -

Family house
Family house is used whole year. In this case all air is supplied by means of infiltration.
Through additional windows placed on south wall the heat will be transferred into the
house.
Equipment Part to air [-] 0,5 -
-50% 22-16
-90% 17-22 Heat load [kW] 0,6
Lightning Task lightning [kW] 0,05 - Light control:
Factor: 1
Lower limit (kW) : 0,1
Temp. Max: 28C

-April August
19-24
- September March
7-9, 18-24
General lightning [kW] 0,2
Lightning level [lux] 200
Lightning type [-] Incadesc.
Solar limit [kW] 0,2
Exhaust part [-] 0
People load Number of people [-] 3
-

-100% 14-22
- 80% 23-13

Heat generated [kW] 0,07
Moisture
generated
[kg/h] 0,06
Infiltration
Basic air change [1/h] 0,5
- -100% 1-24
Temperature
factor
[1/h K] 0
Temperature
power
[-] 0
Wind factor [-] 0
Heating
Max power [W/m
2
] 50
-Heat control 1:
Set point: 22C
Design temp: -12C
Min power: 5 [W/m
2
]
Te min: 15C
-During heating season
September - April
Part to air [-] 0,6

Figure 7.3.1.3: Values used for systems in family house
7.4 Simplifications
For BSim simulations few simplifications were implemented:
Both summer house/family house were built like one big zone without rooms,
For simulating air flow through the collector in summer house venting system was
used with stable value of air flow 40 m
3
/h,
Heat gains through the collector were made by additional window with heat
transmittance 25%,
Summer house is occupied only at weekends,
Infiltration was designed on level 0,18 1/h for summer house and 0,5 1/h in family
house,

P a g e | - 72 -

Collector is situated on south wall.
7.5 Results
7.5.1 Summer house

Figure 7.5.1.1: Results for comparison of inside temperatures in summer house

In the Figure 7.5.1.1 the temperature is presented in two cases: one without solar air
collector and one with it. The values were calculated as an average daily values when the
collector is working (winter 11-16, summer 10-19). The influence of the collector on the
temperature is relatively small. On the chart it can be seen that in winter the collector
slightly increases the temperature and in summer it decreases it. On the average it changes
the temperature for about 1-2C.
As for the temperature increase it is relatively small probably because of two reasons. First it
was impossible to create a collector in the programme. Therefore the simulations can be
inaccurate (see 7.4 Simplifications). In reality the indoor temperature can be higher.
Secondly in reality the airflow is controlled by a controller.
Additionally in reality during summertime the second fan is exhausting hot air from the
inside so the temperature at that time would be smaller than in simulations.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
9
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
3
3
1
4
4
1
5
5
1
6
6
1
7
7
1
8
8
1
9
9
2
1
0
2
2
1
2
3
2
2
4
3
2
5
4
2
6
5
2
7
6
2
8
7
2
9
8
3
0
9
3
2
0
3
3
1
3
4
2
3
5
3
3
6
4
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

[
o
C
]
Day
Summer house with collector Summer house without collector

P a g e | - 73 -

Figure 7.5.1.2: Results for comparison of relative humidities in summer house
Moulds and fungi form when the relative humidity exceed 70-75%. From the figure 7.5.1.2 it
can be seen that the humidity inside the house does not decrease significantly after
installing the collector. The difference equals to 1-10%. In winter critical value of humidity
for moulds is reached and the collector does not decrease it to a safe level. In summer
almost all the time humidity is low enough to prevent from forming moulds and fungi. In this
time of the year there are more hours of sun the collector works longer. Therefore the
amount of supplied air is bigger and this can be the reason of higher decrease of humidity
during summer time.

Figure 7.5.1.3: Results for comparison of CO
2
levels in summer house
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1
1
3
2
5
3
7
4
9
6
1
7
3
8
5
9
7
1
0
9
1
2
1
1
3
3
1
4
5
1
5
7
1
6
9
1
8
1
1
9
3
2
0
5
2
1
7
2
2
9
2
4
1
2
5
3
2
6
5
2
7
7
2
8
9
3
0
1
3
1
3
3
2
5
3
3
7
3
4
9
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

h
u
m
i
d
i
t
y

[
%
]
Day
Summer house without collector Summer house with collector
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
6
5
7
3
8
1
8
9
9
7
1
0
5
1
1
3
1
2
1
1
2
9
1
3
7
1
4
5
1
5
3
1
6
1
1
6
9
1
7
7
1
8
5
1
9
3
2
0
1
2
0
9
2
1
7
2
2
5
2
3
3
2
4
1
2
4
9
2
5
7
2
6
5
2
7
3
2
8
1
2
8
9
2
9
7
3
0
5
C
O
2

[
P
P
M
]
Day
Summer house without collector Summer house with collector

P a g e | - 74 -

In the figure the CO
2
level is presented only for the time when the summer house is used
(March October). During wintertime there is nobody in the house so this level stays low.
On the chart it can be seen that CO
2
level during the time when collector is working and
when summer house is occupied decreases by around 25%. However, the concentration of
CO
2
is still relatively big. It is so because on the small area of 35 m
2
at the weekends there
are three people what increases significantly the CO
2
level.
7.5.2 Single family house

Figure 7.5.2.1: Results for energy consumption for heating in family house

Without collector With one collector With two collectors With three collectors
[kWh] [kWh] [kWh] [kWh]
2575 2536 2498 2462
Figure 7.5.2.2: Results for energy consumption for heating in family house

On the charts it can be seen that the usage of the collector in such a family house. The usage
of three collectors has decreased the energy consumption by approximately 100 kWh per
year. It is so small because the collector works only during the day and usually in wintertime
(when the house is heated) only for a few hours. Another disadvantage of this system is that
it works only during sunny or partly sunny days. However during winter there are many
cloudy days so it does not work every day.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
January February March April October November December
E
n
e
r
g
y

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

f
o
r

h
e
a
t
i
n
g

[
k
W
h
]
Months during heating season
Energy consumption for heating
Without collector With one collector With two collectors With three collectors

P a g e | - 75 -

On the basis of detailed results the heat gains through one collector (see Figures: 7.5.2.3 and
7.5.2.4) are relatively high because during winter one collector can produce almost 200
Watts and in summer around 110 Watts (what is similar to the measurements). On the other
hand in winter the sun is low in the sky and only for a few hours.
On the charts below there is sun radiation transmitted through one window (of size of a
collector).

Figure 7.5.2.3: Results for heat gains through the collector in February

Figure 7.5.2.4: Results for heat gains through the collector in July
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
1 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14 15 17 18 19 21 22 24 25 27 28 30 31
H
e
a
t

g
a
i
n
s

t
h
r
o
u
g
h

t
h
e

c
o
l
l
e
c
t
o
r

[
W
]
Days in February
Heat gains through the collector in February
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
1 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14 15 17 18 19 21 22 24 25 27 28 30
H
e
a
t

g
a
i
n
s

t
h
r
o
u
g
h

t
h
e

c
o
l
l
e
c
t
o
r

[
W
]
Days in July
Heat gains through the collector in July

P a g e | - 76 -


P a g e | - 77 -

8 CONCLUSIONS
At the end of the project, after all measurements, calculations and simulations (DRY and
BSim) some conclusions and recommendations were made. They are divided in few
categories based on previous work.
8.1 Measurements
Collector inlets can be made bigger to have the same area as air channel. One of
them has got 38 cm
2
, but size of the channel equals to 56cm
2
. In this way more air
could be supplied to the room, but with smaller temperature increase.
Different inlet covers should be used because they block the airflow. It is caused by
their shape which looks like small grate and takes up approximately 30% of the inlet
area.
The best orientation for the collector is south, because the sun is operating for the
longest time in comparison with other directions.
Changes made to the collector in Optimization (Chapter 5) have increased the
maximal possible airflow from 50 m
3
/h to 60 m
3
/h what has influence on increase of
efficiency.
Measurements of power supply from solar cell has shown that PV can produce power
equaled to 5-11 Watts.
With smaller airflows (high resistance made by small orifice) and high sun radiation
the temperature increase can be up to 30 degrees. On the other hand with bigger
airflows (smaller resistance and bigger orifice) the temperature increase was smaller
and equals to maximum 20 degrees.
On the basis of measurements it can be noticed that with bigger airflows there is
bigger pressure drop on the collector. This values can be seen in all tables.
Maximal calculated heat balance based on measurements obtained during sunny day
and big airflows was 450 W.
The efficiency of the collector was exceeding in some cases 45%. In comparison to
other models of solar air collectors on market it was relatively high.
When the fan was working in reverse direction (exhausting air from the inside) the
maximal airflow after introduced changes was around 40 m
3
/h. This value is so small
because of opposite buoyancy driving forces.
When considering 0,5 1/h what is a required value, one collector is sufficient for a
house of 35-40 m
2
area.
8.2 Yearly performance calculations and simulations
On the basis of yearly performance of the collector the average energy balance is
small around 100 Watts in summer. It is higher in winter and equals to 300 Watts.

P a g e | - 78 -

The airflow for whole year is stable and before introduced changes it equals to 40
m
3
/h. In winter and autumn season the collector is not working every day because of
lack of sun.
On the basis of chart depicting yearly performance it can be seen the efficiency in summer
time equals to 15%, but in winter time is higher and reaches to 40% but is working on fewer
days than in summer.
8.3 BSim simulations of usage of collector in summer house and family house
The collector does not help much for summer houses which are occupied only at the
weekends and do not have any heating inside. It does not decrease much the
possibility of moulds, fungi etc. and prevent from stale air. It decreases the humidity
only around 1 - 10%. The temperature is changing on a small extent.
In case of family houses which are two times bigger than summer houses one
collector does not change indoor conditions significantly. For size of houses about
70m
2
there should be at least two or even three collectors to improve the indoor air
quality (minimum requirements of 0,5 1/h).
The usage of three collectors in family house has decreased the energy consumption
by approximately 100 kWh per year. It is so small because the collector works only
during the day and usually in wintertime (when the house is heated) only for a few
hours.
8.4 Recommendation
Solar cell can be divided into smaller pieces then if on one part of solar cell there is
shadow the other part can still power the fan.
Solar cell can be provided separately from the collector to put it on the roof in order
not to have any shadow on it.
Instead of two fans, one fan working in two directions can be a better solution (that
type of fan has 100% power working one way, when reverse it is 70%).


P a g e | - 79 -

9 APPENDIX - EQUIPMENT
9.1 Temperature measurements
9.1.1 Equipment

Thermocouples are one of the most widely used temperature sensors and one of the easiest
to use as well. Thermocouples are pairs of dissimilar metal wires, which are joined at least at
one end. When the junction of two metals is heated or cooled a voltage is produced that can
be correlated back to temperature.
There are many types of thermocouples. Different kind means different combination of
metals. However only four, identified by letters K, J, T, E are mostly used.
In our measurements only thermocouples type K (Chrome (+) Alumel(-)) were used. This
type of thermocouple is most commonly used for general purposes as it is inexpensive and
available in a range of -200C to 1350C.

Figure 9.1.1.1: K-type thermocouple
Direct solar radiation can strongly affect the temperature results when measuring the air
temperature. As silver has a really good reflectivity of visible light rays silver coated
thermocouples were used. Additionally they were placed in a silver coated shielding tube
ventilated by a fan to obtain most accurate results.

Figure 9.1.1.2: Thermocouples in silver coated shielding tube

P a g e | - 80 -

Fluke Helios Plus 2287A Data Logger
All thermocouples except one are measuring temperature in collector or air temperature
and are connected to Compensation Box. The Compensation Box is then connected with
Fluke Helios Plus 2287A from where all data could be transferred into a PC. One left
thermocouple is connected to both Compensation Box and Ice Point Thermocouple
Reference to measure the temperature of the Compensation Box.

Figure 9.1.1.3: Fluke Helios Plus 2287A Data Logger with Ice Point Thermocouple Reference

Figure 9.1.1.4: Compensation Box

P a g e | - 81 -

In the experiment temperature is measured by 10 thermocouples.
9.1.2 Calibration

Thermocouples were calibrated by means of ISOCAL 6 VENUS2140B+ and Precision
Thermometer F200.
Calibration was made for temperatures: 10C, 30C, 50C, 70C, 90C and 110C. It consists in
comparing the temperature shown by the precision thermometer and this measured in
ISOCAL 6, which is measured by Fluke Helios Plus 2287A.

Figure 9.1.2.1: ISOCAL 6 VENUS2140B+ Figure 9.1.2.2: Precision Thermometer F200
9.2 Radiation measurements
9.2.1 Equipment
For radiation measurements four different types of pyranometers were used. As they are
endangered by weather and wind therefore all of them are protected by a ball-shaped
protective glass.


P a g e | - 82 -

- Kipp&Zonen CM11 and CM 21 (which is also a reference pyranometer) are used for
measuring total radiation (sum of direct and diffuse radiation) or reflected radiation,

Figure 9.2.1.1: Pyranometer CM11

Figure 9.2.1.2: Pyranometer CM21


P a g e | - 83 -

- Delta T Devices BF 3 is used for measuring both total and diffuse radiation,

Figure 9.2.1.3: Pyranometer BF3
- Wilh. Lambrecht Kg Pyrheliometer number 1550 which is measuring total radiation.

Figure 9.2.1.4: Pyranometer Wilh. Lambrecht Kg
All of them are connected with Fluke Helios Plus 2287A data logger, the same as
thermocouples. Then the data are transferred to PC.


P a g e | - 84 -

9.2.2 Calibration
Pyranometers CM11, BF3, 1550 were calibrated by means of reference pyranometer
(CM21). During a sunny day all 4 pyranometers were placed in a wooden box painted black
(to prevent reflectance of sun rays). All obtained results were compared with those from the
reference pyranometer and new values of sensitivity were calculated.

Figure 9.2.2.1: Setup for calibrating pyranometers
9.3 Pressure loss
9.3.1 Equipment
Pressure loss is measured by means of the differential pressure transducer. This device
converts electric signal into pressure difference. In the measurements different ranges of the
transducers were used: 0-20Pa, 0-100Pa, 0-500Pa. They are connected with power supply
equipment and with Fluke Helios Plus 2287A data logger.

Figure 9.3.1.1: Differential pressure transducer

P a g e | - 85 -

9.3.2 Calibration
Differential pressure transducer was connected with reference micromanometer. On one
cable there was a pump to create a pressure difference. That value was read by the
transducer. This transducer was connected to a power supply which was next connected to a
PC. All data could be read on the computer. By comparing those values with ones from the
micromanometer the calibration was made.

Bibliography

[1] P. Grzelecki, P. Matuszewski, M. Sawicka Ventilation In Aircraft Cabin, Aalborg
University 2008
[2] O. Kalyanova, F. Zanghirella et el. Measuring air temperature in glazed ventilated
facades in the presence of direct solar radiation, Aalborg University, Politecnico di Torino.


P a g e | - 86 -


P a g e | - 87 -

10 APPENDIX DETAILED RESULTS OF YEARLY
PERFORMANCE

Here all results concerning yearly performance of the collector are presented. Every chart
presents values for one month. The single values on a chart are daily averages.
10.1 Monthly energy balance

Figure 10.1.1: Monthly performance of the collector energy balance in January

Figure 10.1.2: Monthly performance of the collector energy balance in February
0,00
50,00
100,00
150,00
200,00
250,00
300,00
350,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
E
n
e
r
g
y

b
a
l
a
n
c
e

[
W
]
Day
Energy balance - January
0,00
50,00
100,00
150,00
200,00
250,00
300,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
E
n
e
r
g
y

b
a
l
a
n
c
e

[
W
]
Day
Energy balance - February

P a g e | - 88 -

Figure 10.1.3: Monthly performance of the collector energy balance in March

Figure 10.1.4: Monthly performance of the collector energy balance in April

Figure 10.1.5: Monthly performance of the collector energy balance in May
0,00
50,00
100,00
150,00
200,00
250,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
E
n
e
r
g
y

b
a
l
a
n
c
e

[
W
]
Day
Energy balance - March
0,00
50,00
100,00
150,00
200,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
E
n
e
r
g
y

b
a
l
a
n
c
e

[
W
]
Day
Energy balance - April
0,00
20,00
40,00
60,00
80,00
100,00
120,00
140,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
E
n
e
r
g
y

b
a
l
a
n
c
e

[
W
]
Day
Energy balance - May

P a g e | - 89 -

Figure 10.1.6: Monthly performance of the collector energy balance in June

Figure 10.1.7: Monthly performance of the collector energy balance in July

Figure 10.1.8: Monthly performance of the collector energy balance in August
0,00
20,00
40,00
60,00
80,00
100,00
120,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
E
n
e
r
g
y

b
a
l
a
n
c
e

[
W
]
Day
Energy balance - June
0,00
20,00
40,00
60,00
80,00
100,00
120,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
E
n
e
r
g
y

b
a
l
a
n
c
e

[
W
]
Day
Energy balance - July
0,00
50,00
100,00
150,00
200,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
E
n
e
r
g
y

b
a
l
a
n
c
e

[
W
]
Day
Energy balance - August

P a g e | - 90 -

Figure 10.1.9: Monthly performance of the collector energy balance in September

Figure 10.1.10: Monthly performance of the collector energy balance in October

Figure 10.1.11: Monthly performance of the collector energy balance in November
0,00
50,00
100,00
150,00
200,00
250,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
E
n
e
r
g
y

b
a
l
a
n
c
e

[
W
]
Day
Energy balance - September
0,00
50,00
100,00
150,00
200,00
250,00
300,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
E
n
e
r
g
y

b
a
l
a
n
c
e

[
W
]
Day
Energy balance - October
0,00
50,00
100,00
150,00
200,00
250,00
300,00
350,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
E
n
e
r
g
y

b
a
l
a
n
c
e

[
W
]
Day
Energy balance - November

P a g e | - 91 -

Figure 10.1.12: Monthly performance of the collector energy balance in December
10.2 Monthly temperature increase

Figure 10.2.1: Monthly performance of the collector temperature increase in January

Figure 10.2.2: Monthly performance of the collector temperature increase in February
0,00
50,00
100,00
150,00
200,00
250,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
E
n
e
r
g
y

b
a
l
a
n
c
e

[
W
]
Day
Energy balance - December
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

[
o
C
]
Day
Temperature increase - January
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

[
o
C
]
Day
Temperature increase - February

P a g e | - 92 -

Figure 10.2.3: Monthly performance of the collector temperature increase in March

Figure 10.2.4: Monthly performance of the collector temperature increase in April

Figure 10.2.5: Monthly performance of the collector temperature increase in May
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

[
o
C
]
Day
Temperature increase - March
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

[
o
C
]
Day
Temperature increase - April
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

[
o
C
]
Day
Temperature increase - May

P a g e | - 93 -

Figure 10.2.6: Monthly performance of the collector temperature increase in June

Figure 10.2.7: Monthly performance of the collector temperature increase in July

Figure 10.2.8: Monthly performance of the collector temperature increase in August
0,00
2,00
4,00
6,00
8,00
10,00
12,00
14,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

[
o
C
]
Day
Temperature increase - June
0,00
2,00
4,00
6,00
8,00
10,00
12,00
14,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

[
o
C
]
Day
Temperature increase - July
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

[
o
C
]
Day
Temperature increase - August

P a g e | - 94 -

Figure 10.2.9: Monthly performance of the collector temperature increase in September

Figure 10.2.10: Monthly performance of the collector temperature increase in October

Figure 10.2.11: Monthly performance of the collector temperature increase in November
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

[
o
C
]
Day
Temperature increase - September
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

[
o
C
]
Day
Temperature increase - October
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

[
o
C
]
Day
Temperature increase - November

P a g e | - 95 -

Figure 10.2.12: Monthly performance of the collector temperature increase in December
10.3 Monthly airflow

Figure 10.3.1: Monthly performance of the collector airflow in January

Figure 10.3.2: Monthly performance of the collector airflow in February
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

[
o
C
]
Day
Temperature increase - December
0,00
10,00
20,00
30,00
40,00
50,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
A
i
r
f
l
o
w

[
m
3
/
h
]
Day
Airflow - January
0,00
10,00
20,00
30,00
40,00
50,00
60,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
A
i
r
f
l
o
w

[
m
3
/
h
]
Day
Airflow - February

P a g e | - 96 -

Figure 10.3.3: Monthly performance of the collector airflow in March

Figure 10.3.4: Monthly performance of the collector airflow in April

Figure 10.3.5: Monthly performance of the collector airflow in May
0,00
10,00
20,00
30,00
40,00
50,00
60,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
A
i
r
f
l
o
w

[
m
3
/
h
]
Day
Airflow - March
0,00
10,00
20,00
30,00
40,00
50,00
60,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A
i
r
f
l
o
w

[
m
3
/
h
]
Day
Airflow - April
0,00
10,00
20,00
30,00
40,00
50,00
60,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
A
i
r
f
l
o
w

[
m
3
/
h
]
Day
Airflow - May

P a g e | - 97 -

Figure 10.3.6: Monthly performance of the collector airflow in June

Figure 10.3.7: Monthly performance of the collector airflow in July

Figure 10.3.8: Monthly performance of the collector airflow in August
0,00
10,00
20,00
30,00
40,00
50,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A
i
r
f
l
o
w

[
m
3
/
h
]
Day
Airflow - June
0,00
10,00
20,00
30,00
40,00
50,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
A
i
r
f
l
o
w

[
m
3
/
h
]
Day
Airflow - July
0,00
10,00
20,00
30,00
40,00
50,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
A
i
r
f
l
o
w

[
m
3
/
h
]
Day
Airflow - August

P a g e | - 98 -

Figure 10.3.9: Monthly performance of the collector airflow in September

Figure 10.3.10: Monthly performance of the collector airflow in October

Figure 10.3.11: Monthly performance of the collector airflow in November
0,00
10,00
20,00
30,00
40,00
50,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A
i
r
f
l
o
w

]
m
3
/
h
]
Day
Airflow - September
0,00
10,00
20,00
30,00
40,00
50,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
A
i
r
f
l
o
w

[
m
3
/
h
]
Day
Airflow - October
0,00
20,00
40,00
60,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A
i
r
f
l
o
w

[
m
3
/
h
]
Day
Airflow - November

P a g e | - 99 -

Figure 10.3.12: Monthly performance of the collector airflow in December
10.4 Monthly efficiency

Figure 10.4.1: Monthly performance of the collector efficiency in January

Figure 10.4.2: Monthly performance of the collector efficiency in February
0,00
10,00
20,00
30,00
40,00
50,00
60,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
A
i
r
f
l
o
w

[
m
3
/
h
]
Day
Airflow - December
0,00
10,00
20,00
30,00
40,00
50,00
60,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

[
%
]
Day
Efficiency - January
0,00
10,00
20,00
30,00
40,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

[
%
]
Day
Efficiency - February

P a g e | - 100 -

Figure 10.4.3: Monthly performance of the collector efficiency in March

Figure 10.4.4: Monthly performance of the collector efficiency in April

Figure 10.4.5: Monthly performance of the collector efficiency in May
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
25,00
30,00
35,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

[
%
]
Day
Efficiency - March
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
25,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

[
%
]
Day
Efficiency - April
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

[
%
]
Day
Efficiency - May

P a g e | - 101 -

Figure 10.4.6: Monthly performance of the collector efficiency in June

Figure 10.4.7: Monthly performance of the collector efficiency in July

Figure 10.4.8: Monthly performance of the collector efficiency in August
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

[
%
]
Day
Efficiency - June
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

[
%
]
Day
Efficiency - July
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
25,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

[
%
]
Day
Efficiency- August

P a g e | - 102 -

Figure 10.4.9: Monthly performance of the collector efficiency in September

Figure 10.4.10: Monthly performance of the collector efficiency in October

Figure 10.4.11: Monthly performance of the collector efficiency in November
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
25,00
30,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

[
%
]
Day
Efficiency - September
0,00
10,00
20,00
30,00
40,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

[
%
]
Day
Efficiency - October
0,00
10,00
20,00
30,00
40,00
50,00
60,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

[
%
]
Day
Efficiency - November

P a g e | - 103 -

Figure 10.4.12: Monthly performance of the collector efficiency in December

0,00
10,00
20,00
30,00
40,00
50,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

[
%
]
Day
Efficiency - December

Master Thesis - Solar Air Collector

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Master Thesis - Solar Air Collector

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

OPTIMIZATION OF

SOLAR AIR COLLECTOR

You might also like