Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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PAITTIES AI..ID
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IDEOLOGY
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SECl'ION A
As r'c sar' in tlrc
lutloduction,
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ersaatjp. ult*gil-lf iI,rtrs about pullic affairs..a.1e -oJSg$?$: each party in a particular p,lty s)'stern h.rs its orvn ideas and approach to tlre relation betweel state and
socictl'ancl to lhe role of the state. Nor is this popular vieu,, that parties clo have a nrisplaced one. As Klaus von lleynre sa1,s clf Europe,,over lhe longcr tcrnr ouly parties based on an ideology lrirve succeeded in establishing thcnrsclvcs.'r l-lrr-r.s, it is not sLrrprising that a conrparative stucly of political parties should bcgirr by consideling palties as organizatinns that have, or purporr to
sls.l thnt*hr;iu-lagilhslJrp;s-gf.,il&llru+aUliralr+iqials. Especiaily in t iberal cleurocracies, palties are popularly perceived as differing from one another in respcct of the views arrd ideologies they espouse. parties are seen as
clific.cnt idr'ol.gies,
havc, nn ideology.
jhcre rvcr.e r'n'y parlies !'lh-gs-g, lo):-".XUrgJ!*_414/.,q "tues eb.gi'i'g.-palfglagg tlrrougir their co'trol of pe.lilisol office"1. 'l'he de.ua'ds inrposed by having to col]lPe tc fol tlle votes of rr Itlilss electorate nray have entailed the entbracipg of an
ideology, [rut thc non-icleological a.sPects of politics continued to infecr nrany l)ilrties n'ell into the tu'enlieth century. Ilut, rvhile \\,e must not ltlse sight of this |oint, tlrc centlality of ideology in party politics is trndeniable. But horv should political sciclrtists try to unclerstancl the adoption of a particular ideology and,
nro.e cspcci.rlll', the Persistcnce of that ideology or its modification?
of coursc, the ideological 'clinrension' of parties rnust be placed in context. An obvious point to makc is lhat, even in Europe, Cg"rj.tr.g 1lr. ggft,q4-glilf.elSfufnA_ tiort to libclirl clenrocracy (in the late r.rineteenth and early t*entieth centurie*
18
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PARTIES PARTIES
AND IDEOLOGY 19
In general
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apProaches' \\,c can clistipguislr betrveen two different tcl bc to the tlrem lies i,r ho," rcsp.ttsive they take parties
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ancl dcl adapl thcir itlt' The first approach viervs Partics as !rctors rvho catl
100 Houses are located on a straiqht street, and their occur;ants are the only consumers in the cornmunity.
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ologytorlreopilritlrrsalrcll,aluesoftlrcirlikeli'supporlcrsirltllcclcct<lrittc., as lla'irlg s()lllc cil''lclt' l()r ts), lontrast tlre seco.cl appr.ach sces parties
adaplation, but also
Nlrcrr it rvas ftrtttr'lctl institution'.'I'hat is, aspects of the icleology a Pal.tYhacl in $,hich it cler,clopccl have changccl, arrci the conditions p"rsiirs eu.T, "ft., so' pnrty', history shapes /rory it adapts $'hcn it is able to clo
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3. Two shopkeepers are setting up in business, each having the goal of maximizing the number o{ customers they have; both of them can choose to locate tl-reir shops between any two houses, but the two shops cannot occupy the same locatron.
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rvl'ro relate PirrtY itleoThe first ol these t$'o aprproaches is associated rvith those In political scicltce the analvsis o[' Iogy to spatittl cotttpctttiott l)cttveett p(lrtics. f)orr'ns, and rve shall be spatial compctition orves rrruch to the iclcas of Allthony qreate r detiril iti Clialtter I l ' lrl Arr considering his arrali,tic franrerr,ork irl
Frorn the perspective o{ customers considered as a single grouP, the optimal posrtion for the shops is for one to be between houses 33 and 34 and {or the other shop to be between houses 66 and 67. This minimizes total travelling time; no customer is more than 25 houses away frorn a shop:
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of the popular iclea ol'thc Ecorrorttic |'lreory tt.l L)etrrocrocl' I)orvtls tllal<cs ttse .political spectrurn'-tl]at is, of there being a left-rt'ing arld a right-rvirlg I"'sit itlrr left and right'r Ile linlis on political issues and intern.rediate positions betrveetl lJgtellirlg) rvhich explirins this to an apali,sis cleveloired itl ecotronlics (by Harolcl
l-rouses; cLlstomers have houses. f'he firnts contpete for custollrers frot-rl those
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trirvel to the neat'esl sltop' so takes tiDte, ancl is tlte|e'fcI-e costll,, ctlst()lllers rt'oltlcl to tlre shgp ()\vllels rvliere thcy rvere ltlcatccl ill
From the perspective of each shop owner, however, the number of customers can be increased by moving from these positions to a site closer to that of the other shop; if the one shop were to stay between house 25 and 26, the other shop owner could increase his or her own sales, and decrease those of his or her rivals bv choosino to move to a site between houses 26 and 27.
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that it u,oulci ltatter copsijcra[rly relation to their livlls (sec Ilox 1.1)' political vi$vs ct'ttltl llence, in I)orvns's aDrrll'sis, tl'rc Illore qerleral l)oti()ll that lirlkccl to the nltlre LrlrYsical be n.rapped rvithin a spacc, or ou a sPcclrttrll, is (in I-lotelling's anall'sis)' notionof space irtvolyed ip cgnrpetiti6tl tretrvcctr shops of l.rouses' f)orvtrs Following Hotelling's assulltption that thcre is orrll'one stleet on a single icicoin his nrodel asstlllles tllat all political irositions cor'rlcl be nrrpped on tllat sPectrtllll Itlgical sL.ectr-ultl. A r'oter rvoulcl krlorv his or he r otvtl Positiotr the part),that lad an ideological fr(rsrti()rl uJ, in v.tiug, *,.rrld be lookirrg, fcrr that was closcst to his or her owrl one. we very briefly this is thc basis ,tf the spatial lltt'trt)' trf |.llty colrlPetition' chapter it is rlot s<t ttltlch retttrn to it in Chirptcr l l' Iror our ptrr|oscs irr tlris l)avitl l)owl.ts bttt a ntore recellt g'rorrP of 'sltatiirl thcorists'-lan li'rdee'
Consequently, each shop locates itself as close to the midcJle of the street as possible, between houses 49 and 50 and between 50 and 51. Thrs leaves sonre customers a distance of 49 frouses away frorn a shop:
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Given the above assumptions, competition does not lead to shops locating themselves at positions that would be optimal for the customers.
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PARTIES
PARTIES
AND IDEOLOGY 21
Urllikc l)orvtts' rvlttr Robertsor-r, and others-rvhose lvork nceds to bc considercd. iri ordcr to devclop his sirnply assuntes that there is a single icleological sirectrul)) rvorld differ fr''r otrc n,-,uiyi;r, these researc5ers exarniue horv parties i. lhe real sPectrulll, or altother. Questions such as whether there is a single icleological aIc illllollg'st the ttttes in liberal denrocratic
irolitics rnany diflerent spectrullls, isstres' tlrertt. Is there, perhaps, r,ne'dittlcltsit.rlt'r'cl'lting to ceoltolttic fhat interest another relating to'lifestyle/persorlal valuesl ancl so otl? allcl his With clifferent politicai sciclltisls covering eacfi of t|c cotttltrics, lSrrclge of'ltar lics ill liIcral colleague s analyse the clectoral Proglalllllies' the lllarlile'sttts, -l \\'ar. ltcy consitlcr thc errlphasis gtVetl t<r de'rocracies since the Secolcl \\brld sralt rl Positiolt different itertrs in a party's progralnllte, ancl thcl'rllaP crclt P,rlt)"s
ils traditiorts atrcl lrabits, its feel.'a A party's doctrines arc not the salne as lrs proSran)nles or nlarrifestos, though usually these latter rvill be a fair guide to what its doctrines are. Furthernrore, doctrines are not the only conrponents ofparty ideology; its ideology ernbraces its ethos as well as its doctrines. Exarnining a party's doctrines and ethos enables us to explain rvlrat it rvill try to do rvhen in governnrelrt or rvhen it is in a position to inlluence governnlent policy; exarnining that part)r's Progralttntes alotre nray rvell give us only a linritecl understanding of horv
is tlrlt, irl l'act, on a given issue on to'ideological spaccsl llo''vcYcr, rvhat th$'lind si'glc'lcli-rig5t'sprtial partii..,rcrgranrmes in most fou'tries te'd to rellect a tlirltctlstotrs dintetrsion: '. . . what is rernarkable is the linlitcd rarlge ol-leatling . \\/hat is which emerges, ancl their readl,conrParabilitl'acfoss llrost ct)r'rlltfics. ' ' of a t1'pe gf rnost strikirig a1d dramatic is the erlergertce ilt utost c,tttllries . . .'3 Ancl they gr-r on to identify lour. bloacl types of
it ',r'ill behave. 'l he Iinritations of trying to recluce party idcology to party prograntntes are especially apparent in regimes rvhere these ideologies may be a mixture of the standard left/right dinrension and other dirnensions. South Anrerica provides nrany instances of parties that ernbrace populism (or anti-populism), nationalisnr (or anti-nationalisnr), as well as left-rving (or right-rving) ideology. 1-he Prol)lcms in trying to reduce the analysis of these Parties' ideologies to the
spatial rcpresentation of the ir pl'ogretntntes are tu'ofolcl: r 'l'he parties rnal' make quite cliflerent, and contradictory, appeals to different groups of sr:PPorters. -l'he Peronist Party in Argentina, for exanrple, had quite distinct lefi and right r'irrgs; its ideology could not be reduced to a single positiolt olt a spectrunt.
iamilies-rvhich they call 'Conrrnunist','socialist','Cerltristl allcl lCorser'ative'-which are to be found occuirying posilions ott the iclcological
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si)ect ru m.
Left-Right cor.rfrontatiou
it cotrIn nrany respects this kind ofanalysis is appealirlg, tlot lcast bccartsc 'left' and 'right' i1 politics llon'eve r' thcre fornts rvitl.r or"rr everyday notiolls of tartt, tliffclcrrccs are reasolts for arguing that it fails to caPtLrre subtle, btrt irrlpgr lunrped togcthcr n'itltitr onc'larrril1'l bet*,eerr parties tl-rat are in danger of being cnr['l'rcc At the heart of the problem witl-r their alal)'sis is that party pr()g,lal)irlles a partl"s'ptrblic lrrcc'; only certain aspects of a party's ideology. A prclliratlrtltc is tltcrc it is rvltat tIe party says it wal]ts to clo. It is cgnstrttctecl to attract lotels' [rtrt be statc(l irl llot are nrally aspects of a party's bcliefs, vclues, or ethos rvhich tilitY l'his is not because ntost PaIties are deliberatell'tri'irlg to corrccal its ntanifesto. ils])ects of tllcir s6nre of t[eir 6pipiols fronr the public, irut becar-rse there are by tllose ctlros ir6cl tl.reir values that either are llot articulatecl or are believecl u'ortlr sl'ltirrg Tllcse asl)ects ';i11 [qc.tttc 'crf itttl't'r 'rtli'c itt thc pnrty to be rlot tc) tant, for exlprple, whep a parly is itt ggyet tttlretrt and is facecl rvith resPolldil)g policies listed in tlle ttlatlilesto ille itrapunloreseen circtrrllstarlces to rvhich the propriate, or irrelevant, gr 1'fric[ force the abarlc'lol-ttlletlt ol- niallil'csttl c()l]lnlitnlents.
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dinrensions that are far rnore likell' to be revealed by a party's reactiotts lo events than in any for:nral statement of intentions. The analysis of party proSrarllntes is rtecessarily ar.r analysis that is biased torvards uncoveritrg tlre left/right dinrension rather tl.ran other ones.
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if thc south Aruerican states expose this aspect of ideology in its sharpest
fcrrnr, it should be noted that populism, for exanrple, has also been a dinrelsiorr o1-party idcology in southern f:r.rrope. As rvith the case ol'pASOK in Greece, elenrents of norr-class politics rnay lead to ideological 'nrutations'. The general danger is that \\'e conre to see other regirles fronr a Nortlrern European perspecuve.
Nevertheless, as rvill be seen later in this cl.raPter, the 'spatial' aPproach is not tvithout its nrerits; the point being nrade here is that like all approaches, the 'spatiirl' apprpn6l does havc lirnitations.
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poipt being ntadc het'e catt also be illunrirrated b1'relirting it to a tlistirlcclrarvn by H. Nl. Drucker'. irr his sf trclies of the llritish Lrtlrotrl l)irrtv l)rrrciicr
distinguishes the party's doctritles ll^orlr its etllos:'l)gctr-irlcs catt be cohcretlt statenlents of a positiop. l)octripcs cirtt lcitil to policics.... ilt'tllc cthos of tltc party I havc in ntincl rvhat art carlict'age nright lravc callcti thc spirit oitlrc pirltl';
PARTIES
AND IDEOLOGY 23
22
PARIIES
beliefsandvalucsthatthepartyhadatitsfcrundillg.Horvstrtrtlgthescbclicl.sarlcl in to Party' but thcir tti:"'ttt,^t:lllcsts that' values are will vary fror.n party a spalial not by looking at party pcl'sitions tln analysing parties, '"e shut'ld begin political scierttist who of difterent paities.'l'he dimension roday but at the origlns Klatts von us.fil frrr]].u,ork within this tradition ts has developed the rnost Beynre.CentrirrghisanalysisontheEuropearrliberaldenrocracicsr,tltll}cytne identifiesninel-najor.Partygroupsthatcallbecorrsidereclundertllesatltenaltle' '(orifnr,rittu that the sanrt'Party grotrPs spirit'uellii as he calls thenr)'5 He argues
bc qr,rite correct in clailning that the vast nlajority of parties representcd in liuropcan dcrnocracies are enrbraced within his ft'atnework. (1.,) 'l'here is a tentptatiotl to try to lit into the schenla as lllally parties as possiblc. Arguably von lJeyme hirnself falls victim to this ten.rptation in the case o[
Ireland. Antor.rg the parties of the European democracies those in Ireland are peculiar. l'here are t\\'o main causes of this'exceptionalisnr'. One is the absence of a large industrial sector-lreland renrains a highly agricultural societl'; the other is that the nr't-r larg,cst parties in Ireland arose fronr divisions in the Irish nationalist moverlerrt during the war with Ilritain, and the subsequent settlenlent, in the earll' 1920s. tsoth Fianna Fiil and Fine Gael have been socially cortservatit'e parties but neitl.rer of then-r can really be regarded as either a Conservative or a Christian Democratic party. Von Beyme understauds the problems of classifying them in his schenta, but in the end-and I tvould argue incorrectly-treats Fianna Fdil as a type of C-onscrvative party. It n.ray be more appropriate to regard it in tlre salrle way the Icelandic Wornen's Alliance-as falling outside the frarnervork. (c)'l'hc pcrsistence ofaspccts ofpatronage politics in parties that seenl to be rrrcnrbers ol'a particular .fantille spirittrclle can produce a rather different set of party objectives than the ones usualll' associated with that funille. ln other
as
Zealand, but he clainrs that his classilicator.v are to be found in Rrr,rrliu and Nerv to the Uniteci states, or to otl.rer liberal schema cannot be exte'ded to Capacla, Latin Atrlericatl detrlocracies)' democracies (such as lr.rdia or the
Inorderoftheir.n-'.,g.n..inEuropearrpoliticstlresefrrlril/cs.spirilrrcl/csarc:
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(2) ConservativeParties, (3) Socialist and Social l)etrocrattc partres' (4) Christian Democratic Parties' (5) Cornmunist Partles' (6) Agrarian Parties' (7) Regional and ethnic Parties' (8) Right-wing extremist parties' and (9) EcologY movement'
Butwhyshoulc]virttrallyalltheEr'rropcalrdenlocraciesl-rar'eprodtrcedparties of 'family' that is for'r'd in n.rany parts that can be see' as part of an iclentifialle
'eed
rr,ords, thc intcraction of tlre politics of patronage and the politics of ideology nray result in an at1'pical nten-rber of the farnily. This may raise doubts as to ir'hether it should be cor.rnted as a tttettrber of that famill'at all. A good exarltple of this is the PASOK party in Greece. In a nunlber of respects it seems to tre a nrember of the Socialist and Social Der.nocratic fan.rily, but it differs froltr other Euro;rcan socialist parties in that it dates or.rly from the 1960s ancl wls very nruch undcr the personal control of its lbunder, Andreas Papandreou. This has contributed to the developntent of atr ideology that has lreen far mot'e natiotralisticespecially in its overt anti-Antericattisrn-than is evident in other members oI the Socialist family'. (ri) Long periods of authoritarian nrle ir.rterspersed betrveetr periods of denrocracy rvithin a country are likely to result in at least solne of the parties that enterge in a re-establishecl dentocracy having only weak links rvith particular fatrtillcs spirilrtr'llts. Obviously, n'hett an older party survives as att otg,itrrizatiott (r.rnderground and in exile) during the years of atrtl.roritarianisrn it is likely to reenrerge in a fornt that does resemble nrembers of that fanrily in other countries. -l'his rvas true of the German SPD aftel Nazi rule and, in varying clegrees, it was true oIthe parties of the lefi (the Socialists and Comtnunists) in Spain and (to sonre extent) Portugal. But when there is little organizational contintritl'-and this rvas nrore the case rvith the parties of the centre and the right in the Iberian countries-the new parties rnay be rather difficult to classifo. 'l-hey are likely to be hybrids-having s<.rme sintilarities to Liberals, Conservatives, and Christian Dernocrats.
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'oll ot5er 'tight sclrenra'Alrdirrpreparillgforthatdiscttssitlt-t,itisrrecessar;'ttlotrtlinelrl'eptls5is scSc'ra e'en rvithi' t].re co'text of sible lirnitatio's o[, ot'iruirt.nr. for,
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(a)Vonl}e1'ruedidnotclain-rtlrate\,eryPart),irrlheE,trropearlliberalclenlt.lc-
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partiestlratdidrrotfitthetl,andtherearealscls<ltlrene\\rpartieslhatl-rave in. FoI exrnrple, in the yeirrs sirlce emerged subsequentlf that caunot be litted Alliarlce l)arty irl lcclallcl has von Beynre undertook his research the wonleD's systerllimportatlt elenletlt ol-the lcelnndic party
beeD for.nre,l and becortre an
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rvirrning5.5,l0.2,arrdS.3Pcrcentoftlrevoteirlthcthreegetreralelectitrrls such cases are, \'|orl Be)'rtle $'trtrld between 1gg3 and 1gg 1. \tr,lnteresting thouglr
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PART IES
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examPle,thecerrrrattsPDrvasotreoftlrelrrstSocilrIi,tlraftiestortrodifyits i' rcl.tiop lrr tlrc ptrblic rrrvrrcrslrip ol ( ( ')ll(rtlli\ ( rlt( | l)rises al)(l socialisr
'lrct,r.ic cotilcrctt" rrr 195') ) Srrlr'cqrre rttly' also clu other issues (at rhc llird Gotlesbclg itt tlte sanle tliretti',rr, so tIr'rt ttt,rv it is tltl otlrer Socialist Parties Irave tttoved its fanlily as it rl'as itr tlte clrr ly |96()'. itltrrc rece|ltly,
it rnig\t [rc to elinrinatc votr l]e yrrrc's l,,vrth fatttillg t(.hristirr\llellrocliltic par tics) ,rrrJ il rvith a rnorc gcrrclal 1c1,lace rirlcgory, 'J{eligious parlieql lJut to dti thjs would b\to replace a functioual category rvitlr an enlpty one--fqr thele is llo reasotr t'g believe that its ntenrbers w'ould fave anytlrirrg in qonrnlqn except religion, an{ the values of Christianity ,rrr,l lluddlrisur aye spllicieutly dilli'rent as to nrakc if unlikely that tlrcy woukl
rrrt'rrt Spka Gakkai.
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long., o, fur re,r.,<,ued lronr theirrrpirctofNervl{ig|rtitieas-oIarrurrregulatc(ll}rilt|..lettlt}rrttt1,-llasslriftc.l 'l c()rr\( r \"rti5ll) llirt the lJritish Cotrsetvative Party awry fr.olrl its 1111i11"rt'rl
party,sideologyisnorvtrloreofahybLidbetrveett('(}l]sel-viili:Illltltclcet'taitr
sul'Prisi'8 llrrrt tltere slr.rrltl be sotrte tlivisiorr betrv,:elr tlr,: I ut"1" '111 Partics-it blurri,tg oI tlre lirres t-rf iJcological lirssilizcd' liLIt it pr'<lvides arr would ire rrrore rer'arkable il tlre ideologies becattte shorrltl be treated ls irrr;ror.tarrt Jenrinder that none of tle fatnilles spi|ilrr|i/es into rvhich everv [ttr'<lpc'rr) p't11]'call t)c being rigidly clertrarcated categories lo nr.tlie s,rrrse ()l the large fitted. l{ather, tlie fra'rcwork is a device lbr tryiug denroctatic pllitital rvorld' r.ruurber of palties that inhabit tlte liberal
qirc lise to a cort)nron political viervpoitlt. ltt thc'ca9e'of rnany partics in Central .rrr.l 5opth Atrtcrica the ploblerrr is orre rtoted in tlrc last seclion--thc fusion o[ ,lrllcrent elerrrents of idcokrgy. With populisnr, sr,rccesslirl parties are ofterr orliitrrizccl alottttd olle persoll: thc crrlt ol. persorrality facilitates arr itlcology tlrat tr.rrrscends the divisions betrveen palty fanrilies found in Europe, or, at least, Nortlrerrr Eurulpe. '1, he various cclrubiuations of ideological elentents that are l,ossitrle nrake for prucft looser'fanrily reseurblirnces'betrvee;1 differerrt parties, .rntl arguably nrake i1 not rvorlh rvliile cievising a classificatory schetna on the lirres of von peyure's for South {nrelica. Ncverlheless, tlrere are parties in the liberal denrocracies elservhere that resentlrlc <lrrite closely the nren)bers of palticr.rlar Jhntillcs spirituelles in Europe. The
Canada is an unuristakable urcruber of tlie Social Denrocratic l'anrily, and .r sirrrilar, though slightly rveaker, case car) be nrade lbr iucluding the ISP in japan
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to tttcrnbets of tlte Libcfal fanrily.'l'lre Canrdiatr Progressive Consetvatives, howi.rle a curious clse. lt rvorrld be sonrcrvhat nrisleading to classify thern rvitlt tlrc (.onscrvativc fantily, arld it rnay lrave [rccrr this tlral led v<-rn Beyrrrc to exclude
ti:
it
to \\'llctllel Vott l]t'r,11.' i5 lrrt rcct iti deYisirrg lelaltc's ()ltl1'to l:ttr.ol)c, Australia' a classificatori,scltenra for par(y ideologies tltat analysirlg eaclr /iirrlil/t'rrrrtl collstluclln!l and Nerv Zealand. for the purposes of
as
ltlodclsofcliitrrgcirrpar'tics,itdoessecnttollreaPlll()l)ti.tteItrJilctrsoltthtlsc
tlt' rcgir]]cs that slrare key lristoIical expefiertces, attti to,'trtit of tlrc tttrrl'rt |'1111' ' in lrtdiir inttr 'r liti" rc,rrc, Iitr exrtttrPlc' to try to ftt tttost ;\ll tlrrrt r"otrltl ltrtPPetr it ll.antcrvork lhat <llrrvs hcirvily rlD thc lirrlopeltt P.tt'lic" 'spccial citsc'c:ttcgot'ics $'ottl,l lrc sct trIN()t ollly is tlle that a lrrrge trurDtrcl,rt tl' r ' loIrrtettt; obVtcultur.al colttcxt so tiillererrt, but so is the level of ccott'rlttic rvillbe dilTcretrt' ljtrt rvllat Ul'f aP'ttr (rvith its otrsly, thc icleology oIlntiian parties tlctlt"' r'tci': ill NoIllr' higlr lcvcl ol ccorr0Dric .lcVcl()Pnrcrtt), tll lslacl, tlt rlte (whcle tltc ctrlttrrll ties rr'rrll tolorri'tl I rr|oPc Ittiiilrt arrd ccrrtr.irl ADtcricu
liuropc)?
r'tltcts' lt rllakes
(.,rrrirrla fronr lris classilication. I lorvcver, since his study the Progressive (.onservatives'adoption o[Nerv llight econonric policies lr)eant that they catle to teset.ttble tlrc British Conservatit'es, though not tladitional Cclnservatisttr, far rttole than they lrad earlier. Even so, it lras bcen excluded frour the analysis that lollorvs. Whep there 4r'e close resenrblances, tlren, it lnakes sense f<rr sonre purl)()scs to conrpale lhe ideologicitl clcvcloprnent of lhese parties rvitlr tho$c
irr. ltrtlecl
ir'
t,'
i,
I
ri
t,'
lr,
.:
ll t."
'I'ltc
Utilcd Sliltcs
il t, i'l
Sorrtlt, rrtblt P:lr lr' ttl'tt /irrrril/c-i irr bc cxPcctcd ttt lIrVe P|otlrrccrl solllc l)rl tics tlirtl test
l:trr tlrelurore, tlrerc arc the djflicult intelnrediate cases-olles that display sonre rt'st'rrrblarrccs to pirrlicular'/irrttillcs bul in a colltcxI rvhclc it nray be tlorrbted tlrat rlrcy.shoultl be lcgirrded ;ts'firll ntcrubersl l)articrrlally irrterestirrg irr tlris coutext
tl fl
I
l)'ll'
l1't[tt111igl11ll)rrrtf
.trt'tlre l)cnrocr..rtic arrtl flcprrblicarr partics irr tlre Unitctl Slatcs. Arr arg,untcr)t ,.rrr lrc rlracie-arrd tlris lvill bc discusscd in Section IJ-thal both are cxanrples of Irl,cr.rl plrlics; butlr pl'actisc botrrgeois, busirrcss-orierrtcd politics typicirl of lrttropr-'1111 l.i[rcrllisrtr. I]rtt in conrpcting ag:rinst eaclr otlrer they hirvc developed rirtlrcl diffclettt vitriauts of l-itreralisnr, and the I{epublicans have taken on sonle
ir
ll
tl
,t,
lI'il ll,
,:
r.trl ll I
iir
26
IDEOLOGY 27
otrtsidc llre tnirinstrcaln trl s()cially collscrvfllivc virlilcs thilt rvotrl<l [all rvell larrguage,in disctlssing these lruro;r.r,.| Liberalism. Ilut thefe is also a problcrrr of to be deployed in :t rather trvo parties; in particular, tlre term'cotrscrvarive'catlle differcnt way in the t)nitecl Statcs fronl its tlse in Ettrolte' 'l'hc bnckg,rourrcl t() this <lilfcrcnt trs;rgc lics irr ltrcsi<lctrt Frarrklirl llooscvelt's ,hijacking,of th. t.rr,,'liberat'to dcscribc his Ncw l)cill prograrillncs bf govcirrrvere.not dissimilar mental intervention in the l930s.f' Roosevelt's pro8rammes had been ddopting in the twentieth cento the kinds of policies British Liberals the later . ttrry_first in the Nerv Liberalism of the Edrvardion "r. and then:i in slatc intcrvenlionistrt trtarkecl break witlr 1920s. llowever, this 111111,9 lewaicls ,traditionafly Liberal values of stricl laissez-faj1s-r'alues tlrat iirarry other ;;;;;.r,, Liberal parties still supported. lvloreover rhose i' the United States intervention in the econonly and in areas pie-
4.
'l'lre
z\
tt
il l
r';
Sl, i ri t
tcll(sStill ltccogttizirblc'lbrla1,?
t'elirte, of course, to pirrtt'origins. ltut, lrrrtrilics still rlistirrct today, ot hnve pirrlics hn{ lo tcs;'o1111 to tltc tlcrtt;trr,ls ol clt', |,tittt's by:rdoPlirlg vicrvs lrrrl Irolicics strclr tlr;rt thc llrrrilics nre [ar'lcss rlistirrct llrrrr tlrcy rvere?'lir answer this qrrestion rrse rvill
;':1111'
o11 13q1'11g
- ;;;;pp.*d
fedeial Sovernment
states were
left without
tbrm
rrr,rcle of data ronrl,il(,d lry Nlichael La'er and Ben Hurrl at the errcl of the l98r)s.7'f he1'strbnritterl r tlut'stit,rrrraire to experts on the irarties of particular liberal rlcnrocralic rcliirrr'.. (lrrdi,r :rnd the democracies of Ccntral alrd Srrrrth Attt,.'ric:t rvcrc cxclutlctl,.rrrcl it l,'rv lcsl'trn.sc ratc to llre sttrvcy lcrl to llrc strltscqrre rrt cxclusiorr of'tlrc srIiss par tics.) 1.lre experts u'ere asked to locate tlre positiorrs of party leadcls arrrl volcrs orr different policyclimensions, lrr this chapter I rnakc rrsc of orrly trvo of llre scalc'--in both cases looking only at the positions of
'
l;c
Barry Goldwater was to describe their political creed' In the 1960s the Republican lre nreant dri.opponent : the first to describe hintself as a 'conservative'-byrvhich that by the ' ol gnu.rn,t.ttal ihtervention' This ttsage becanle popularized -so in the kind o[ economic conservati.r,es believed
partt
issrrcs
leaclcrs.8
-l
hcsc trr'o scalcs rvcre selected because betrveerr thern they reflect
that rvere at lhe lrc;rt t <rl'pr'litical corrflict at the tirne of the f<rundirrg of the largcst party groupings'-'- the lolc of the state in lhe ecolonry arrd tIe rights of the incl i v itlua I vi.s-d-r,'i.r t hc st,rte.
ifiOs ,.tf-styled Anrerican (and some philosophy tlrat would have beeir snpported by nineteenth-centtrry to. the tradiiional view- of trventieth-cetrttrry) F,trropean Liberulst Contiary'cottservatives' r'altted an ttnrestlairred free Europearr Conscrvalives, Anterican
''l
lrcflrstscalctclalt'r.tollrclt'rtder.s'positionsontlreprrblicorr,nershipofthe
nrearrs oI protlucli,'rr (lig. l.l).'lhis is arr issue which, traditiorrally. has Irr.r'rr rcliar<letl ;rs ;r litrrrns tt st dilidirrg left frorn riglrt. Whcrc thc experls
'tarket' is nol qtrite the end of the rnatter-' Arncricalt Iltrt that '
'corrsefvdti'es' linked affairs to suppoit for linrited tSeir opposition to state inlerl,ention in econotrtic as legal prohibition of abortioli forrns of state inten,ention in social affairs-such t6cir'cotrset'vatisnl' a'<l s.l)port fbr praycrs i' public sc;o.ls. tn this rcspcct, as being rather closer to traditional European Cotrservatism' .oul,l f. seen ;;;;i,.;r;r., rr.,ir Arneiicarl notion of co'servatisnr lras fcd back ilto Europeari noll-Collservatives political debate, so that in Edrope too both Cotrservatives arrd 'cottscrvative' idcology of the frcc lnarkct! havc cttrlrrrcccl thc sctlse to circlr of lhe party'farrrilies', tlrcll, it rn'otllcl sccll't to tltcke
<lecicle
I'crccived d l,urt),rs pro1111y1i11g rrraxinrurn public orvrrerslrip thcy:r.ere irrstrrrcted to rctur'n il scorc ol'l; rvhere thel'perceived a parly to be op:osirrg all public orvttt'tsltip of l'trsirress arrd irrclustrl'theyrvele to retunr a s.ore ol'20. (Obviousl1', ir scorc of' I() indicates a position exactly nridrvay' betr.,een
I
hc sccortd'l.uver ,rncl I lrrrrt scale usecl here rclates to leaders'position; orr social issues (lrig. L 2 ). \\'lrcr c a pilrty 1\'as seen by the experts as highly iup-
and whcther to inclucie ui .r.in,l. parties frorn outsicle Ettrope, Australia, d para boundary for Nerv Zealand on a case-by-case basis. Dralving too broad ,farnily' may lead to the inclusiorr of unusual, 'hybrid.' types of party; btri ticular bnritted from clraiving too iight a boundary can lead to important cases being rr.,ight yiel.i insighf s into aspects oIthat'fami conrparison-wlren their inclusion ilyl i his pragrrlatic approach is the one adopted in tlris chaptei'
f
t.
l1 cxarrrirring
I'ot Iive of pet rrrissilt'policics ott rlrllcrs suclt its atrorlirlrr atrcl hortrosexlalily a score o[ | n'rrs relurltcrll rvlrcre the f]art)' \vas trtter'ly opposecl to i..rch 1,cr rnissive policics tlrerr thc ('\Pert( rvould retuln il scote of 2().
'l'his l.rirrcl of expelt surrtv is a trsr'lul clevice rvith rvhich to colnpnre the ide.-,logies of [)al ties in dill'elt'nt counlr ies. Ncvertheless, some cautiorr nrust be r,:ercisctl r'hcn cortrprri1111 lhe sc.rcs of incli'idual parties. 'fhe experts c,n a palticular countil' rrrai lrn'e a r,rllrer distorted vierv of possible extrerne prsi-
tions. irrrcl this can lesrrll in a sf()r'e that, irr a conrparalive perspectile, se:nrs rather Peculiar. Fol inst:rrrce, the crperts or1 Canada provided a very lorv scor: ot1 pttl)li( o\\'nership lirr tlrt'sociirl <lt'nrocnrtic Party, the NDll lty c<trrrpat-isorr r.,.illr otltcl Parties irr this [rrrril/r', tlre Nl)P ill)pears, therefore, to be one of the r.osl lcft-u'ing Prrrties. \t'1, orr I'ublic rrrvnership and other econornic issues f he |jDp (rvith thc cxceptiorr oI rlrc prrtf irr I]ritish colulrrbia) has alrvays lreerr a ra:her
28
PARTIES
Liberal and Radical parties Conservatrve parties Socialist and Social Dernocratic panies Chrrstian Democratic parties Other Christian parties Comnrunist parties
rrrtltlcra[e paJly rvithin its l)r()l)lcnls for tlre way I propose to [/ re rnain value oI llrc Laver arrd
e
PARTIES AND
IDEOTOGY 29
oI icliosyrrcyasy
l]
Nl)p
scorcs pre
nt.scale is that it enables ur',, rcrse the kild of peculiarity evidenr, for ex_ s few problerrrs. : tlrc p0rty fanrilics. Hcre
he order
-at
..,,,1;.:;;;,;;
.in
Agrailan parlies
Regional and ethnrc parties Right-wirrg extrenrisr
t,t I
utd
I,kttl i cd
pttrt
ics
parlies
Ecoiogy rriovenrent
i rrblic ownership
)'
)crJl policy
'I
Conservative parlies Socialist and Social Denrocratic parlies Christian Democratic partres
.gr.oupirrgs of thc bt_rurgeoisje wlro lookerl to orga'izati0' to secufe trreir i'ter]ests agai'st the la'downers rv'o '.litic'i'r co'jl,rl'/,':l tIc'stare',They creveroired i,r ,i,. j,*,"orrh cerrtrry, arrd rorvards rrre e'tr ot Urilt cel)tut.1,Ljl;cr.a.ls rvcre a
,
,,
:j;
l)o\vclfrrl lbr.ce
u,,
r
ir
r8
;;,
il:ii,;jji::,il1::T il ,.li,.,l
rg i,,,eresrs
Agfrrian
pa nies
par tles
that key clerrrc,rrs or' ttrc l ir,t'rar o..a *.r.li*l;;.^i:::.]ii'1f;_ ll"'.."'"itrrt rr'cr,c,,rr-c,,r,,yr.ibJ,':##l"::,;il:li,,:H,::...lii,.:,,:, ;il,u"ru,,,n,,, tltc.sr.icly,. Co,,r.q,,.nrly,.ro,r,. r-iU.,rir';;;;':;;ll:1,,.ii:,:X],.l,1ul,],:i..;: r. rhose ,1,r,, r,.'a ,,"-':il:i;, i:, ilup.',r,_,uch as rrre l,,,...,l]']'l1,, r,oor or
lhc slalc. l.ibcr.lls ,ur,,,r.,.t f.i,". tlrtrrrti,rri'gfi.'rrlre,,r.,1t""1,""1 ,.';.::':i.:'1...:"1'vcsralcreslticliorts,'.rrrcof ".":l ; i:i ; i:I,,:;1,:.:;fi *,::::, ;::, :ll:; I ::,t, rrrr'(''Lc Liberars required, botrr access t. the state ar)d protectio, li.orrr arbi_ lririvir(rionsbyrheporverful rirrrtrcd.t,,rr"r-*tlr,rratr conrroileatlr"'t.,,.,1r.0,,, r.t.rtr'r tlrrr irrg llre er.u ol. corrtrrrcr.cii,tiruf i,,,,. lti,.
l)()\ili()n\ rvi(hin
--lli{i:;;lilI:i'ilfll.lj:;i;:;l;';..j;:1,;:,l]'l:;ii;
;;;";$:
j:il;* :ll:
Jt
' , 30 PARTTES
I
I
Ljbcralis'r
PARTIES
ancl Ir:rtricarisnr to rr'. as,ects oInirrctecnr']]::ll:::tl corrflict"l hc first is thc exre'siorr of rtrc [r.a'chi.sc. tia<licals ,".,-.:::]111t)'tillitS.:l ttttttttttf ts' 'I'hcy rvariletl t. ext'rrl political participati.r to nralry.f th.se ru,,,,"
car be
rerarccr
t'ttrbtaccd lirritc,l rirr rrr.s ./ irrl.r'c111;,,,r1. fl)('(.lrunr (r'ig. I r,1 1f1.. ,,1,1,,,...'"1'^'.t].tll1
Al{D IDEOL'GY 3r
P.liticar righls, irr gereral it Lr lrrarrce theJlaai,{,,r. ,"1r. ii""i,,,,., ,,.,,,,,,r,r,,, ;lil,lji#:cttrsor'Isocialisrn' llePtrtrlic (rszl-llyat'r r.,''i iit'tt*itttc rva's ii ritlltcr c.ttser*,,"" lil''"]'i"ll11<l
j;iimtiiiii:i;:il;::;ril,r';::;H:
rrrc cxterr.siorr.of
.:.-t:.lrcrl
n.p,,rrli..;;,il'l:'/i;i,::,;ff1T,ff:::liil;
;
rrr;rrrlrn;tllv
u;;;l
il;;f;il;,ll;i:ll;;j,:
*
#i:li;r *;:t: I
I;
,t'r: : li:l i
A.s lirr.
I;:',
Liberals*rn'h',.
,;. ti.oroi.Ji:ll;:r,
of
(,r
B,it.i,r
lle
",,,u,j..;
,,",
i;,;
tic.,,.i"rics li;;:',"1i'l'l'tltc
sucrr;rs ,,,,,,,
r
anii_cleric'ii,l:'i'i,il,,1lrr'
rvourd be
i''
rcasirrg secularizatiorr
rlicttce
'r.sr ?:,,;:
liberal ,er,ocra_
l,m
Liberals and
lLl,.l";il:;:ll:.|]:y
p.*'er
arrct
^acricars
of stare.,,.l ,oli.tyt rnrgl,t intn conflicr rvit' trre C'urcrrl irr coulrtries in trancl *,,r,."i,_.i.,icarisrn.lr,r.r,rore.srant iike France
Euro1,e,
tt,.r.fnr.riu,r
#l;;[
l
l;;.,'.:lJ:::']trics
f.,,r,ri,,l
I ibcr'rris;;;;;,;,J-l,o:,,o
m:l
,crrurch.
oii,r,i,r,, l:;;.:,j:,,r,,, 't]r.ese are rhe origin.s of Liberalisnr . id.otogia'.r"u,l'u.,.,,...tocray?,,,.arrd lhrf rhe
Libe'rli.snr. Neverrheress, r-irr.rnl;r,', courd ail1, it..lr ,,,itr']i1',1,::.\:ljl"':'.t' rn Brirain, *4rere rhe i,i.i,r,,ll..i nected to the Iande<i irrrerests, Lib.rari.rn., tr...,r.,. str..rrelf issociaterr r'irrr the supporr of No'-confor.r'ists in the clecacfes trefore tgrq. Afrlr rlre First \rkrrld this
thc
1'ri11111'1'
sf c,r s..,.,ta,
i;;iliilEiljr,Jl':.i;'llil':|i'1
nut,,,cal cbrrfli.
rva.s nruch
g, h.n, il'llPreserlt ill Frerrch ,*;lli*,:,I. f ;,;tlrc ll It':i.il5iil illi;l i: rolc politic.s, parc.rrcrrr .f
sr;rte
;:;il;;:',';, .,llI
a coDtenrpol.al
o..on,,,,o.ror.
i|fi,lrff
::i,l
,;::f,:Ilj
religious din,.nri,,u
corrrnritnrent to poritical a.nd reg,ri rigrrts f,,r,rir citizcrs_-firr trrc.strict sefr:r,.x11,.,1., oIstltc irrrtl socictr,-is rc/lccterj i,, ,i,1,j,,,,:i I' bc sccri frorrr Fig. r.2 (or trrc r.r'*..ii;,,n ti,, tr., ,,,lirri,,. socirlf 1r11li6j6,q. As call ,,i,,r*. r...r), rrcrrr.l),rrlr r.irrtiiir nrc t. llc rirurrd irr trrc rcri ,ar.rie.s ,,, th...ut,f nrri,;, p,,ti.1,dirrrelr.si.n. positiorr frrr the parties T.h0 lrrcdiari s'orvrr on rtri, t.t,l. ;r').9.ro lf the Alrrerica, Denrocratic Party r'cre i'cluded in this Figure li..r.,,trlit"rt (6.0) rvoulcr be.sirrrirar to that rnany l.ibcral parties, of bur, in.n,,,rrrf,',i,"lt.1r,,trti.n,, woukl occupy nrr atynical l)arty (\vith a l5.B scorc)
ii,:.ii,li,lil;:',HH:l,lfi;:ililil:;
. n'errrierh ce,,,,rry ," has rreen lll:,'.:,1 .;;;';;';il l,,,L'Jl;lliill J#:r-i: ;i :::,.1 iy,t i: : ;; i ; :fi il: lffi l*: ,1, l; l;I i i tr1"i:#i li ::il, ili:I;; :i,htf;:,
clc;ri.ag.,.
),nrarrifesta_
il
,,i,,,"',
rl\lns
l'(
fi,.:ii'ii
',-',1",.
;:::ll I l';:j*;
Co
rr se
l,i;;,,1,I ;,liit.,;
jli;i; *,llu;:ll
i,,rl'it:ir1:1jil,1:5:in:';l:,i:i
ii:il,
ru::
r ya
Ii
t,c p n rt i es
|.,o.it;o,' inr'.
il,r.rli ,r.,,,
il$:ll:,; [h.l:;,
l;
J;:,,,i,i;
i*:,m
I f ilr;t r,: ru
:#
:;
32
o2
RIGHT l8 20
rilirl
sirirrr
IDEOLOGY 33
rg70'sor.so(.trrrsrrratiicrr;rrlie.s\\'eretrsualrylessdoctrirrair-e
Public ownership
Social ;-rolicy
l.
intheiroplro_
llrt'
i
median parly position
'I
.f
pr.blcr' facilrg corrservati'es, once their co*rtry's frarrchisc harl bcerr extclldc(r to inclucle most adtllt rnetl, rvas that it rvas unclear u,hy lrrost voters rvorrl(l \vant to vote for them: Conservatives had gelrerally opposed tlre exlension of tlrc franch ise.r2
l hel,rvere opposed
to
change--largely to protect their own econorrric ancl political inter.csts, tut also partly out of a sense of paternalistic responsibility for the poriticaily po*'crless rvho rvoulcl be harnred by the absence of restrairrts on ecolronric nrarkets. II opposition lo democracy rvas not a likely vote rvinner, paternalisnl \vas r)ot a much better prospect either. Landor.vners, the clergy, arrd those rvitlr rnaterial ties to the class structure rvere a rather limited electoral base for rvinnins public office' so that to sttcceed Conservalive lrartics hrrcl to adjust thcir itlc-ololics a1{ llrogl allrtrles. In orre sense at least, Conservatisnr dicl not succeed in nrarrl'countrics-or rathel it dicl rtot succeed on its orvn. For the British this corrclusion n-rieht seenr
ocld. Sulely, it nright be argued, nrost courrtr.ies hnve a counlerIart to the British C<lnservatives. -l'hey do not. Neither (ierrtrany, rror. ltaly,has had a large c.rrscrvati'e party irr the post-war years, and in Fralrce corscr'atisin \vas refornrecl arorrnd rhe cult of a particular leader, cle Gatrlle, rvlro rvas an heir to the tradition of Ronapartisrrr ratlrer than traditiorral French conservalisnr. Bst the Irretlclt case helps tls to trrtderstand Conservative influerrce irr tlrose countries rvhere large Conservalive parties did not survive into the nricl-trvcrrtieth ceptur),.
r'ith part;f their lrcrilirllc arrd el'braccd rr sct of vit.rr'.s that did constitute a generar tr,iory orro.i cty, (),r's llrat ca'bc set'rr ;rs a crirt,,.r crescendarrt of a nrain.strand of ninereenth(entrr l l.ilreralisnr. \\/ilrr respcct t, pubric orvrership this has hacr the effect of rerr()\'rlg l)aternalist'arrtl 'naljorr,rl interest'justificatiorrsforstateint.r*,.,tion, lhat Iv1'1i1;1;.51y forrrred l,'t of tht'rrrosaic of corrservative ideas. In Fig. r.r (or liretr|1'1'1 scctionofrig r.r)tlr.rrrr.,riar,rr,,,sitinrr[,rrc<lrrso.r,irrivcr)rrticsisr5.g, jrrst lrr llrc right of tlrt'rrr, rliirrr po:,iri.6 f<lr.Liberal parties.
Socinlist rrttd Sociol I)t.rrroo.ttr ic partics
christian r)enrocratic, arrcl (.hristiarr, |artics. lhe rrc,riirn position for conservati". p.rirur'"" 'th.r trri, tlirrrt.rrri<rrr is 12.2 (:ig. l..l or thr, l,rrver section of Fig. l.a). (2) tlrc second facr.r is the irrrrrrc'cc of the Nerv Iligrrt. sorrre Conservati'e r);.rics' brrt espccirrilr,cr.rrrerls.r lrre prr.t).in Rr.itairr, irrokc
.rr
this riluation since tlte nticl- | 970s: (l) lrr sccular s.cicli,.,s Co,scr rrrti'es ha'e been urrder pressure to gi'e prior_ ilv r. their econorrric l'r,iicies, arr,l rrri.s has sonretinres requircd a nro'e rrx'arcrs lltc rt,rrlrc on ntailcts ol 1,s1111j.5r1,. sociul plrli6y in or<lcr to kccp lheir rrrici<lleclass r'11'611v1"1 rxsc. (..rrsr,r.r,ari'r. 1,111tics are stiil gerreraily
rlris rlirrrer.sior, rrrrr
rrre
'q1_
ro rhc right.f.r-iberars
a[rle to Conscrvatives.
Conservatives have irrvolved thernselves irr other parties of tlrc centre ancl tlre righl, forcing thern io kceli nrany of their policy positiorrs rvitlrirr lrorrrrcls a..er]r-
Fig 1'5. Positlon of Soci.-rlist and Srrcial Democratic party leaders rlrt.rvorkir.g class. For nruch of their earry his_ to'y t't'v r'c.e i'conflict * itrr politit,rr authori'ty. .ttlf irrrri'irrrrlrority rrr,,r,t,rrrc't .pt.r.rrirrg irr But socialisrn was not alrvays trre irrdustrializing coulrtries. llr the tJrrite<i Srcialist Prrties nrobirizccr .rrrrurrrr
sland.ing opposition to gencral social theories arrd lo racricar chnngc. lrrir''.,.ril"y, thcy have sotrglrt to attract the votes trf tlre grorvirrg nriclclle-class salariat, but a;.,peals lo lrational ltoltottr, sytrbols, arrd urrity have bcerr usetl to attract otlrer volcrs-incltrcling the workirrg class. Tlris nrix of policies rnearrt that trrrtil t[e
. where they lrave retai'ed d separate, independerrt, party base co'servatives havelried to develop policics and approaches tlrat are consisterrt rvitlr their lorrg-
Srrrtcs (at the e'rl.l rlrc rrjrrcl,,,.,.,,t,, ..,''i,,,11,t and in rnuch of Latirr Anrerica (irr the trrr'rrricth centrrry) 1'r''ulisrrr r,.s n .r.rio's rivar. Like sociarists, populists olrl)o.scrl Ilrosc ilt Irou,t,r hrrl sought to rnobilize ntajorilies across class lirtes.
-,. -: ,
':
+:f;-;i{}- .
Ii,
'
relatively'ferv countries irt these years-srveden being one of the exceprtions_ that a Socialist jrarty canle to pott'er with an effcctirrc par.lirrirreirtary nrajority. consequentll', the ability of the Socialists lo trdnsform their soiieties'was
restricted. rnuch
socialist parties betrveen the pro- and anti-rvdr factions, and the spiintering of Socialisnr was nl[tch ittcreased by the irnpact of rhe Russiarr Revolution. l]ctwccn l9l8 and l92l separate comrnunisr parties rvere established as lnany, lcft-rr,ing Socialists broke arvay frorn parties that they berieved had betrayccr theidcals of ] s<lcial revolrrtion. |or Socialists in the irrter-war yeai's this rircarrt t5at, rr,itlr respect to both organizatiort and ideology, they hact to worr1, about conrpelitors on the left. As an ideal at least, Socialists rernained cornrnitted to the torrg_ternr tfansfornration of capitalist societies, but in most Socialist parties a largc pro-. ltortion of voters arrd leaders rvrnted to i,rork through lilrerai .lerrrocraticlliolitlcal instittrtions-so l<ug ds tlrese itrstitutio,.,s suruiri..1. Hou,ever, rvas it otrly irt
in all the conrbarant countries strpportec their goveinnrentsl war efforti shattered the illusibn that Soclalisnr lvas d truly inteirrati<jrral irioveni."t. eri., ,tt. war Socialist pnrties loctised raf tnofe on their abillty to icpresiht tlrc ilterests of the workirrg class within tlreir owrr country. The ruar hacl crbateJ splits within
Socialist ideologr'. That a majority of the leaders and followers of socialist parties
Originally one of the aims of Socialist partles was to secure political r igSts fgr workcrs-a goal wltich usuallj,allied tlrc'tr with I{adicals and sornc t.ibcr"als. ttLt they also sought workers' control over the hreahs of production-an objective which divided thern frorn virtually all Liberals and {iorri most Raclicals. Bcfore lhe first \\rorid rvvar Socialist parties rvcre also irrtcnrationalist irr their airls: a Socialist pirrty irr a particular counlry would regard itself as beirrg thereby lilkecl to socialists elservhere. This iriernationarisrn hrarks another iriportarrt difftrcrrce lrom trotlr I-ilreralisnr arrd Conservatism. 'l'lre First World War had d nunrber of direct arrd irrrlirect consetluerrces for
PARTIES AND
IDEOLOGY 35
\\'rrirctrreselrr.rri,c'crrr
lrs,rr.1g.r.,1'r,,.'ar
rrarrd, rrrc rrrri.rrrirrkc'rr'r rirr'rr'rre'rt(rrr)rstt1 irc'easetlrepacenrrtr.,.rjii,,,rofpirrty Tlrc sirrrrc )r'., a\ t', rrcropti.'of the,Bad. G_ocresbcrg prograrrnrc llrc sr'[), the learrt'.r r'e lrririsrr by L.tuu,. I;artn Hugh
i1l1'1rl1rg)'.
rrrsioll' 11.'rtr is lr tolrrr'criorr r', trlcclr thcrrr. r'he partics rvirh srxrnt rr;rrre urrion lirrl's ltrrr'c gcrrcr.rllr l,('r,' rr()r( ,...1rrir.:'i, lllar)y aspccrs of,rclilrnrisrrr.sirrrply l)((irrsc rhe urri.rrs,'ir'e rrirtr ,,,, urg.,,iantionar base thct trrer r'arrtecr to r,r'rc'1. R:rtricar |.ri, ics rrriqrrr rrrrricrnrirre that rrnr;. ;;',';,;;i,.; ^a'e
de'rocracy,cirrrrrr.drrccsolllecoll-
iliff \,
scr
Ll:iiii,111,1,,'',,,,,
r'1'rr:
1i1 5
p"rjir. upon trre basis of trre conrr.rr.rr or'rrc'ship oItlic rrrc,r,r,.,,[1'.,,r,,cri,rrr, dist.irrutiorr, anrr cxcrrarrge, arrtr trre rre.st ol't:rirrrhle systerrr ,l J,,rpulrrr. ,,t,,.,;,,l,t,rtio,, n,r.l .ontrol ;^; i,,aurrry ()pposiriorrrr
liccr
1111jo,,
r,, ili'i,:ll;il,ii:l,ll;,il;]:;1il:,1:l:iilu*.;,...;ij,fllli
"f lt',rrrcr.sirrsuppellqftrrepar.ty,scelrtre-reftarr<r
"i,ii.
i,.,iyti:Jn*orir,,tiun rur
u,.
rlrrll <lcfi'itlc<l ilrr. I cl ag, ,r;, {irr r, riz,,ljl',],1,,1j,',;;',,ill]',::1',,,.1,:l;:;;,;,t,:X::l 'nri' l9()'r rrrc'erieftlr'rt trr'' ;'x11r' rr,^ sti, ide'tilied
rcft
rvith natiorrarizirrio', alrd thar 1,;r111 t,tccr.ralir. te,t partl,leacter liiny [,air ro
il's-_ irr lr ir cirs-cr"i irirrg craLrse', ,,,
l,;H:i;;
a
enr.ark orr
,,,ri.ri',,,,..,,,,.u-
il,T,ii;ff ;::ll,::l,il::il,11 tlrcr ;r.crrrrrts at.crisirrr: sotiirrisr .,,a so.int rr.",.,.;:;,;.'ur"r,.l'"r",1r,,,,,n. lgfi{}\ ,U)(l lgg0s. I lre
r i'u r ir.se rrr.s l vu rlreralrle io econonric disrocrr tions through ttrarrt.rirrirg tlre st:rtt,_frr.rrtlccl,s'ci;rlpolicies that had d.".l"lr;;;;;.;;;;,r,-,r,r,
3 t,,q,1hc,,,,,
li::,#ff
socialist ideas has bcer described by sonre writers as sociar d.,no.ri.y-ro.irl de'rocrhtic parties being iho.se which (like the Gerrrrarr spD irr lg5gircjected explicitly their raclical social goals. ijuw.u.r, the term ,sociai clchrocricy, is tised , 'in a ratlrer different w;iy by sonre dther ivriters. For thehr ri social deirrocfatic part)'is a party that has stro'g organizationar tie.s to taboth.trnioris. o. this ' usage' the British Labour Party'rvould be categorizecl as a social clenrocratic party, .
arsurne resporrsibility [or econornic inanagenrent along the lirres iuggcstcd by the
workitrg class, socialist'palties rllandoned thcir lorrg-terrn air.,r of the ,socializa_ tion' of the econonry in ia'our of a hrixed econonr), in rvhich the state rvorrid
s'cialisl icleology cha'ged agaln iri ihe years after tlre secord \Vorlcl \{rar. Strltport for libetal delttocratic politicrrl slfttblures becarne elen firrner. llut, nrrrre inr|0rtarrtly, irr atternPts tci broaclen tlreir elcctoial base beyond tire or.girnized
rrorr
ilIi.;,:il;r.,rcriiirrr
of strengtrr [<rr sociarisrs. As lhe rr;r'rics rra's 5o111,f11 t. crrr-,.,,, trrtir.elccrorar attraction to rhe nritrdle crasses, tltel'';r'e tcrrded to irtl.1,1 ,1 rir,,,r..l sr.rrce n:attefs. A.s ca'be seelr f,onr l ig' l 2 (r'the rorvcr r is l.-5),";r,;.l., rr,,rrt-,,irhe partics are to rrre relt of
tlie nr],f,fre or lhesPt'ct'rrr,.rrrostrrf tile |.rric.sirrccrusteredar.oullcr thisp.sition.\vitrrrespect Io 1rc1111j55j1.g social |<11j1.i15 (ilrclrrtlirrg nfro,Ll,ull, socialism rvas dividecl
],:'l'' 'lresccti" .r rriq. of th, rc iiirrries.rr public.*,r.iriuo'i,;,'i.,r*. ,., rr1':'('; ''rsiri.rr is g J--a p.siriolr not r.5) ",' 'le that far fr..nr
t..k
,r lrig'irly
rrredirr,
..ci,rl r,,1,,*
n,;;;;;..
tracli-
srrir' .f
"ilf,.l.,f,.r.f
36
PARTIES
tEFT
02
public ownerslriP
Chr rstian
1A
1:
rvas prrc rvhiclr Chrisiir,, ir",,_.*u ^rrrf:^:^rf: partici_ rurgd' As Nerv rtigrrt jaeas ted ro pcrnreate Eulopean poritics fro'r rhe irar
years
rnrlredi^t,
ff
i'
Socrai
poltcy
i'..j
j
nredian party posrlron
Christian
--:-lJ
rvas
fig1.6. PositionofChristianDemocraticandother(_lrristianlr;rrtyleaders
'l'lre
r' 5rou.l(l ue Porrlterr.r-rrrt,,lir,-tr'ever., rlrat tlre Clrrisria, l)enr,crrrtic jgs. i. t and catcgor.y t.2 (arJ6t t ig. f..6)\u.lr,r'l.l ,rru poril", that should rcally be regarded .rs hybrids lather rhlR.as j.:j]1]|r christian ij.',no.rolj. par.ries. Borh pperare in .oulrlrrcs '1vitl1 large prote$ar{t p<_rpulltions. .l.he qerpral Cl)U rvas uot exclusi'cly catrioric b,t, fro'r irs fo,rl.tatio'i,-, ig.r9, sought [o attracr proresrar)ts; rs one.of tlrc least religious tr uf Cf,,,riin,,il.
I: I
,illli.:l]':o'1l9h,"t(1i.11._o',ilT-:*l:.i':,i.'
".*
r'
yeals'rrtdirrtlrelg20sFascistpartiesweresecllrrsa[r.rslioulirrtlcli.rrtlipgClrrrr.clr
lltctetv'tsll)cfcciv('dttcctl bycarlrolicstol)r'oteettlrtir irrtcrt.rr,.rrrtl tSeirccrrtr.r, palti, bccanrc one oI thc trvo best-or.ganizetj st,rtes in lrypcl i.rl Gcrtpirrrl,. llolr'evcr, pirPrrl srrspicitln ol'liberal dcrrrc,cracies c.rrtrnuetl irrto rlre i,ter-rvirr.
becanrc ir Po\verlirl force in Europeati politics. Ihe Catholic (.lrLrrclr in rlrc nirreteeulh ccr)lury \vas highly suspicious of tlie rise of the seculal strrtc rvhitIr it s.rrv as a ll)rcirl to its orvt-t atlll)ority. tJr-rrvever', particularly irr l)rctr,:(:rrrl-dr,rrrirr.rlccl Gerrrrrrrl.,
b'igi's of christian r)c'ocracy lie irr the r)irt:r. rrrrr ccrrrrr' trut it until alier the Second \\br.ld War that Chr.istian l)t.r1111.1n11. pnlties
,ol
:t[jlf
rrri,,the
l*
regard irself as a ceilrre;;:;,;; :;",::::l'::11'= ,r e D u,ch cDA i$ ;r,:i :1 ::].::ili:il 1979) arrd lrray b;'regardeti as u'ybricr
,l.
rr
C|ristian parties,of
,,,,:ll;::,:'l]ll:"il::,j;Tisria'
;:il::, ilj*,ff
il
parties
,rc econollly ln lrig l.l (rrppclsectit-rnof Iig. 1.6) llrcrrr,,,lr.rrr (,lrrrrri:rrrl)e'.cr.irlrt party's positir, is l-i.9; rlris locates tlierrr ,rcri' t.r'.r.ds r/rc
l-iberals, irncl sornervhrrt to tl)e leli of both tlre rlctli;rrr
l_ibc1,11 ,111,1
people' and christian Denrocratic ideology irrvolvcri nrLlrgirrgl C:rtiroljc valucs with electoritl pl..lglnatisln. Ne'e'theless, christiarr l)enrocratic parties arc ar)r()r)g5l tlir,rrosr co'servati'e tltr perurissii'e social viilues. I'he rnedian pnr.ty l)ositi(,1 irr l:ig r r (itrrver sec[]or) of fig. 1.6) is 15.5. Arrron grhe Jittttillesrepresenrctl irr r ig. i.) ,,r,ly rlre extrerrisl right-rving palties ar.c less liberal. IlLtt in relatiorr to ccorronric i,:trcs tlre situatiorr is Yery differcnt. Clrtholic tlreology lras ue'el v;rluerl rr rvlr.lll,rrlrtstr.icted fcrrrrr of capitaiisnr, arrd Christian nenrocratic partics lravt.rr.ictl to rrr'bilize Cath.ljc rvorkels as rvell us the Cathol.ic ntiddle clnss. Chr.istjrrr [)cruo, r,rtir hx1,r,
irttelcsts. l'lrc discr.erlitirrg of autlrot-itirrirur r.cliirrrcs rr u)r. lg i0\ l.,tl tlre Chrrlrlr [o tul l) to political l]lovellrcllts tlrat supported liberrrl ,lcrrrocr..rt r.. \\,ith tlris blcliittg chlistiarr l)crltclcr'atic pirrties could lliiulisl),yrtl trrrltl urt,tlrt..,rrri,tarnrrt. resources of tlre Clrurcli to nrobilize elector.ate,s. IJrit ritc \,tte led by
|riltii,:
lay
: ('\cr) lr)o'e riglrl rvirrg :i: .'_s<-rcial prricy-tlre,r nrr:dia' I fi..J-anrl th is r n.rl,i.", ,,., i,r. ,.r ,, ellcc ls rhe lac t t hc); iu.e,,-r,,r. .,^.-t,l t luistiirrr l)crrroct.ats. -l.l to Prortrote ,t',;trc ofcrrrisria, ,.,,,")l'^-'.)lit. r'cilas fo p,o,,',,i.;il::';|u|,.:':,i;:,il::.tte irrtercsts orclristia' vorers as
:::*il$;rlii:i:iHlff;il:;lli;,;'""';" * lnl
;,,,t
t,;
''';l;llt:lf,i:i:iiil:T:'l;l:;
!')
t. o
'
ttrt
t.ttn
i s(
rt i7s
P.a.r.t! tiu.ulttes spirituettesir is rerativerl,easy ro srare \vas-aI least lbr the lirst five decades
lli,ji';:il::i],y::.':,',':
,r,, .,,,,,,,,,,,,
Ilrt'liru'datio,r rf
i)rogr ilrllnles of
iil parlies
,.;ijl,iil
i,
r::,]ff
,;:,::*Jr,;,
ol ,o ur,.,
,.i: 'I
ii ':
,
l:I lr'r
.;,r
erservher.e].r.he.
ill(r
l;ilii'ffl:,ililll;::l:'.: Y::':-'u'h l' Tio*rv 'n" Isie-'i*. ,'u, ,r ,.,,r"c.d i' i;;;,'il;;';,ll,ii,.r;lll,il!j::,i::lij,il::rj:i[r..",,,il:;:;,T:
'"licy 1',r lrrs-{ilsr
alier rhe war' t-uyarry r"
rvirh tlre suppression
l:iil:'.'1^q:.qia,.ro
,.i".,_,,-,t;;.,;r.;
f l*
l; I lt : I . .ril l'r
I
,'t,'r',
jrii,'ll
n4;r.;t;l;j.,,"," *..u.rr i' a ferv co'rrrru'ist ,f ,fr. dr,rg,r..iarr uprising (1956) arrd
i ., i'i'
ll fi
then
iit#
,f*"liili[ti;C,iistl*:+d|$lil.tg[1t,il.S'qlisjidid"$eJ**rn/di;rc;,;.;,'r,riair;r^-,]!rl"i{dllbt&,uacrsEi;Lt":$UA:lrL
38
PARTIES
PARTIES AND
IDEOLOGY 39
RI6HT
t0
Public ownershiP
t2
14
'o
18
20
trasl, tht'PDS irl (icrtrtrrtty, lltc sttccessor to lhc Easl (lerrnarr Corrrnrulrist l)arlr,. lrtixctl i,leolog,r, artd a sonrewhat irrcolrcrerrt policy progranrrle, ltclittirrg a party lltat tlt;rtvs on tlrc suppurt of those rvho believe they are doirrg batllv out tlf (lerrtratr trrrificatiotr. It conrbines elernents of socialisrn, elr,irorrtrt ttlitlisnt, ilrtrl 1'.p1111.,,r.
hirs tlcvcloped a
Social PolicY
tlrttrtirttr ptrlits
i
median Party Position
t,,
(like the u,ith the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakir (1968). While sohre Parties reginre, others ir.,,.1., pCF) follorved the Moscorv line until the errd of the Soviet for a tnore flcxible ideology that rviis mote suitable (like the italian I'CI) Iooked lvas one of tlre princilo the dornestic coirtext in which they operated. ]'he PCI the,Euroco,nnrunisnr' roure frorr l e75-iecogrrizing the
'l ltt'sc tvcte partit's of .;rrr,rll l.u rncls lrrrl peasrrrrts that crrrcr.gcd as the sllairrs oI ilrrlrrstlializatiorr lrril t.e,rrrornic tlt,pressiolr created nrral ciiscolrtent at the encl of thc rrittclcenth ccnlulv rrlrd irr llrc carll'trverrtieth cerrturr As vorr llcl,rrrc rrotes, lirct''rlcvclopecl ir srrrirllcr cotrrrlr.ics irr rr,lrich the process oIrration huikline rvas Itol totlclttdetl tlrrtil f:tirli'litlc' urrl irr corrrrtrics rvhele torvrrs rr,erc ouite srnall.rl Scirrrtiirritvia nn(l l:ilslr,r rr Irrlo;'c rvcr.c the rrlrip ar.eas 6f tlreir. cltyeloprlerrt.
ll,r.'cvcr', there rr';rs a sr'cor(l tr |1' 6f aglarian party that errrerged in hoth rhe Urritctl States atrrl r\ttslr,rlia;rs ir rcvoll agairrst tlre financial intcrests llrat rvere sccr) to bc undcrlrrirrirrri :rgricrrlttrle.
lrr llcrtcral, agrariirn l),u tics r\'(,r.e to tlre r.ight of the political spectrlrrr orr botI ecotlotrtic atlcl soci,tl issttcs attd llreir rrrerrrbers coukl be altsorbcd later irr the trlerrrieth centrrr),trv orlrcr lrirrlits oIthc right. ]Jorvever, b<;rh the Scarrclirrnviirn atttl lltc Atttericitn p.rllics hrtl ltrrr'1-ll[1c1.1 rvirrgsasrr'ell. [:prcxarrrple,sprrrclea{cls rrl ll11' r\tltcricirrr I'o|11lisl nr(r\ ( nrcnl itr thc lirte nitrclccrrtlr ccnlur) sorrs,lrl lp tlt'tt'1,,I lirrks rvitlr llrtir'trltiortisrrr. Arrd in the state of lr'linrresota in the l9,i0s a lalrrrcr-l-rbot Pat.tl l;ts lirrtrtetl tllat cnllre to control the state goverrrrnerrt; ltter it rrrcrgctl rvith thc I )cr:rocrirtic I';rrty.
parliamentarl' i.giiin.,a.y nf tire Italian liberal denrocratic stilte a'd propoundirtg sectors of tlrc ecortotrry' ral6et thatt stirte o\vnerreiulotion of rr.n-co'rpetiti'e
slrip. valtre of Corttrtlttttistlt' aircl Nevcrtheless, public orvttersltip rcrrlailre<l a ccrrltrl
the firm corirnritrnent to this is reflected in the strrvey conducted (trpper seciion of Fig' l'7) is rnedian position for Coiirnrunist parties in Fig' l'l social policl'-the 3.1. Conrnrunisf parties were also anlollg the Irtost'left'on 1;.,. E.colog1, llloverllellt being to the lcft of thenr rrredian l)ositiorr is 4.8 rvith onl1, (l:ig. I.2 or lorver section of Fig' t.7)' Iltrt tlris is a little.rlisleadi'tg ::itlil:tll'-*] r*.i .lru.1 . t()r'n bclrteett a lilreltirriarr trirditiorr irl relntiorr to social l)ehiivlotrI '5op-6[nformit)" tuntn to arrd a tratlition of coDfornrity. Often tlrel' toleratccl bul for Cotnlttttllis{ ideology it oppose it rrright lr,rve plocluced intcrnal strains,
thotrgh, in \n", oft.,, a r.lati".ly uninrportarrt issue. It becattle more iniporialri, beyond lls original workingcountries like ltaly wllere t6e por.ty triecl lo nro'e
in.l989' The
'lhc ag'arian p;utics lhat sur'ive-in Australia arrd in scanclinavia-have cltatlrlccl their ttatttes artl tlteir oricrrtati<,1n. l he Artstralian Countrt,party is lrorv thc N;rtiorral Parlr', antl in Sc;rndinavia the ex-farnrcr parties rrorv usually desc|ihc therrsclvt's ls ( r-,rrtre;r,rrtie.s.'lhey seek to attract votes rlol just fr61r lhosc clcpenieltt ott ,rri' icultirrr' lrut rnore generally frorrr the nridclle class.
fcrr't'r-astru i.rrr paltie.s arrcl those that renrain have charrged thcir'1'oli1y orientrrtiorr,,lata lirr thesc parties are not included ilr Fics. l.l arrcl ll
Ilecrtttse there are so
attract nriddle-class rllelnl)efs arrd votel's' '[he discussiorr of Cottrtttttlrist parties has lrad f o he coridtrctcd in the lr:ist tense direct an effect on bccause the collapse of Soviet corrrtrrunist]l has lrad allttost as cleatiori <rf Cotnrnunist parties elsen,here as did tl,e llttssiarr llevoltriiolr in tlre tlrtrclr tirc lhcse frnrties, \\rhile a ferv Cottrttltttrisi lr;rlties lrirve soldicfccl ott otl ldeologl" sar'e lirrcs as bcfore, otlrers have clrartqctl botlr tlreir tr;1ttte attd thcir becarrre the [)crnocralic l.cft I'rrti'(l't)s) u'ilh a ]'he IrCl in ltaly, for exornple, Ry con.prog,ramllle th,if a soci,rl tlenrbct.rrtic l)ilr.ty \\,ould find trnextcptiorlal-le'
ttlrtrit
ltrtr.lit.s
1111'1. ;t1c
tltti'l
lilte ralrlcrrrocrirqir,,5
birve a diflerettt crrltur.c or lra<litiorrs, or Itrr'c ir tlttile tlistttttl set ol ecorrrrrrric irrtcrcsts that derive frorrr thc tcrritgrr,llrey occlll'1. |t'i exatttl'le, tlrt'Urritctl Kirrgdorn has distinct sub-cultrrres irr \\tales, Scoll;rrltl' irrtcl Not llrelrr lrclatrrl, llclqirurr is dividccl betrvcen Frerrch arrd []lcrnish
g1.or111, a.,r.
40
PARTIES
PARTIES
RIGHT
AND IDEOLOGY 41
14
16
18
20
Public ownership
Social policy
LEFT
o2
Public ownership
Social policy
speakers' and Spain has several linguistically based sub-cultures. Horvever., the
existence of these sub-cultures is not a sufficient condition for tl.re appearance
of
political parties corr.rmitted to their protection. For exanrple, it rvas not ultil t|e 1960s that Welsh and Scottish Nationalists started to win parliarnelltary seats on
regular basis; in Belgium too it rvas the 1 960s rvhich saw the electorai rise ofparties rvith explicit appeals to one or the other linguistic comnrunity. Even in couna
tries where the early stages of liberal den.rocracy had been rlarked by the appearance of regional or ethnic parties the mid-years of the trventieth century often saw a'swallorving up'ofthese sorts ofparties by larger political nrovenrellts. It is r.rot our concern here, though, to account for the reappearance ofsuch parties. Rather we are concerned with their ideology. Broadly speaking, nationalisnr has usually been associated rvith the right. It has been supportive of traditional social values, and has often appealed to the interests of the bourgeoisie rather than the r.vorkiug class. sorne ethnic and regional parties are really parties of the far right; the Flen.rish Bloc is an example
with the politicar left it is.reratively easy to crassify ideology. you begi' rvith the Socialist parties, turn to the comnrunists, und then rook"at the varlus parties from the Communists (such as liotskyisrs) or at the movemenrs i,Ti :l,lt}.*d .rirr rre Lo'rnru'ists failed to absorb (such as anarchism). But a'alysing the ideas ofthe far right is a rather nrore conrplex exercise than this. Indeed it could be argued that vo' Beyme's attenrpt to fit these parties into the ,famiry, frame_ work fails' The parties that would have to be incructed ,.. u dirpu.ute bunch that are linked together only byth.e fact that their policies i'a number of areas are weil to the right of the centreofrhe poriticar .p..,.un.,. von Beymet,historical insti_ tutional'approach, r,r'hich for's the ba.sis of the classifi.rron oiporty families irrtr.duced i' trris chapter, is in da'ger of collapsi'g into a spatiar (or l)ou,'sian) approach.
An obvious starting_point is Fascism. oped in virtuarv orr Eu.op,ean countries
rvas anti-derr.rocratic
ofthis, and I
have included
with the regional and ethnic parties. Nevertheless, there are a nunrber of regional and ethnic parties today-the Parti Quebecois in canacla, the welsh and scottish Nationalists, and sonre of the spanish parties-rvhich have a distinctly celtrist or centre-left orientation. A briefglance at Figs. l.l and 1.2 (or Fig. l.B) indicates that the parties in this category that rvere inch-rded in the Laver and Hunt studi, are a rather heterogeneous grouP. Because the notion ofthe nrcdian party rvould not bevery useful with tlris farnily, this information is not included in cithcr l.'ig. l.l or Fig. 1.2.
and anti-liberal. It war.rted an authoritarian state in which the traditional varues ofthe society r"ourd be p.otected. For that reason racisnr rvas usually an inrplicit, and often a highly explicit, element to fnr.iri-ia.ology. ilut if Fascisnr's anti-liberarisrn it"one or tne greatest enemies oiro.iut p.._ 'rade Itttssit'erless' it had a rather tnore ambivalent attitude to state i'tervelrtion in the ecouo')'. Fascists supported the s'rail busi'ess person and rvere opposed to tlre social disruption that large corporatior.rs courd cause. But Fascists were also bit_ lerly oPposed to Marxisnr ar.rd to the n.robirizatron of the rvorking crass on class lines' colrsequentr;', -Fascislr tended to seek an accornnlodation rvitrr ,big busi_ to be run on lines that provided for social harmony ;:;.;j::::l:1}:^.::1,"nry acco'prished by working 'ur wrs }r'epared to see this with ,big business,rather than through rrore direct state intervention. Hrr'e'er, o'ce the expricitry Fascist parties are reft aside, the boundaries bettvecr crtre're rig.t-rving r)arties arrd other parties-especiaily conservatrve
o.,J::fli:'ilJ:JiT
Fasc.
illll?jill;
PARTIES.ANDIDEOLOGY 43
42
PARTIES
andl-rationalistparties-becomeratherblurred.evctrintheitlter-rvarycars. parties becor'es vet nrore to iientifv the ideology of far-right ;;;;it;; rnodel' there is nJsingle donrinatrt party difficult in the post-rvar period for
and 1930s' comparable to Fascisrn in the I920s
Fascisn.r were
'[h c
Ec o I o g7'
ttt
ttvc
tr
ut t
LEFI 0
RIGHT
12
14
16
18
20
re'clati.'s underr.',;:; ;y;;. rvar a'd b1, the subsequcnt fu]lhorrorsofthepolicie,oftt-'.NationalSocialistsirlGerrlrany.Silrcelg45orlly tl: YSt in ltaly',nt* O::t1,1:tive elecsuch a few tnrly rt.o-nu,ti't pttties' ": l-ras beerr a nlajor factor ir-r
rvith Fascislrl torally. Hclrver,er' t1.,. .o.i,,-,-' associatecl
the Republican Party ln
oThefirstPointtorroteisthatinliberaldenlocraticEurttpel]ascistrlandtlc<1. tf the
Public orvnership
Socral polrcy
Citn*ny' In both
non-richardshipfortlredonlinantracialgroLlPsrviththepresenceofrelatir'ely nervimnrigranrsintlre.ou.,,,y.But,giverrtlrelvidespreacisul-lportforliberal bee. overtlyirtrti-regit'e of iarties lra'e democracy since 1945, ti.r. r.itra. 'ot
were earller' parties il.r the rvay that the Fascists
Of all the Jiunilles spirituclles, the Iicologl' lrtovemellt is the newest. It is also difllcult to iclentify preciscly the donrinant traditions at the fotrnding oI these partics, lrorv irrrportant those traditions have beetr in inlluencing Pilrty behaviour, and horv nruch, by contparison rr'itlt older parties, these parties have been 'reshaped' ideologically by the den.rands of electoral contpetition. \\'riting in 198.1, vor.r lle1,1r. cl.raracterized the Ecology Inovelllellt as drarving on a rvide range of ideas-floll left, right, and centre. Norv it is true that E,cology parties have not tr-rrncd to Socialist doctrines and that they have beetl free to develop icleas and prosrantlltes ttnconstraitled bi' any particular ideology. Nevertheless, as l:igs. Ll ancl 1.2 (or Fig. Ll0) suggcst, tl'rcre are grounds for regarcling environrrrentalisnr as hirvinq lrecclnre a nelv kind of politics of the left, rather lhan as falling rvholll'outsirle tladitiilnal notions of left and right. On the issue of state intelr,e6tion the nredian positior.r is 8.0, rvhich is very similar to tlte Socialist an<i Soci:tl I)enrocratic ntecliatt, while on social pernrissiveness ccology parties are the nlost lil)eral-the nrediatr position being 4.2. '.l hcrc arc lwo reasons rvhy'left' environrttentalism has beconre dotttinatrt ol'cr
tlre sorts of conscn,ationism n'ith rr'hich a traditional Cotrservative, fcrr cxanrple' rv6ulcl f ecl at hernc. 'l'hc 6rst has to do with the logic of state action in the policy arcas tlrat arc nr()st central to environnrcntalisnt. Many of the goals favtlured by ljcolorists coulcl not ire attained rvithout a high degree ctlstate ittten'cntion, and
t.l
?:
of the iustances of anti-regime mo\renlents Hou'ever, there have beer-r a few irl l-atin in the nlid-1950s' Moreover' right-n'rost notably U"";tiit"t iu France poPsonlen'hat si'rilar anti-parliarllelltar)" Anrerica especially t5ere iave been of
rvas
uudotrbteclly a ltlovenlent
the owlters of snlall fartns arltl busitlesses' the right drarvrng on tl-re sup1roit of
PeronisminArgentina,forexample'\\'asanlovelllerltthathadbothaleftanda
tttltil:,9;
rlre right, daring fr.' rhe r970s a'cl parties to aclrieve anti-tax, parties. l.lre first of tlrese 1980s, the a'rti.gouernment' Party in I)ennrark' Fronr otle an electoral breakthrough rvas the Progress is anorher phenomenon
o,
perspectivetheynriglrtbeseerrasallextrellleforrrlofLiberalisll-r-2pulopgnn
col'lllterparttothe[-ibertariarrPartyrvhiclrhasbeencontestilrgelectiorrs(ttt.tsttc-
cessfully)intlreUnrtedStatessincetheearlr,lgT0s..flrer.iseoftllescpilr.tles I.r Ilight beliefs' but they have tree that of tt.'t fopttl"i'ation of Nerv.
Predates
ttlaltrstrt'art-t
to atrti.gor,ertltlrelrtalist.t-t b1'. able to drarv ot-t tne put.,ticity given pol,il, o,ra thereby have increased their credibility' Conservative t."a to the ",ir.rl extelrr-l their anti-goverunrerttalistn Unlike thc LiLrcrtana,-lr,-ir,i"gt, who are t'odet'ately co'servof Scarcli'avia area of social policy, the anti-iax parties far-right (l'he nredian position on social policy for all ative on such Ilratters' they rnay pro1.rFig' I '9') ]'his suggests parties is 19.0; Fig. I .2 o,' ln*t' sectiori of
erlybeplacedanrorlgtheextretrlcriglrt-rvinglrar.tics,altlrotrghorrsocialptllicy parlics sttcll rs thc lrt't-tlcl't they are still lar nrore libcral lharl otlrer.r'ight-rvirlg
On the isstre ol'pLrblic o$'tlership' Natiorral Front or thc Flenrish Illoc in llelgiunr. a hostility lo goYerlllllerltal iDterhowever, all the lar-r.rg,ht parlies today sirare (.,r..1 lo*,er sectio'.f Irig. 1.9) is 18.5' verti.r.r; lhe,retliirrr p?*irio" i, Fig. l.l
1:i
t1
by c<t-ordipatcd irrternational intervcntion. l'l.rc scops ef such irltervelltion conllicts ivith the notictn of the ideal state botl.r for Liberals and also for Ccltrservalilcs. As lal as pertr.rissive social policy is concerned, the electoral
irnpe rativc is, pcrhaps, the nrore inrportant factor. The sorts of nlicldle-class votels that are attracted to envilonrrrcntalisnr rr'otrld nclt be willing to accept a collservative social policy in tlrese alcas, so that Ecology parties risk alienating ferv
44
PARTIES
PARTIES
AND IDEOLOGY 45
Irollorvirlg von lleynre I have identified nine nrain party l'amilies in tlre liberal tlcntocracics. Iltrt lvhat is their relative strerrgth in particular coultries?'lhtlle l.l Provitics a rathcr crude attcmpt to'r)rap'a'a'swer to this questi<_rn. lwenty_five cou'tries are represcnted in this table, which shorvs the ou.ruga percer.rtage of the obraired by the parties of each type in each country u't erections 'ote i.n"r.r held in the 1980s. I--ive points should be borne in mind when consulting Thble
-o
E N s oB Eu P Fi c ; o;;
-!
o :
E-?.
h r ; od
l.t:
I c P
:o .1 tr
(l
) co,ntries that rvere not denocracies during the rvhole of that decade are
exclr-rcled. Anrclng
t, E 3 g
er
oc
sr.rch as Argentina, rvhich were ,re_democratizing, in that decade. (2) Sonre countries such as India, Venezuela, colornbia ancl costa Rica have also bee.r excluded artogether because very few oftheir major parties can be fitted clearly into von Beynte's classification.
(3
A'ericart regir,es,
i,,
;
i.:
l
,i.. i
:1,
iiil
t:
47
Belgium
Canada Denmark Finland France Germany Greece
tl
45421 28281
tt
12 12 15
10
11
1
to
34
20
Prog ressive
lceland lreland
73 71
Conseruatives (42)
3 5
i'cludes the progressive conservati'es in ca'ada, the LDp inJapan, and Fian'a Friil and Fine Gael in h'eland). 'rhe exclusion of hybrid cases courd, horvever, be misleading in understanding a particular country so Thble l.l rnust be interpreted u,ith some caution.
Sorne parties rvhich cannot be fi tted easily into any one catcgory have been onritted frorn Tabre 1.1 rather than being'forced'into a categorl,. (1.his
iitr:
rt;t i
.|.
.i, i ,:i i.ri ,t l|l .,.i:l rl
',,iN
19
(5)
33 I
35 16 36 25
35
JI
Democrats
3
(4)
that ntight have been used. \vhere parties in a rtunille did not obtai'a'average ofat least r per cent of the vote they were excluded.
tneasur-es
olher
measure of merery looking at r9g0s election results does tend to ex.lggerate the position of some parties that did either espe cially rvell or badly in that decade. Thus the'ote for the British Labour partyappears as rather lorv ard that for the British Liberals rather high by comparison
::f
"t't il
r11
,1t
,:i
ili
with
lrlri
:lr
rid.l
)
iri
., !.
'tJ'il
29
Liberal
19
19
Ilearing thc.se poirts i' what does lbble 'ind, of the firrnilles spirituclles?
r.l
r'lt
l
49 40
J JI
33 43 44
35
9
D'66
(7)
28
11 26 24
4f
21
11
45 25
9 16 277 26
z5
l
42
30
SDP included
with Liberals
USA
tl.re exception of the united States-which is a special case that wilr be furtl'rer i' section B-all the countries have parties from nrore than o-ne .fhtrtillc. llut they vary frorn those that have parties in only two or three fiunillcs to cou'trie.s that ha'e parties in six or seven of them. This suggests con_ siclerairle'ariation in the pattern of liberal democratic party politics. Horvever, it ts itnportant to renrclnber that there are pressures for parties to .dopt to electoral constl'aints ancl this can result in a party fronr ore fanrily corningio resemble a party in anothcr. Iror exanrple, the Gernran christian Democrats_4rra Christian [)e111sg131c-tlo have a sontewhat cliffererrt ]rolicy orientation fronr the British (J.r15c11'x1l1,gs. Ilrrt tlrc a[rse'ce of a corrservaii"e pa.ty irr post-war Ger'rany has Pr.ducccl sorrc clccroral presstrres for therrr lo push sonreof their poricics i'the
, with discussed
ti;'l: ^i
: , tt
,' |::
,,
r; i,. .,.l,al I
."i":
..',
i,,tf.
l.
'.li;'
46
PARTIES PARTIES
tn,o
jLrst
States,
does a single party family average more than 50 per cent of the vote. Ireland and
pre-1993 Japan might also be said to be exceptions. Fianna lrdii and Irine Gael have rather similar programmes but do not fit into any of the fanrilies. ln there were a number of Independents and small parties rvhose votes niight be added to the LDP vote, and that wcluld have producecl a fanrill,grorrpillq i1[1;y. the 50 Per cent vote level. The post-1993 situation is o,en nrore dillicult to analyse since sevcral of the parties in governrnent are organizt-cl aroupd delcctors
Japan
to lo,r..a. that the Nciv Zeala'd Natio'ar party has some of t'e features ot-u conr..uative party (anci that migrrr be doubted), we rvourd stilr.be reft with;ry;;..., possibry N4alta (rh.uglr thc Natio'alist party is more rike a christian ,.n-..o, party), as w'ell as Nerv Zealand approaching the British nrodel.
rrrrportarlt l)olllt to ttotc, clf course, is that the Ilritish pattern at theparlitttrrcntary /r:r'cl, rvhcrc the Labour l)arty faces a large conservative that ca' fornr g've"lcrts, is an unusuor on.. Even if we 'rajority were'arty
AND IDEOLOGY 47
However, there are good reasons for belie'ing that the vote share of three of then'r-Regional/Ethnic, Right-wing Extrenrist, and Ecologists-p.right ipcrcase in the 1990s, while the comr.nunist vote (and nra'1,of the parties the'rselvcs) would collapse rvith the end of the cold rvar and the transfornration of a nurnber of the fornrer cornmunist parties into other t1,pes of party. This is,.,or ro sa1., however' that in the longer ternr support fcrr parties of the far left, inclr:di6g sglre of the successor parties to the former Communist parties, nright let ipcrease if econotltic alld social conditions continued to produce groups rvho founcl thcnrsel'es largely excluded fron.r e'rployme't a.d other .pportulrities. o If the'r'ote share of a lrntily rvere to be re flected in its influence qoverr)lrcllt or] policl', ive rvould expect party policy in liberal derrocratic regilnes gclerally to lie sonrewhere betr.veen centre-right and centre-left of the political spectrprl. 'l.he party fanrilies u'ith the rllost extrenre viervs do not seenr to be arnong the largest vote getters. In the past, horvever, not all Iiberal denrocracies have displal,ed t6is feature. it4ost notoriousli,, in the trvo elections of l932just before the reginre's col_ lapse' the Natiorlal Socialists and the Conrmunists in Gernrany got orre-half ^bo,it of the totirl volcs l)etween thenr; both parties contested rlre lr,gitirtrao.of the weinrar reginre. In the 1980s seenringly the clclsest case to \\'einrrrr Gerpranl,rvas Italy; but in lraly'not only rvas the conrbined I,cl/N{sl vore share orrly aSout -i5 pe r cent of the total, but the PCI had already prorrouncecl itself to be cornprilcd lo t;c nraitrtenance of a liberal denrocratic reginrc. o Socialist anci social Dernocratic parties are the nrost rvidespread of the fanilles. with the exception of the United States, all rhe counrries ijrt.,l f-.rt,,r. parties rvhich betrveen then.r receive lhe votcs of at leirst one eighlh of the elcc, torate' It is in the Patlerlt of opposition to thenr ironr the ccrrtre-richt irrrrj the right that rve find one of the nrairr dilfcrerrces anrolrg the litreral denrr]cracies. A'
,also-ransl crats, and con.rrnunists. overall, tl.re other four farnilles u,ere
r In the 1980s the five Irtaitr vote-rvinners alnong tl'te farrtilles n,er"e t6e Liberals/l{adicals, Conservatives, Socialists/Social Democrats, Christian l)errro-
iogies, it .,,.,ia 1,. ..s,ed tha t .n onoryri, Lur;:i :_ plenrented by one that focuses on the poricies and varues suprported by the parties
<
1f;:fiT:i,ilru;ru*tff
rver.e, say, in trre t 940s, rtrtrl tlrcrc is an obvjorrs ,Parties serrsc irr rvhich they ar" oll ,roru of:the rightl llut t'51';q'xti
arrd the Itcp,rrrica' l.l-ty r,, the urrited States. J. the e\tcllt that there arc sirtlilar lirrcs ril s.cial cli'isior i' different c.urtries, there tvill lrc 'ide.logic.r spacc' ro be liiled, .,ra prrti., rviil nrove in to fill trrar space; llte three parties iusl rrrclrti.rred are alr .*orrrpr.s of partie.s -"ri,r*,'," r"_. cxtcnt, to lake uI posirions thal rhe1, tr.t;.". P1rli1.y <lri11'. ro, thel'havc lrcc.r'rr.'lr.re ^r..f.f,",rflf iiupufu.. fn rike en.h otl.,e, tha, they
ti es 1,u,,, .h. "gJ ;;;;r id eo I o gics "r,.,, i r ir,., J if; il study of parry programnres suggest. And clrarrle ;;;;;;, 'right ;:;pted, pri_ ntarily, by contpetition for votcs. l'l.re to co'rpcte for carr resurt in parties t,Irat had rather differe't '.tes origins 'eed conring to resernlrlc e;rch othcr.. .l-hus, for example, tf,.." ,.. ,;gnln.unt srl'ihrities i' the l990s rrcrrve crr_the lxrlicies supported by the Gerr'an cDU, the Ilritish
1'his brings rhe discussior back ro the idea of spariar cor'petition. whire ear_ Iier,l r'as e'rphasizing the ri'ritatior.,.s of the anaryses of spatiar theorists.such as Budge, Il.berts.n, ar.rcr trrei. coileagucs, L.,uru rurnt to o'trine the chief nrerit of that appr-oach. l-his is that it seeksiu ,.n.t .tr,
1:
.)
:il:#Jj I.:::ffi;:fj,
corser'ati'es,
,.i
,,j:
-'.; ,':,, t
. .- _,!l
i
'l
i.i;'
be
. tt .l
!a ':l!
. tl , il
48
PARTIES
;;" partv con,per i, io,,.,'i one perspecrive it is useful ro conc .._l.o,l, *"r adopt on ,TJ}:l,i'iff:',j.11:
are parties
\41e left-right.ou"u,rll9"rg "ri'i,corlll'uu'r' that in nr<.r.st c.untries a ji's'loJleaSucs is reached n, au".1lto,t,O"*.;;;;;", t';':::i.':: n*d ( n o ta br y rl er g,,,,, ;'":jll " " "i'ii' il :,:. J,".l d spa irr ) r here i{:;T,1':'T a' secot td dit versus decen t ro,,ru:'.ttttt:'n rt crtsiort ( ct'rt tt'aliza I i,rr .,t a..rr.,, -,rr;;i;': d jrncnsior,
ton
of Iludge
aj'lefr-righ t'
PARTTE'AND changed lDEolocy l;].::if '" '''ctoral conditiorrs, the lik.lyto 'i,,.r"or..o - electorai condiii^,.- .r difficuJties or.suclr
4e
"" "]"),.. r*
;;i%,:i::Jifi ill:i:il,
:f j*iT
sPI)'
,..p,
L, r
,1?1lilli,?jli.:;,?Jl,n7 *"
within the
of the
t;t;';.';';;i'?s''nt
,,"
;";;;;:'":
SECTION
France
f ::1,:':J::,iJ
i''''' sanre
to the iert, or
;il;,,l:
t<, rrre
difrere't.,ij:-l','^'o..t,;;";';;t;i'::'the
,"i:,l;;:li3;J"lil'.:
;i
:ff
;:?ffilJl',1ill":f::te,
3".:ii
arrect ,',"
o ca
ti
h enr -
-*ilj+*#rufr{i
li
n:
Hrn
i"i'.,
'
historv orthe
;1,
rrasr, rrre
ilj;, :fil :; }.l+i#:'i:il :;, l :l;i.,i :;; ;: i: 1611" trre r{cptrbricarr ff:inl";ii,lilii::'l:t'l,'o'i,'oi',o",,),1 l"'i'"'ic irr the eco'orny; traced
:l
;
" "
;; .;, ;;;;,: ::
*l+;*ai#*$'ffi;;+ffi
ntany of the ;rarties
back
;;;;;;r,"1,",,,e'rerrr
its
chrir
ro
,.,$::j1i1,",.,,,.,
even nrore
.
iillilTii;ltfiijill
tv.loreoYer, t() rg1l6x
1
0,".,',,uni,;;,""i',i,il;;.llf l!i:;;:'t;;j1:li; "r,,..,.,rr,,i,"'1,]ijulllll" ,,,... ol.', ,,u, ..,,,,. is '.i.'., -..,u"",,-" ,l:,a particrtttr kj'd orcentrei,.,a pa.rticttrn
*ljl
l)etttocraci'. In
rlc
r980s,
lil.,erarisrn l
i{,l,ii,r.
il
5*,s**n*r*if
ffi
*trtr','iq:fi
*t
jiiil::ffi
p.urt
;1,
::
i,il:,,,,
*T:
,
,i,ri,,.',,1 * inr p "r. a' r .",,1 :l:.1:ll :' F ;;; " ; ;;: ili'i.:::Til' ,]li'Il :T:ilil: o. :'Ifron.,..,uo.k il,,;;;;:i:::'.ts orP'1I1v idcoIorii oi.uu,,,"i ;i;; i: of ,;;,;';.,
nrade in subsect
1."';,.,;'
ililff : I*r, *-Ut# *:ililr' : i :+ullTili ffi ilr:i d 0s; s'ci' ] ;,Ii;:i[{;{.r i'::' :;::i' * ;lryfi il*;l
re
s'ls
i;; ; r; :: :r, ;
j
i
r
1;
#,'::,j'r',ffi
il n ;[ii]i xl".i;jtr;,[flil
d'ffi
i.i1,fri
x;l*,l";ffi n,;r;;;,