CN 2 marks Questions( keywords) 1 design issues of network layer..

2 store and forward concet 3 services provided by the n/w layer to the transport layer 4 trade-offs between CO and CL service 5 difference between vc and ds 6 routing? With example 7 3 real world examples for CO and CL service 8 session routing 9 problems with VC 10 Routing tables 11 fairness and optimality 12 properties of routing 13 hop counter ,adv, 14 adaptive routing 15 non adaptive routing 16 selective flooding 17 sequence number 18 static routing algs used in link state routig algs 19 count to infinity pblm 20 ECHO packet 21 HELLO packet 22 Priciple of distance vector routing algorithm(DVRA) 23 5 steps in link state routing algorithm(LSRA) 24 calculation of link state cost 25 fields in link state packet 26 calculation of new routes in link state routing alg 27 significance of age field in LSRA 28 protocols used by DVRA and LSRA 29 normal routing vs hierarchical routing 30 routing alg for large n/ws 31 DVRA vs LSRA 32 Broadcast routing vs multicast routing 33 types of Broadcast routing -- PRAMOD ////////////////***********************************/////////////////////////////// ANSWERS 1 a.store and forward packet switching b.services provided to the transport layer c.implementation of connection less service

d.implementation of connection oriented service 2. When a host sends a packet to the nearest router .the packet will be stored at the router until it has fully arrived so the checksum can be verified then it is forwarded to the next router along the path until it reaches the destination 3 .the services offered by the network layer areit provides connection oriented or connection less service.. If the service is CL that means the n/w is unreliable and host should do error and flow control themselves If the service is CO the n/w is reliable. 4. Several trade-offs exists between VC and DS. 1.router memory space and bandwidth 2.setup time versus address parsing time Justification:-vc allows packets to contain circuit numbers instead of full destination addresses,if the packets tend to be fairly short a full destination address in every packet may represent a significant amount of overhead and hence wasted bandwidth using VCs requires a setup phase which takes time and consumes resources.. 5. Issue Ckt setup Addressing DS VC needed each packet contains a short vc number all the packets fallow the same easy easy

not needed each packet contains full source and Destination address Routing every packet follows its own route Route Quality of service difficult Congestion control difficult

6. routing means directing the packets from source to destination and which is the function of router in network layer example; // {draw one subnet from the text book} 7 Real world examples for CO service:Telephone

Real world examples for CL service:Mobile phone messaging 8. session routing: routing decision must be made anew for every arriving data packet since the best routing may have changed since last time..but sometimes the route remains same for the entire user session is called session routing Exlogin session at a terminal 9 disadv: 1.the circuit setup is needed before the connection is established 2.the failure of one router will affect all other routers which passes through the Failed router 10 Refer to the text book page no 346 and 348..4th edition computer networks ,Tanenbaum 11 Refer to the text book page no 351..4th edition computer networks ,Tanenbaum 12 A.Correctness B.Simplicity C.Robustness D.Stability E.Fairness And F.Optimality 13. 1,hop counter is one of the metric which is included in the header of each packet.It is decremented at each hop with the packet being discarded when the counter reaches zero. 2.the hop counter should be initialized to the length of the path from source to destination by the sender if the sender doesnt know how long the path is ..then he can initialize the counter to the worse case..i.e the full diameter of the subnet.. 14 the routing algorithm change their routing decisions to reflect the changes in the topology and traffic then that routing algorithm is called adaptive routing algorithm.

15 the routing algorithm which do not base their routing decisions on measurement or

estimates of the current traffic andtopology then that routing algorithm is called nonadaptive routing algorithm. 16 selective flooding: in this technique the routers do not send every incoming packet out on every line..Only on those lines that are going approximately in the right direction. Adv: it can reduce the n/w traffic(congestion).... 17 Each and every packet is assigned a unique sequence number,which tells the Sequence number is used in flooding to keep track of which files have been flooded and to avoid sending them out a second time.. 18. static routing algorithms used in link state routing algorithm 1.flooding algorithm is used to distribute the link state packets.. 2.Dijkstras algorithm can be used locally to construct the shorest path to all possible destinations after computing the new routes. 19 Bad news:connectionnews connection lost b/w two routers ,Good news::: there exist a connection bad news propagates slowly than good news among the routers in DVRA. The slow propagation of bad news(connection down) among all the routers in DVRA leads to count-to-infinity problem Draw the diagram from the text book page no 359..4th edition computer networks ,Tanenbaum

20 ECHO packetis used in the n/w when the shortest path metric is delayWhen a router sends ECHO packet to the receiver then the receiver just timestamps and sends back as fast as it can..

21 HELLO packetit is just like a packet which is sent to the all other routers to know who its neighbors arewhen a router is booted ,its first task is to learn who its neighbors are which done by HELLO packet. 22 DVRA principleIn this algorithm each router maintains a routing table indexed by and containing one entry for each router in the subne..this entry contains two parts: the preferred outgoing line to use for that destination and an estimate of the time to that destination..the metric might be no of hops ,time,delay in milliseconds 23 5 steps: 1.Discover its neighbors and learn their n/w addresses 2.measure the delay or cost to each of the neighbor 3.construct a packet telling all it has just learned 4.send this packet to all other routers 5.compute the shortest path to every other router. 24 link state routing algorithm requires each route to know or atleast have a reasonable estimate of the delay to each of its neighbors.The way to find this delay is to send a ECHO packet over the line .By measuring the round trip time and dividing it by two the sending router gets the delay.. 25 fields: 1.seq 2.age3.send flags 4.ack flags.. Purpose: Seq: Each packet contains a sequence number that is incremented for each new packet sent.. Age: it is decremented by each router to make sure no packet can get lost and live for an infinite period of time..a packet whose age is zero is discarded. Send flags::the packet must be sent on the indicated line Ack flags::the packet must be acknowledged 26

Once a route has accumulated a full set of link state packets ,it can construct the entire subnet graph because every link is represented ,every link is in fact represented twice,once for each direction.The two values can be averaged or used separately,and then dijkstras algorithm can be run locally to construct the shortest path to all possible destinations..The result of this page can be installed in the routing tables ,and normal operation resumed.. 27 It is decremented by each router during the initial flooding process ,to make sure no packet can get lost and live for an indefinite period of time(a packet whose age is zero is discarded) 28 a) DVRA: RIP( used in the internet.) b) LSRA: a)OSPF(used in the internet) and b)IS-IS(intermediate systemintermediate system) 29 Dis adv of normal routing. As the n/w grows in size,the router routing tables grow proportionally..it leads to 1.more cpu time is needed to scan them and 2. more bandwidth is needed to send Status report about them.. Reason to use HR.. In this the routers are divided into regionsthe routing table maintains all the possible destinations in a region in which the source is present but it maintains only one router each in the other regions.. 30 Hierarachical routing algorithm is used for large networks. 31 DVRA and LSRA both are dynamic routing algorithms but DVRA has two problems which are not in LSRA The two problems are: a).since the delay metric in DVRA is queue length,it doesnt take line bandwidth into account,It doesnt matter if line uses the bandwidth low..but it will be the problem when line requires high bandwidth..(this is used in Arpanet up to 1979) b).DVRA takes too long to converge(the count to infinity problem)

32 Broadcast routing::sending a packet to all the destination simultaneously .. Exwhether report sending, Stock market ,Radio signals Multicast routing:sending a message to a group of destinations is called multicasting and its routing algorithm is called multicast routing algorithm.. Ex: 33 5 types: 1.simply sending a packet to all the destinations simultaneously.. 2.flooding routing algorithm 3.multidestination routing 4.constructing a sink/spanning tree 5.Reverse path forwarding
-- PRAMOD