CHAPTER -1 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER

SUPER COMPUTER: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of instructions per second. These are amongst the fastest machines in terms of processing speed and use multiprocessing techniques, where a number of processors are used to solve a problem. The supercomputers are reaching upto speeds well over 25000 million arithmetic operators per second. Super computers are mainly being used of weather forecasting, computational fluid dynamics, remote sensing, image processing, bio-medical applications etc. MAIN FRAME COMPUTER: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously. Main frame computers are generally 32 bit machines or on the higher side. These are suited to big organizations, to manage high volume applications. Mainframe are also used as central application programs developed for mainframe computers are much larger than those of the micro or minicomputers because of their evolution over several decades as families of computing. MINI COMPUTER: A multi-user computer capable of supporting from 10 to hundreds of users simultaneously. The term minicomputer originated in 1960s when it was realized that many computing tasks do not require and expensive contemporary mainframe computers but can be solved by a small, inexpensive computer. With the advancement in technology the speed, memory size and other characteristics, developed and the minicomputer was then used for various stand alone or dedicated applications. WORK STATION: A powerful single user computer. A workstation is like a personal computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and a higher-quality monitor. PERSONAL COMPUTER: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor. In addition to the microprocessor a personal computer has a keyboard for entering data a monitor for displaying information and a storage device for saving data. Laptop:Laptop is portable computers that can you can carry in your hand as you move from one place to another. A laptop computer has in-built rechargeable battery, which provides enough power supply for the computer. HARDWARE Hardware The term hardware describes the physical parts of your computer which you can physically touch or see such as your monitor, case, disk drives, microprocessor and other physical parts.

BIOS (BASIC INPUT OUTPUT OPERATING SYSTEM) BIOS is the most Basic control software for your computer. The bios is makes a pc IBM compatible. It tells the computer how to look at the bus, memory and floppy drive and how to read other programs. The BIOS isnt a plug in card. Its a chip thats mounted right on the motherboard. BIOS is normally written in a low level computer language and is permanently or semi-permanently written into the computer system. This type of computer program is commonly referred to as firmware since it was historically written permanently into computer systems. Although BIOS is a program, because of its permanent state, it was not quite considered to be software so the term firmware is used to describe it. Historically BIOS programs were written into a type of memory called ROM (read only memory). This type of memory would not lose its data when the computer lost power thus ensuring these BIOS programs would always be available. There were different variants of ROM memory some of which could be written multiple times but this memory could not normally be changed or re-programmed once the computer system was sold to the customer. Once ROM memory was written to, it could not be written to again and could only be read when in the possession of the customer. In more recent years a more flexible form of memory was developed called flash ROM which allows ROM memory to be written to after the computer system is in possession of the customer. CMOS (COMPLEMENTARY METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR) CMOS is a type of semiconductor chip that holds data without requiring any external power source. In a pc, CMOS holds the basic instructions the computer needs to initialize its hardware components and boot up. These settings are known as the BIOS settings, also referred to as CMOS settings.

Boots in different stages: Power-On-Self-Test (POST) Bootstrap Process

POST Each part of the computer is turn on you may be find light flash on keyboard and a single beep sound come before the hard disk is accessed. Note: BIOS performs post. BIO is located in Rom chip. APP OS BIOS HW

Bootstrap Process comprises of two sequences: Preboot sequence Actual boot sequence Preboot sequence: It consists of loading the following components of the OS into the internal memory, (RAM), of the computer: Kernel Device drivers Actual boot sequence: It Gathers information about hardware and drivers and prepares Windows XP to load. Of Windows XP requires certain files in order to boot, such as: Ntldr Boot.ini Ntdetect.com

Software The term software describes the programs that run on your system. This includes your computer operating system and other computer programs which run. Software is written in a computer language (such as Basic, C, Java, or others) by programmers. The computer language is in a text format and can be read by a person although if you do not understand the structure and rules of the language you may not understand it very well. Once a program is written, an operation is performed on it which is called compiling. Compiling is the process of changing the textual written language into a binary language which can be understood by the computer. Writing these text files and converting them to computer readable files is the way operating systems and most application programs are created.

TYPES OF SOFTWARE Hardware consists of the tangible parts of the computer, such as the monitor and keyboard. Anything that can be stored electronically is software or data. Software consists of the instructions that you give to the computer. It is the intangible part of the computer system. The hardware of the computer cannot work by itself. It requires instructions from the user. These instructions are given in the form of programs. Software may be categorized as: 1.Application software 2.System software Application softwareconsists of programs used for various purposes, such as a word processor or a database management system (DBMS). For example, Microsoft Office 2000 is application software. System softwareis used to control the hardware of the computer or to help convert instructions written in a high-level language to machine language. System software may be further categorized into: Operating systems Compiler software What is an Operating System An operating system is a software program that acts as an interface between a user and a computer. The operating system manages the computer hardware, system resources, memory, and interaction between the system and its users. The operating system also forms the base on which application software is developed. Operating Systems Linux Unix-Solaris, SCO and Irix Microsoft DOS Microsoft Windows 95 Microsoft Windows 98 Microsoft Windows NT Server 4.0 Microsoft Windows 2000 Server Microsoft Windows Server 2003 The functions of operating system are: Command interpretation: The Central Processing Unit (CPU) needs to understand a command keyed in by a user. It can interpret only binary code, which is the code containing 0s and 1s. A command keyed in by a user has to be translated to binary code for the CPU to understand the command. An Operating system performs this task. Memory management: Memory management is the mechanism by which an operating system handles requests for memory. With the development of highly sophisticated software, memory requirements have increased drastically. An operating system has to take care of allocating memory to the various

applications running on the system. It has to allocate optimum memory to the applications and clean up unnecessary data from the memory. Peripheral management: An operating system has to take care of the devices (peripherals) attached to the computer. It handles communication between the devices and the CPU. For example, it handles communication between the CPU and the printer or the modem. Process management: To enable several programs to run concurrently, an operating system has to ration out the CPU time. It needs to ensure that all the programs get a fair share of the CPU time and no one program monopolizes the CPU time. The functioning of an operating system depends largely on the computer system on which it is installed. Because there are two basic types of computer systems singleuser and multi-user there are two types of operating systems. Before you learn about the details of operating systems, let us first have a brief look at the two types of computer systems available. Compiler Software Compiler software consists of the instructions that convert the instructions written in a high-level language into machine language to execute specific tasks. Single-User System A single user system is a small, general-purpose system, used by one person at a time such as a personal computer (PC). The example of a single-user operating system is MS DOS. Multi-User System A multi-user system can run multiple programs concurrently, share multiple resources such as printers and disks, and support multiple users working simultaneously on a system. The examples of multi-user operating systems are: Linux Unix Windows NT Terminal Server Windows 2000 Terminal Server Windows 2003 Terminal Server Types of Operating Systems Within the broad family of operating systems, there are generally four types, categorized based on the types of computers they control and the sort of applications they support. The categories are: GUI It consists of graphics and icons that are manipulated using a mouse or other input device. Multiprocessing These operating systems are designed to use more than one processor. Once only a privilege of supercomputers, you can now find these powerful operating systems running servers in a doctors office.

Multithreading - The multithreading operating system allows different parts of software to be run concurrently. Single-user, single task - As the name implies, this operating system is designed to manage the computer so that one user can effectively do one thing at a time. The Palm OS for Palm handheld computers is a good example of a modern single-user, single-task operating system. Single-user, multi-tasking - This is the type of operating system most people use on their desktop and laptop computers today. Microsoft's Windows and Apple's MacOS platforms are both examples of operating systems that will let a single user have several programs in operation at the same time. For example, it's entirely possible for a Windows user to be writing a note in a word processor while downloading a file from the Internet while printing the text of an e-mail message. Multi-user - A multi-user operating system allows many different users to take advantage of the computer's resources simultaneously. The operating system must make sure that the requirements of the various users are balanced, and that each of the programs they are using has sufficient and separate resources so that a problem with one user doesn't affect the entire community of users. Unix, VMS and mainframe operating systems, such as MVS, are examples of multi-user operating systems. Difference between Multiuser and Single user It's important to differentiate between multi-user operating systems and single-user operating systems that support networking. Windows 2000 and Novell Netware can each support hundreds or thousands of networked users, but the operating systems themselves aren't true multi-user operating systems. The system administrator is the only "user" for Windows 2000 or Netware. The network support and all of the remote user logins the network enables are, in the overall plan of the operating system, a program being run by the administrative user.

Applications What is an application Applications are programs that are installed. on computers to give users the ability to do specific tasks. For example, Microsoft Word is a program that gives the user the ability to write documents. Some program packages come in a set with multiple programs included to provide multiple capabilities such as the Microsoft Office suite of programs. This suite of programs also includes Microsoft Outlook which is used to send and receive e-mail. It also includes other programs with more capabilities. How Application Programs Work Application programs are written in a text based computer language as mentioned in the section about hardware and software. Once written, they are compiled into a binary language the computer understands. The application programs use function calls (as described in the section about operating systems) to interface to the various computer peripherals such as your keyboard, mouse, screen, printers, and other devices. Most of these function calls are provided by the operating system so the

application programs are usually compiled for a specific operating system such as Microsoft Windows 2000, Microsoft Windows XP, or Microsoft Windows 98. Application Files Applications have a variety of files they use for three basic purposes. Executable files Configuration files Data files used by the user such as Microsoft Word document files. Booting What is Booting? In computing booting is a boot strapping process that starts OS when the user turns on a computer system. Cold Booting (Hard Booting) A hard reboot is when power to a computer is cycled or a special reset signal to the processor is triggered. This restarts the computer without first performing any shutdown procedure. Warm Booting (Soft Booting) Soft reboot is restarting a computer under software control, without removing power or triggering a reset line. It usually though not always, refers to an orderly shutdown and restarting of the machine. Multi Booting Multi Boot is the act of installing multiple operating systems on a computer and being able to choose which one to boot when switching on the computer power. Booting files: IO.SYS It is one of the first file accessed by the MS-DOS and win9x. This file is the system boot loader. MSDOS.SYS This file contains settings and configuration information about the initial real mode environment. Command.com It is responsible for the execution of all commands prior to the loading and initialization of windows kernel. NTLDR NTLDR is the system boot loader file for Windows NT and 2000. When your computer boots NTLDR runs and reads the BOOT.INI file to display the boot menu. BOOT.INI This file is called by NTLDR during the boot process and is used to display the list of operating systems that can be started on this computer. It is used when you have more than one operating system installed on your computer. NTDETECT.com It performs a comprehensive hardware check of your computer to determine what devices are attached, what type and numbers of processors are in use, and resources.

SYSTEM COMPONENTS Monitor

A monitor or display (sometimes called a visual display unit) is a piece of electrical equipment which displays images generated by devices such as computers, without producing a permanent record. The monitor comprises the display device, circuitry, and an enclosure. The display device in modern monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid crystal display (TFTLCD), while older monitors use a cathode ray tube (CRT).

Keyboard In computing, a keyboard is an input device, partially modeled after the typewriter keyboard, which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys, to act as mechanical levers or electronic switches. A keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys and each press of a key typically corresponds to a single written symbol.

Mouse In computing, a mouse (plural mouses, mice, or mouse devices.) is a pointing device that functions by detecting two-dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface. Physically, a mouse consists of an object held under one of the user's hands, with one or more buttons.

Scanner In computing, a scanner is a device that optically scans images, printed text, handwriting, or an object, and converts it to a digital image. Common examples found in offices are variations of the desktop (or flatbed) scanner where the document is placed on a glass window for scanning.

Printers In computing, a printer is a peripheral which produces a hard copy (permanent readable text and/or graphics) of documents stored in electronic form, usually on physical print media such as paper or transparencies.

Speakers Speaker s enables you to take advantage of the sound in many of the sites on the internet and the multimedia titles that you may use. However for some serious PC workers, speakers are optional choice.

System unit The system unit is the most important part of a PC. It may be called the brain behind every action of a PC since it controls and executes all the operations performed by the PC. The keyboard, Monitor, Mouse, Printer, etc, are all linked to the system unit through cables which are plugged into the back to the system unit. System Unit divided into three ways. Front side of the system unit Back side of the system unit Inside of the system unit

Front side of the system unit Power switch: The power on/off switch is used to turn on or off the power to the PC. Reset Button: This button helps you restart your computer without disconnecting the power supply. Lights: The front panel of the system unit may display a variety of colored indicator lights. These lights are used to indicate whether the hard disk, the floppy disk or CDROM is being read or written. Floppy Disk Drive: The floppy disk drive is used to read the information stored in floppy disks (also called a diskette). CDROM Drive: CD-ROM drive is a device that reads the information stored in CD. A CD-ROM is an abbreviated term for Compact Disk-Read Only Memory. CD-Writer: In 1990, the CD-ROM technique was advanced to include writing data on CD. To make your own CD-ROMs, you use a CD-WRITER drive, which can write on CD-ROM disks.

Back side of the System Unit: PORTS AND CONNECTORS

PS/2 PORTS (6PINS)

SERIALPORT (9PINS)

PARALLELPORT (25PINS) VGAPORT (15PINS)

USBPORT (4PINS)

NIC CARD (8PINS)

PS/2 PORT: It is used to connect keyboard and mouse. It has 6 pins. SerialPORT: It is used to connect communication devices, such as EXTERNAL MODEM. It has 9 pins. Serial port also called as communication port (COMPORT). Data Transfer Rate is 1bit. Parallel port: It is used to connect Printers and scanners. It has 25 pins. Parallel port also called as Line printer Terminal (LPTPORT). Data transfer speed is 8 bit. VGA port: It is used to connect Monitors, such as CRT & LCD monitors. It has 15pins. USBPORT: A USB connection is a personal computer connection that enables you to connect multiple peripherals to a single port with high performance and minimal device configuration. USB connections support twoway communications. Most computers today have one or more USB ports and can, with the use of USB hubs, support up to 127 devices per port.

NIC CARD: It is used to connect Computer Networking and Internet. It has 8 pins. The Ethernet connectors are used when two or more than two computers need to be linked with each other over a computer network, like local area network. The shape of male Ethernet connector is quite similar to male modem connector except it is more flat. The female Ethernet connector appears at the back of the system unit. CONNECTORS IDE CONNECTOR: It is used to connect Hard disk and CD Drive. It has 40 pins. FLOPPY CONNECTOR: It is used to connect Floppy drives and it has 34 pins.

Inside of the system Unit:

Mother Board: On a typical motherboard, circuitry is imprinted or affixed to firm planar surface and usually manufactured in a single step. The motherboard contains the controllers for all standard devices such as the display screen, keyboard, and disk drive as well as for additional devices.

Central Processing Unit: Central Processing unit the most important part of a computer where actual processing, i.e. the mathematical and logical processing takes place. It is the brain behind all PC operations. Within a CPU, Instructions are written in the form of computer program, which are carried out by the CPU sequentially. The processing capability of a PC is measured in terms of the amount of data processed by its CPU in one operation. The speed of the CPU is measured in Mega Hertz (MHZ). There are two manufacturing companies are there: 1. Intel 2. AMD

Random Access Memory: A computer stores data in units called bits and bytes. Bits are grouped together in sets of eight. Each set of eight bits is called byte. Setting different combinations of those eight on and off combinations can be developed to stand for letter numbers, spaces, and symbols. The term memory identifies data storage that comes in the form of chips, and the word storage is used for memory that exists on tapes or disks. RAM is the place in a computer where the operating system, application programs, and data in current use are kept so that they can be quickly reached by the computers processor. RAM is much faster to read from and write to than the other kinds of storage in a computer.

Read only Memory: Unlike RAM, the Read Only Memory (ROM) retains its contents even when the computer is turned off. ROM is referred to as being non-volatile, whereas ram is volatile. Expansion Slots: An expansion slot is opening in a computer where a circuit board can be inserted to add new capabilities to the computer like upgrading the quality of the PCs graphics and sound, connection to a local network, etc. A personal computer has expansion slots of different shapes and sizes to support various types of expansion cards. Some popular various types of expansion slots are:

Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) Accelerated GraphicPort (AGP) Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)

The names of expansion cards are after the bus technology used in computers. Expansion slots: ISA slot: Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) was the original PC bus. Initially it carried an 8-bit data bus signal (synchronized to a 4MHz clock). When the AT was introduced this was widened to 16 bits at 8MHz. Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI): PCI expansion cards are configured by the motherboard's PnP (plug 'n' play) system. Its expand the system functionality AGP Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) modified the PCI bus design to handle the high data traffic associated with three-dimensional graphics. AMR & CNR Audio Modem Risers (AMR) and Mobile Daughter Card (MDC) were sometimes used to connect sounds cards and modems. Communication and Networking Raiser (CNR): This includes support for modems, multi-channel audio, telephone-based dial-up networking, USB devices, and 10/100 Ethernet-based LAN adapters. PCI Express PCI Express (PCIE) is a major redesign that uses high-speed serial signaling arranged in lanes. This allows different sized cards to be used that may or may not require high-speed transfers.

System BUS: A bus is a collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part of a computer to another. This is a bus that connects all the internal co0mputer components to the CPU and main memory. HARD DISK: The hard disk is a device which stores all programs and data in the computer. The hard disk is referred to as the memory bank of a computer. The hard disk memory is permanent so that the program and data are not lost when the computer is turned off. SMPS: (Switch Mode Power Supply) the personal computer, the power supply unit is a metal box usually found in a corner of the system unit. This box is known as SMPS box. Visible from the back of the system unit, the power supply box contains the power cord receptacle and a cooling fan. It converts the AC current to DC current.

Adaptor Cards: Adaptor cards are printed circuit boards that you can insert into an expansion slot of your computer give it added capabilities. Expansion slots are long and narrow connectors. Adaptor cards are also called expansion boards, adaptors, add-ins, and add-ons.

ASSEMBLING
1. Prepare your new case by opening the outer cover. Locate the mounting points for motherboard, power supply and drives. 2. Mount the SMPS with four screws. Some cases include the power supply, so it is already installed. Make sure that AC switch set to 220 volts. 3. Mount the CPU: For a socket-mounted CPU, insert it evenly and completely into socket, then gently close the socket lever and lock it into place. Then mount the cooling point to the top of the CPU. You can often purchase a motherboard with a CPU and cooling device already integrated for you. 4. Mount the RAM: Today you will usually have one or more DDR SDRAM DIMMs (or an even number of Rambus modules). A notch in the DIMM and key in the socket means the memory module can only be inserted in one way, just be sure to insert the module evenly and completely so that the white retaining clips hold the module firmly. 5. Configure jumpers: A motherboard can typically support a variety of processors and other options. The motherboard manual in order to set the bus speed, and other options for your particular motherboard. If the CPU has already been installed for you, these jumpers should be preset. Installing MOBO: 6. Before installing the motherboard, make sure that your case has proper openings for all of the ports (for example, serial, USB, and so on) on your particular motherboard. 7. Mount the motherboard: Gently seat the motherboard into the chassis and secure it into place with screws. Be sure that the motherboard rests flat. 8. Connect motherboard power: Once the motherboard is secure, locate the large 20-pin power connector from the power supply and gently connect it to the motherboard.

9. Connect chassis: Your chassis will have several small cables for things like the speaker, power switch and led, reset switch, Hard disk activity, and so on to connect mother board front panel settings. 10. Install video card: Unbox your video adapter and insert into the motherboards AGP slot. 11. Connect the monitor: Attach the monitors 15 - pin video card. If you are using a video card with a secondary video part, check the cards documentation to locate the first video port. 12. Connect speaker cable to the Line out audio connector. 13. Connect your mouse and keyboard cables to their respective ports.

14. Mount the floppy drive: Unbox your floppy drive and secure it to the chassis with four screws. 15. Cable the floppy drive: Attach a 4-pin power cable from the power supply and connect it to the floppy drive. Locate a 34-pin floppy drive cable on the Motherboard. 16. Attach the AC power cable between the SMPS and a nearby AC wall outlet.

Installing Hard disk 17. Configure the hard drive: Unbox the hard drive and locate the jumper next to the 40-pin signal connector. You may configure the drive as a master or slave device depending on other devices drives. 18. Mount the Hard drive: If the hard drive is too narrow to fill a full-sized drive bay, attach the mounting rails to widen the drive. 19. Cable the hard drive: Attach a 4-pin power cable from the power supply and connect it to the hard drive. Locate the 40-pin IDE drive cable. Installing CD drive 20. Configure the CD-RW drive: Unbox the CD-ROM/RW drive and locate the jumper next to the 40pin signal connector. Like a hard drive, you may configure the drive as master or slave device depending on other devices. 21. Mount the CD-RW drive: The drive will usually be wide enough to fill a full-sized drive, so you wont need rails to widen the drive. 22. Cable the CD-RW drive: Attach a 4-pin power cable from the power supply and connect it to the CD-RW drive. Locate another 40-pin IDE drive cable.

23. Check the CMOS setup: Reboot the system and check the CMOS and set the date and time, verify that your hard drive and CD-Drive detection. 24. Install your operating system: Put the full installation CD in the CD drive. Reboot the system to launch the OS installation and follow the Instructions of the OS installation. 25. Install other devices and connect the cables: Power off the PC power supply and install the adapter cards (NIC card & Sound card) into the PCI slots. After installing other devices attach any other external cables that may be required (NIC cable etc). 26. Now you can reattach power and reboot the system. That should complete your basic PC assembly and check the operating system installed properly. After that you can go ahead and install applications start using your new PC.

CHAPTER -2
HARDDISK In 1956 IBM Company was invented 5mb Hard disk. A hard disk is a storage device for your computer that is used to hold your operating system, programs and data. You can think of a hard drive like a filling cabinet in an office. It is used to store all of the files that you will need to perform your job. Hard disk is made of with plotters. Plotters are made of with Aluminum and glass material and coated with Ferro managetic material.

The Platters: The platters are actual disks inside the drive that store the dat. Most drives have at least two platters and the larger the storage capacity of the driver the more platters there are. Each platter can store date on each side, so a drive with 2 platters has 4 sides to store data. The Spindle and Spindle motor: The platters in a drive are separated by disk spacers and are clamped to a rotating spindle that turns all the platters in unison. The spindle motor is built right into the spindle or mounted directly below it and spins the platters at a constant set rate ranging from 3,600 to 7200 rpm. The Read/Write Heads: The read/ write heads read and write data to the platters. There is typically one head per platter side, and each head is attached to a single actuator shaft so that all the heads move in unison. When one head is over a track, all the other heads are at the same location over their respective surfaces. Typically one of the heads is active at a time, i.e., reading or writing.

The Head Actuator: All the heads are attached to a single head actuator, or actuator arm, that moves the heads around the platters. What is Hard disk Partitions? Most operating systems allow users to divide a hard disk into multiple partitions, in effect making one physical hard disk into several smaller logical hard disks. Reasons to Use Hard Disk Partitions A user may decide to split a hard disk into multiple partitions in order to organize his data more effectively. On Microsoft Windows machines, it is common to store the OS and applications on one hard disk partition and user data on another hard disk partition. When a problem occurs with Microsoft Windows, the OS partition can be completely formatted and reinstalled without affecting the data partition. Mange disks Hard disks are the primary data storage devices used in computers.HDD are treated as fixed Storage devices and are connected to IDE or SCSI interfaces. Windows supports two types of harddisks for data storage. 1. Basic Disk 2. Dynamic Disk Basic Disk: Basic disks are the traditional type of disks used in computer systems. The disks are dived into one or more partitions each of which can be a logical storage unit accessible by a drive letter. Primary partition: - Primary partitions is marked as the active partition and used to boot the system. There can be only one active partition on a computer. The primary partition is formatted using one of the file systems. Extended partition: - The extended partition does not have an actual drive letter assigned to it. Its simply a container that holds all the logical drives that you build. Extended dos cannot be formatted with any file system. Logical Partition: Logical partitions are created in the extended partitions. Logical drives cannot be marked as active and cannot be used to boot the system. These partitions are used to organize files and folders on the mobo. Dynamic Disk: Dynamic disks are the disks that are specifically converted from basic disks using the disk management Utility. This type of Partitioning is used in servers. There are 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Simple volume Spanned volume Stripped volume Mirrored Volume RAID-5

FILE SYSTEMS FAT file system History 1996: FAT32 debuts in Windows 95 OEM Service Release 2. 1981: FAT16 debuts with MS-Dos. 1977: Bill Gates and Marc McDonald write the first version of FAT, during the development of "Microsoft Disk Basic". Introduction The File Allocation Table (FAT) file system used by MS-DOS and Windows is based around two structures. The File Allocation Table (FAT) which stores the location of the data blocks of the files and the Directory Table which maintains the directory structure of the file system. FAT Table The available space on hard drives is divided up into clusters. A single file on the hard drive may store its data in one or more of these clusters, as many as are required by its size. Each cluster on the hard drive is represented by an entry in what is called the FAT table. An entry within the FAT table basically indicates one of three things. Either it contains a value that indicates the location of the next data cluster of the file or a special End Of File (EOF) character that indicates the represented cluster is the last data cluster of the file or a zero value to indicate that the represented cluster is empty. FAT 16 Specifications Simple file system can be read by Windows 95, 98 and windows 2000 if dual booting partitions are limited to 4GB. Fat was implemented in DOS-OS. 1. 2. 3. 4. FAT 32 Supports only 8 character file names with a 3 characters extension, know as 8.3 file format. No spaces are allowed in file names. The maximum partition size is 2GB in Windows 95, windows 98 and windows me. In windows NT4.0 windows 2000 and windows XP the maximum supported partition size is 4GB.

The defaults file system for win98. Has the same general attributes as its predecessor. FAT, but allows for larger partitions with smaller cluster size for space conservation. FAT32 is an improved version of FAT and is supported in win95 (OR2) and later OS (Win XP, Win me, Win 2000, Win 2003) Features: 1. More reliable storage than FAT. 2. Not compatible with FAT.

3. Users smaller disk cluster sized to prevent wasting disk space. 4. Support for long file names of upto 255 characters. 5. Extended disk partition size of upto 2TB or (2048GB) Disadvantages 1. This file system is slightly slower than FAT 16. 2. There is no file security, Encryption, Compression, Disk quota. Difference between FAT16 and FAT32

FAT16 supports hard drives up to a maximum between 2GB and 4GB FAT32 supports hard drives sizes between 260MB and 2TB. FAT16 does not support for to install latest OS. FAT32 supports for all OS. FAT16 supports only 8.3 characters file name. FAT32 supports upto 255 characters file name.

NT File System (NTFS) NTFS arguably stands for "New Technology File System". However considering there is a debate about what the NT in Windows NT stands for, who knows. NTFS Versions 2001: Version 3.1 (aka version 5.1) debuts in "Windows XP". 2000: Version 3.0 (aka version 5.0) debuts in "Windows 2000" introducing encryption, quotas, sparse files and reparse points. 1996: Version 1.2 (aka version 4.0) debuts in "Windows NT 4". 1993: Version 1.0 (aka version? 3.1?) debuts in "Windows NT 3.1". Specifications: This robust, powerful file system cannot be viewed by other operating systems in a dualboot environment. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. It supports long file names of upto 255 characters and its supports for NT. It supports disk sizes of upto 16EB. It supports file and folder level security. An NTFS Encryption files system secures files and folders from unauthorized access. Its supports Disk Quotas to limit the use of disk space on a per-user basics. It supports file larger than 4GB in size. It provides file compression to save disk space. It supports Dynamic Disks to effectively use and Manage Disk s and partitions.

Windows XP
Windows XP is Microsofts primary operating system for desktop and laptop computers for both home and office use. It comes in several distinct editions. Windows XP Professional, the flagship Windows XP edition, intended for office use in networked corporate environments. It supports individual file-level security and encryption, policy-based configuration management, and domain as well as workgroup membership. Windows XP Home Edition intended for private home users. Windows XP Home is very similar in look and feel to Windows XP Professional, but does not support some of the Windows XP Professional security and management features. Windows XP Media Center Edition, optimized for media-based activities such as recording live TV, organizing and playing music, and managing digital photographs. Windows XP Tablet PC edition, for tablet-type PCs. Windows XP Professional x64 Edition, for computers with 64-bit processors.

WINDOWS XP FEATURES
Purely 32 bit OS (supports only 32 bit drivers) System security is there. System and user file security is there. Support FAT-16, FAT32, and NTFS file systems. Supports two processors (Dual Core) New look and feel (3d Effects) User friendly Environment. Integrated Software for peripherals. Improvements in multimedia. Internet and networking. Disk quota feature is there. More number of drivers is included. System restore feature is there. Can copy files & folders directly into CD without writing Software. On screen keyboard & magnifier are there. Without display card drivers we can get high resolution and colors. We can easily create and edit movie files with movie maker.

Installing Windows XP Professional

Windows XP Professional comes on a single CD-ROM with a product key that will be used during the installation. If your computer BIOS supports booting from the CD-ROM, simply insert the Windows XP Professional CD in the CD-ROM drive and start the computer. The setup process starts with text mode, during which the hard disk is prepared and necessary installation files are copied to the hard disk. Setup then enters the GUI phase, when the user is prompted for information about the computer, username, and password, etc. This phase includes the network phase where the setup program detects the network adapter and collects information about networking components. The installation completes when the setup program copies final files to the hard disk, creates Start menu items, registers components, removes temporary setup files, and restarts the computer.

Text Mode: The text mode phase copies the initial setup files to the computer, creates hard disk partitions, and then copies setup files to the hard disk. The following steps are completed: 1. You can start the text mode by inserting the Windows XP Professional CD-ROM into the CDROM drive. 2. If the computer BIOS supports booting from the CD-ROM. 3. Installation continues with copying initial setup files into memory. A Welcome screen appears. Press Enter to continue. 4. Press the F8 key to accept the Licensing Agreement. 5. In the Disk Partitioning section, select the disk partition you wish to use for Windows XP Professional. Press C to create a new partition or press D to delete an existing partition. 6. Selected the partition for errors and formats the partition with the selected file system. 7. Setup then copies necessary files to the hard disk partition. 8. The computer restarts and enters the GUI phase, as explained in the next section.

GUI Mode: After the computer restarts, the setup wizard starts. This is known as the GUI phase or GUI mode. The following steps explain the procedure: 1. Press Enter to continue installation. This takes several minutes before the next screen is displayed. 2. The Regional and Language Options screen appears. Make your selections appropriately and click next. 3. Fill in the correct Software information and click next. 4. Enter the correct 25-digit Product Key and click Next. 5. Enter the computer name & Administrator Password. 6. Networking components are detected and installed. 7. Choose Typical if you wish to proceed with automatic configuration, Click Next. 8. Enter the workgroup or Domain name. 9. Setup completes the installation by installing the Start menu items registers various components you selected, saves your configuration to the registry, removes temporary installation files, and restarts the computer. 10. When the computer restarts, the Welcome screen appears if you selected to join a workgroup. If you selected to join a domain during installation, the Logon to Windows screen appears instead.

Start menu
The Start menu provides a way to open most of the software applications that are installed on the computer. The Start Menu has been customized to provide quick access methods to all the programs and windows utilities present on the computer. Click Start menu to display a list of items stored in it. Some of the most commonly used start menu items are listed in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1 Start Menu Items

Shut Down This item has several options such as shut down and restart computer, closed all programs and log on as a different user, or shut down completely. Starts a program by typing in the programs name and path. There is a browse button to search for the program to be opened, in case, path is not known. Gives access to the Help feature for the Windows XP environment. Searches for different types of files and in various locations. Using this feature, you can search for files or even a certain word found in the file. Provides quick access to the Control panel, printer options and taskbar properties. Reopens one of the last 15 files you have opened by clicking on its name.
Provides access to a list of available programs and submenus of related programs.

Run

Help and Support Search Settings My Recent Documents Programs

Desktop Icons
The Desktop includes icons, each having a specific function. Desktop icons can be thought of as symbols that represent a program or shortcut to a program, or a folder. When you use windows XP for the first time, the Desktop contains only Recycle Bin. The rest of the icons usually found on other Windows operating system are not seen on the Desktop. To display the required icons follow the steps given below: 1. Right-click anywhere on the desktop and select Properties from the shortcut menu. This displays the Display properties dialog box. 2. Select the Desktop tab and click the customize Desktop button.

3. In the Desktop icons pane of the General tab, select the desired icons and click OK twice. These main icons that appear by default on the desktop are listed in table 6.3.

Table 6.3 Icons on the Desktop

Name My Computer Description Displays documents and files. It also provides access to hard drives and removable drives of the computer (both local and network). Enables you to communicate with network resources on the network for file sharing purpose. It is used to store documents. It also contains data files, which can be easily organized. It is a temporary storage area used for storing deleted file and recover files accidentally deleted from hard drive or Floppy drive. Provides access to Internet.

My Network Places

My Documents

Recycle Bin

Internet Explorer

CHAPTER -3 & 4
What is linux? Linux is an Operating system that can perform all the tasks that any currently popular Operating system can. Not only that, it also allows the user to modify and enhance it according to his/her own requirements. An Operating system, as we know it, is a software that controls all the hardware devices and software of a computer. Linux is based on UNIX, but it is far more potent than UNIX. It can be used for different purpose such as for playing games, software developments, at work, on desktop workstations or on desktop workstation or on network servers and for multimedia applications. History of Linux The Linux operating system was created by a young student, Linus Torvalds,at the University of Helsinki, Finland. Linus was not satisfied with the Operating system he was using. He switched over to Minix a small UNIX system and decided to develop his own version of Minix that would overcome its shortcomings. He began his work in programmers through the Internet. Linux and his team develop a powerful Operating System kernel now knows as Linux. The First fully functional version of Linux was released in 1994. It had over one lakh users by this time. Advantages of Using Linux:The Linux operating system has the following advantages: Reliability: Linux is a stable operating system. Linux servers are not shut down for years together. This means that users on the Linux operating system work consistently with the Linux server without reporting any operating system failures. Backward compatibility: Linux is said to be backward compatible. This implies that Linux has excellent support for earlier hardware. It can run on different types of processors, including 386 and 486 Intel processors. It also runs well on DEC Alpha processor, Sun SPARC machine, PowerPC and SGI MIPS. Simple upgrade and installation process: The installation procedure of most Linux versions is menudriven and easy. It includes the ability to upgrade from prior versions. The upgrade process preserves the existing configuration files and maintains a list of its actions during installation. Low total cost of ownership: Linux and most of the packages that come with it are free. Therefore, the total cost of ownership in procuring Linux server software is low. In addition, there are a lot of people and organizations providing free support for Linux so the cost of support can also reduce. The system configuration requirements for installing a Linux computer are less. For this reason, the hardware cost goes down. Support for legacy devices: Linux can run on a computer with low configuration, such as a 386 DX. Users who have low configuration computers prefer to use Linux compared to any other operating systems, which require higher configuration.

GUI interface: The graphical interface for Linux is the X Window system. It is divided into two subsystems consisting of a server and a client. Multiple distributors: Linux is offered by many organizations, each with their own added features. Therefore, the user has various options available. Some distributions of Linux are Red Hat, SuSE, Mandrake, Debian, and Slackware. No known viruses: Linux is said to be free of any virus attack. So far, there are no known viruses for Linux. Excellent security features: Linux offers high security. This is the reason why many Internet Service Providers are replacing their current operating systems with Linux. Support for high user load: Linux can support a large number of users working simultaneously. Disk Partitioning In simple terms, disk partitioning means dividing a hard disk into different sections where each section behaves as a separate hard drive. Partitioning allows us to run more than one operating on a computer. When we start installing Fedora Core on our system, the installation wizard provides us with three options for disk partitioning. Automatic Partitioning: If you choose this option, the installer automatically partitions the hard disk without your having to make any specifications. This option lets you remove or retain any existing partitions on your hard disk and then creates the new partitions. Manual Partitioning using Disk Druid: Choosing this option lets you partition your hard disk using a program called disk druid. Manual Partitioning using fdisk: Choosing this option lets you partition your hard disk manually using the fdisk command.

LINUX FILES AND DIRECTORY STRUCTURE: Every Operating system organizes information into files. These files are stored in different directories. A set of such directories may be contained in one directory known as the parent directory and the directories and the directories contained in it are known as sub directories. There is a main directory in every operating system that contains all directories and files of the system. In every file system there is a main directory may contain a number of sub-directories and files. The main files in a Linux system are known as root. The root directory is represented by a slash (/). When we open a file, we always start from the root directory and move to the sub-directories or sub-sub-directories containing the file. According to the FHS, the / directory must contain, or have links to, the following directories:

 / bin This directory contains command files for use by the system administrator. /boot On Red Hat systems, this is the directory containing the kernel, the core of the operating system. Also in this directory are files related to booting the system, such as the bootloader. /dev This directory contains files with information about devices, either hardware or software devices, on the system. /etc This directory and its subdirectories contain most of the system configuration files. If you have the X Window System installed on your system, the X11 subdirectory is located here. Networking related files are in the subdirectory sysconfig. Another subdirectory of etcis the skeldirectory, which is used to create files in users home directories when the users are created. /home This directory contains the directories of users on the system. Subdirectories of home will be named for the user to whom they belong. /lib The shared system files and kernel modules are contained in this directory and its subdirectories. /mnt This directory is the location of the mount point for temporary file systems, such as a floppy or CD. /opt This directory and its subdirectories are often used to hold applications installed on the system. /proc Information about system processes is included in this directory. /root This is the home directory of the root user. Dont confuse this with the / directory, which has the same name. /sbin Contained in this directory are system binaries used by the system administrator or the root user. The binary files that is essential to the working of the system. /tmp This directory contains temporary files used by the system. /usr This directory is often mounted on its own partition. It contains shareable, read-only data. Subdirectories can be used for applications, typically under /usr/local. /var Subdirectories and files under varcontain variable information, such as system logs and print queues. Red hat Linux Installation: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Insert Linux CD or DVD in the CD/DVD drive. Go to BIOS change the boot settings into CD/DVD drive & save the settings At the boot screen, press the "Enter" key. To skip the text mode Installation Press the "tab" key to move focus to the "Skip" key, then press the "Enter" key to continue. On the "Welcome" screen, click the "Next" button Select the appropriate language, and then click the "Next" button. Select the relevant keyboard setting, and then click the "Next" button. Specify the serial number : 22eda90cd3f9e5a9 Click the "OK" button on the disk partitioning warning dialog.

10. Then allow the installer to automatically partition the disk. 11. Select the Remove all Linux partitions on this system or if you create own partition sizes, then select Create custom layout option and click next. 12. Click the "Yes" button on the subsequent warning dialog 13. Select free space and click the selected drive. 14. First we must create mount point (/boot)(/root)(/swap) 15. The installer will list the default partitioning scheme for your size disk. 16. Accept the boot loader settings by clicking the "Next" button. 17. Configure the network interface with the apropriate settings. This can be done automatically using DHCP, or manually. 18. Select the relevant region by clicking on the map. 19. Select the relevant city by clicking on the map. Click on the "Next" button to proceed. 20. Enter a root password for the server, then click the "Next" button to proceed. 21. Select the "Customize now" option and the appropriate installation type and click the "Next" button. 22. Select the Package Group Selection click next. 23. On the "About to Install" screen, click the "Next" button. 24. Click the "Continue" button on the "Required Install Media" screen. 25. During the installation phase, enter the appropriate CDs as requested. 26. Click the "Reboot" button to complete the installation. 27. On the "Welcome" screen, click the "Forward" button 28. Accept the license agreement and click the "Forward" button. 29. Create an additional system user if required, and click the "Next" button. 30. If you chose not to define an additional system user, click the "Continue" button on the resulting warning dialog. 31. On the sound card screen, click the "Forward" button. 32. On the "Additional CDs" screen, click the "Forward" button. 33. Click the "OK" button on the reboot request dialog. 34. Once the system has rebooted, you are presented with the login screen. 35. Once logged in, you are ready to use the desktop. Basic Linux commands: 1. The who am i command displays the name of the current user logged in. Syntax: [steve@linuxpc1 steve]$ who am I stevepts/0 Sep 22 18:08 (172.17.55.167) 2. The whocommand is used to display the names of all the users who are currently logged in. Syntax: $ who Example: [steve@linuxpc1 steve]$ who root tty1 Sep 21 12:29

root tty2 Sep 21 14:54 steve tty3 Sep 21 14:57 andrewpts/0 Sep 21 11:36 (172.17.55.178) tompts/1 Sep 21 11:15 (172.17.55.133) stevepts/2 Sep 21 22:14 (172.17.55.167) marypts/3 Sep 21 22:16 (172.17.55.169) 3. Users can display the current date and time using the datecommand. Example [steve@linuxpc1 steve]$ date Thu Aug 12 15:56:21 IST 2004 Example [steve@linuxpc1 steve]$ date "+%T" 22:47:45 [steve@linuxpc1 steve]$ date "+%y" 99 Messages can also be included within the date command. Consider the following example: [Steve@linuxpc1 Steve]$ date "+DATE : %D" DATE : 09/22/04 4. The clearcommand: Clears the terminal screen. [steve@linuxpc1 steve]$ clear 5. $ cal: cal is for calendar. It displays the current date and time. It is capable of printing calendar for any year in the range 1to 9999. Syntax: $ cal 2 2001 February 2001 S M Tu WTh F S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 6. The calculator called bc possibly short for base conversion. Which is one of its function (or) the best calculator. Syntax :$bc 2+2 4 88 * 6 528 3/4 0 scale = 2

3/4 .75 LINUX FILE STRUCTURE AND FILE COMMANDS Listing files:ls, ls l, ls al or ls la Displaying File contents: more, cat Directory Operations: cd, pwd, mkdir, rmdir File Operations: touch, rm, mv, and cp Permissionsand Ownership: chmod, chown, chgrp LISTING FILES $ ls: This command is used to display the basic files in the directory and is executed from the command line. Syntax: $ ls DEADJOE X baseball comm tennis Desktop a.out basketball program.cc $ ls l: This command is called a long listing and lists file attributes.(d)directory, (c) characters, (b) block, (p) Named pipes Syntax: $ ls l -rwxr-xr-x 1 ariel drwxr-xr-x 2ariel drwxr-xr-x 2ariel -rw-r--r-- 1 ariel -rw------- 1ariel 725 Jul 10 15:07 %backup%~ 512 Jun 13 16:19 Mail 512 Jan 3 1997 News 11476 Jul 15 15:20 Xax500 2273 Jul 25 13:18 ais-off

$ ls la (or) ls al: This command is used to allow you to see hidden files in addition to the file attributes. The a extension instructs Linux to display all hidden files. Syntax: $ ls -al total 109 drwxr-xr-x drwxr-xr-x drwxr-xr-x drwxr-xr-x drwxr-xr-x drwxr-xr-x

18 root root 18 root root 2 root root 3 root root 6 root root 34 root root

4096 Jun 9 21:12 ./ 4096 Jun 9 21:12 ../ 4096 Jun 9 21:14 bin/ 1024 Jun 9 20:32 boot/ 36864 Jul 12 10:26 dev/ 4096 Jul 12 10:25 etc/

Displaying file contents

The more command: more this command is used in Linux to display the contents of a text file at a pace the user controls using the spacebar. The command to display the contents of the file. If the information in the file exceeds one screen, a prompt is displayed indicating how much of the file contents have been displayed. Syntax: $ more filename Example: $ more install.log The cat command:cat stands for concatenate. This command is used to print the file text to the screen and works fine as long as the contents of the file will fit on one screen. Syntax: $ cat filename Example: $ cat test Hai, how are you welcome $cat >: If we want to store a few lines in a file just type the command. Syntax: $ cat > filename Example: $ cat > test Hai, Hw are you welcome Bye Ctrl + D (To save it) Directory Operations: The cd command: The command to change directories in Linux is cd. Syntax: cd [directory] Directory cd .. cd Name of the directory user wishes to enter. Used to go back one directory on the majority of all Unix shells. It is important that the space be between the cd and the .. When in a Korn shell to get back one directory used to go back one directory.

Examples: cd hope The above example would go into the hope directory if it exists. cd ../home/users/computerhope The above example would go back one directory and then go into the home/users/computerhope directory. cd ../../

Next, the above example would go back two directories. The pwd Command: It stands for Print Working Directory. It displays the name of the current directory on the screen. Syntax: $ pwd Example: $ pwd /home/computerhope/Mydir The mkdir command: This command is used to creating or making a directory. Syntax: $ mkdir directory-name Example: $ mkdirmydir The rmdir command: This command is used to remove a directory. Syntax: $ rmdir directory name Examples: $ rmdirmydir - removes the directory mydir $ rm -r directory - would remove a directory, even if files existed in that directory. $ rm p directory Remove multiple generations of directories at one go we need to use.

File Operations The touch command: This command is used to create a file. Syntax: $ touch filename Example: $ touch testfile The rm command: This command is used to remove the file. Syntax: $ rm filename/directoryname Example: $ rm myfile.txt $ rm f - Remove all files (whether write-protected or not) The mv command: The mv command serves two purposes. It is used to rename a file, and it is used to move the file to a different directory. Syntax: $ mv <oldname><newname> Examples $mv myfile.txt new.txt rename the oldname to newname.

$mv myfile.txt newdirectory/ - moves the file myfile.txt to the directory newdirectory. $mv myfile.txt ../ - moves the file myfile.txt back one directory (if available). The cp command: This command is used to copy a file. Syntax: $cp [source filename] [destination filename] Example: $cp test5.txt test6.txt File permissions: The permissions for each file or directory appear as a sequence of nine characters. This sequence is made up of some dashes (-) and the alphabets r, w and x. This sequence can be divided into three sets of file permissions with each set consisting of three types of permissions. The first permissions is for user, the second for user group and the third for other users. Example: -rw-r- -r- - filename/directory name Bit position Bit values 1 Directory * 2 3 4 Owner 4 2 r w 0 5 6 7 Group 4 r 8 9 10 Others 4 r

The directory bit can display the following attributes: d- Directory b- Block c- Character - No entry specified When you create new file, permissions are automatically granted to all the three types of users. However, you can change these permissions to limit access to the file. You can change the permissions for a file by using the chmod command in combination with a unique octal number. Consider the table given below. Octal Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Permission None -x -w-wx rr-x rw rwx Comments No permissions Execute only Write Only Write and execute Read only Read and execute Read and write Read, Write and execute

The chmod command: The chmod command is used in Linux to change permissions on files and directories.

Syntax: $ chmod [permissions setting] [filename] Example: $ chmod 400 test5.txt This permission makes a file read only to owner (user). The chown command: The chown command is used to change the ownership of the file. This command can only be applied to files the user any files. Syntax: $ chown [new owner] [filename] Example: $chown network text5.txt The chgrp command: The Linux command chgrp is used to change group ownership of files. Syntax: $ chgrp [new group] [filename] Example: $ chgrp mail test5.txt Linux Administration Commands df: It is used to check the total and currently available space in our hard disk. man: Used to display the online text manual ps: Used to examine processes running on the machine shutdown: used to shut the Linux system down gracefully.. grep: It is used to search for strings in a text file or a filename. pipe: It is used to take the output of one command and redirect it as an input to another command. sort: It is used Sorts the lines in a text file. mount: It is used to access external drives. write: It is used to Send a message to another user. finger: It is used to Lists information about the user. wall: It is used to send a message to everybody's terminal. mail: It is used to one of the ways that allows you to read/send E-Mail. logout: This command is used to logout of the system. df: The df command is very useful because it lets us check the total and currently available space in our hard disk. Syntax: $ df Syntax: $ df h To display these details in a better and detailed form. Man (Manual): This command is used to display the online text manual for linux. Manual pages for most Linux commands and features are available by simply entering the command man followed by the name of the option. Syntax: $ man [command] Example: $ man ls

$ man k: Adding the k extension to the man command instructs Linux to list all of the man pages that mention the specified topic. Syntax: $ man k [command] Example: $ man k ls Ps (Processes): The ps command lists the processes (or programs) running on the machine. Syntax: $ ps program Example: $ psux Lists of the processes running. Shutdown command: The shutdown command is used to shut the Linux system down gracefully. This means that all open files and libraries are closed before the system turns off. Syntax $ shutdown h now Grep command: The grepcommand is similar to the Windows search or find command. Grep is used to search for strings in a text file or a filename. Syntax: $ grep [options] PATTERN [FILE...] Example: $ grep h basket.txt Layer1 = cloth Layer3 = fish Layer4 = chocolate Layer5 = punch cards Grep Options: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. c i l n s v : Returns only the no. of matches without quoting the text : Ignore case while searching : Returns only file names containing a match without quoting the text. : Returns line numbers of matched text, as well as the text itself. : Suppresses error messages. : Returns lines that do not match the text.

Pipe command: The pipe command(|) is used to take the output of one command and redirect it as an input to another command. Syntax: $ ps -ef | grep telnet Sort command: This sort command can be used for sorting the contents of a file. It can merge multiple sorted files and store the result in the specified output file. Syntax: $ sort filename Example: $ sort apple.txt

core jewel worm seed Mount command: This command is used to join an external files system such as that found on a CDROM and Floppy, to this Linux file system to allow the files to be accessed. Syntax: $ mount /dev/sdb1 media/usb Umount command: This command is used to unmount the drive. Syntax: $ umount /media/usb Write command: The write command can be used by any user to write something on someone elses terminal, provided the recipient of the message permits communication. Syntax: $ write user Example: $ write usr1 Hey there! I am back from paris Just wanted to say hello! Your favourite chimp Ctrl + D There are two prerequisites for a smooth write operation: 1. The recipient must be logged in, else an error message is inevitable. 2. The recipient must have given permission for messages to reach his or her terminal. This is done by saying at the $ prompt. A super user however can write to any terminal, irrespective of whether message has been set to y or n. Finger command: Finger is one command that tells you which users are connected. It displays a list of all those who have logged in and places a * next to those terminals where message is set to n. Syntax:$ finger i Who command: The who command lists all the users who are currently logged in. When used with the -t option, it places a + next to the users who have allowed messages and a -sign beside others. Syntax: $ who t Veena Prafull User3 User2 User1 -ttyo1 +tty3f +tty3e -tty3a +tty3c oct oct oct oct oct 13 13 13 13 13 17:25 17:21 16:59 14:46 13:59

Wall command: This wall command can only be used by the super user. Wall enables the superuser to write to all irrespective of whether the users have given write permission to their terminals or not. The wall command must be given as: Syntax: #/etc/wall System shutting down in 10 minutes. You are advised to take the required backups. Ctrl + D Mail command: The basic of UNIX communication. Using mail you can quickly and efficiently circulate memos and other written information to your co-workers. You can even send and receive mail from people outside your organization. Mail can be sent to users who have logger in currently or even to users who havent logger in currently. Sending mail Syntax: $ mail john@december.com Subject: Hi I am almost finished with all the demos. Call me when you are done. . Cc: $ Having given the subject, you type in your message and end it by hitting Ctrl + D. Handling Incoming mail: To send the mail that has been received we simply say mail at the shell prompt. Syntax: $ mail Mail version 8.1 6/6/93.Type ?for help. "/var/spool/mail/december": 9 messages 9 new >N 1webmaster@devilishpu Tue Dec 19 20:33 40/1653 "cmc/info/add-cmc.htm" N 2 guron@csd.uwm.edu Tue Dec 19 20:51 31/1306 "cs290-portfolio" N 3newyears@ananzi.co.z Tue Dec 19 21:00 105/3857 "Start The New YearWi" N 4 ryg35@hotmail.com Tue Dec 19 21:20 40/1633 "cmc/info/add-cmc.htm" N 5 ken@chaprl.com Tue Dec 19 21:21 40/1921 "cmc/info/add-cmc.htm" N 6 search211@excite.com Tue Dec 19 21:31 144/6503 "Discover The Secrets" N 7 ken@chaprl.com Tue Dec 19 21:50 40/1775 "cmc/info/add-cmc.htm" N 8carlgroh@merchantsys Tue Dec 19 22:03 58/2432 "Don't Get RippedOff!" N 9 john@december.co Tue Dec 19 22:07 17/619 "Hi" Logout: This command is used to log out of the system. Syntax: $ logout

Wildcard commands: A wildcard is a special character that is used to refer to a number of files and directories simultaneously. The ? Wildcard represents a single character and * represents any number of characters. Examples: $ ls p*:- To display the list of all files whose names starts with P. Syntax: $ ls p* Example: $ ls p* Packet Pin $ ls ?ain: To display the list of all files whose names ends with ain. Syntax: $ ls ?ain Example: $ ls ?ain Gain Main Pain Rain $ ls [aeiou]*: We want to list all files whose name start with a vowel Syntax: $ ls [aeiou]* Example: $ ls [aeiou]* Anil Indu Orange Umbrella $ ls [!aeiou]*: If your requirement is no list file whose names do not begin with a vowel Syntax: $ ls [!aeiou]* Example: $ ls [!aeiou]* Banu Durga Gowtham $ ls [a-m] [c-z] [4-9] ??: This command list all 5 character file names whose first character in the range am and the second character in the range c-z and the third character in the range 4-9 and the fourth and fifth or any valid characters. Syntax: $ ls [a-m] [c-z] [4-9]?? HARDLINK & SOFTLINK: Ln command: Ln creates hard link or symbolic link between files. These are useful in many situations where are you dont want to copy a file to many different locations. You may want to save disk space, or ensure that you have the same version of the file in two different locations on a system.

Hard links: It causes two different file names to share node. This means the hard links and the target file are basically two names for the same file. If you delete the hard link you also delete the target file. Hard links cannot be made a directory and they cannot be made across file systems. Syntax: $ ln filename target filename Example: $ lnFileAFileB $ ls -ilFileAFileB 1482256 -rw-r--r-1482256 -rw-r--r-2 brunobruno 2 brunobruno 21 May 5 15:55 FileA 21 May 5 15:55 FileB

Symbolic Link (or) Soft link: Soft links are much more common than hard links because of their flexibility. A symbolic link is really a special file type that references another file. However when you remove the symbolic link, only the symbolic link is removed and the target file remains unaffected. Symbolic links can be made to directory and file systems. Syntax: $ ln s filename target filename Example: $ ln -s FileBFileC $ ls -ilFileBFileC 1482256 -rw-r--r-- 1 brunobruno 21 May 5 15:55 FileB 1482226 lrwxrwxrwx 1 brunobruno 5 May 5 16:22 FileC ->FileB Managing Files Using the Nautilus File Manager The Nautilus File Manager is similar to the Explorer available in the Windows operating system. It lets us view, modify, delete, copy and move files and directories in our directory structure. Creating a New Folder 1. Double Click on the roots Home Icon in the Desktop. The roots Home folder opens in the Nautilus File Manager. 2. To Create a New Folder under the main folder, click on the File menu in the menu bar of the Nautilus File Manager window. A drop-down menu appears on the screen . 3. Click on the create Folder option of this menu new folder is immediately created and displayed in the main folder. Renaming a Folder 1. Perform the Following steps to change the name of the new folder that you have created in the evolution folder. 2. Type a new name for your folder, say data 3. Press the enter key on the keyboard. The folder has been renamed.

Copying Files into a Folder 1. Double click on the roots Home folder in the Desktop. The home folder opens in the Nautilus File Manager. 2. Now to copy files from a folder, you have to open that folder. Double-click on the named. 3. The icons of the files and directories stored in this folder appear in the Nautilus window. 4. Click on the name of the file to be copied. The icon for this file is highlighted. 5. You can also select multiple files for copying, Keep the Ctrl key pressed and click on the icons for the other files to be copied. 6. Click on the edit menu in the menu bar. 7. Click on the Copy files option of this Menu bar. 8. Position the mouse pointer anywhere in the free space of the Nautilus Window, which is currently displaying the contents of the root folder and click the right mouse button. 9. Click on the paste files option of the pop-up menu. Moving files and Directories 1. If you are in a directory other than root then click on the Home Button on the Toolbar of the Nautilus Window. The contents of the root directory are displayed in the Nautilus Window. 2. Double-click on the name of the folder containing sub-folder. 3. Click on the folder to be moved and click the right mouse-button. 4. Click on the cut file option of the pop-up menu 5. Position the mouse-pointer anywhere in the empty space of the Nautilus window and click the right mouse button. 6. Click on the paste files option of this menu. Deleting a File 1. You can delete a file from your system to free the hard disk space occupied by the file or just to alleviate crowding of files. When you delete a file, it is removed from its original location and stored in the Trash Folder in the Desktop. 2. Double click on the roots Home Folder in the Desktop. The folder opens in the Nautilus File manager window. 3. In the contents of the roots home folder, double click on the name of the folder containing the file to be deleted. 4. Now click on the file to be deleted. The file is selected. 5. Click the right mouse button. A pop-up menu appears on the screen. 6. In this pop-up menu, click on the move to trash option. The file is immediately removed from this folder and placed in the trash folder. Deleting file permanently 1. Double click on the Trash Folder icon in the Desktop. 2. Click on the file to be deleted permanently.

3. Now click the right mouse button, A pop-up menu appears displaying some commands that you may use on this file 4. Click on the Delete from Trash option of this menu. Linux displays a message box prompting you to confirm whether you actually want to delete the file permanently. 5. Click on the Delete button of this message box to delete the file. The File is deleted from trash. The vi Editor. The vi editor is a utility that could be used to create, edit and view text files. The vi editor is commonly used in command based operating systems such as UNIX. Like the terminal, vi editor also allows us to interact with Linux Shell. However, with the terminal, we can create only empty files where as vi editor allows us to create text and even executable files. 1. 2. 3. 4. Click on the Main Menu button in the panel. A push up menu appears. Position the mouse-pointer on the System tools option. A sub-menu appears beside this option. In this sub-menu click on the terminal option. The Terminal window opens on the screen. Type vi at the command prompt and press the Enter key. This opens the vi Editor.

vi Editor Commands: To open file through vi Editor. Syntax: - root# vi filename To edit a file in the vi Editor press ESC+I keys on the keyboard. To save the file in vi Editor type w To exit from vi Editor type q! and press the space bar

CHAPTER -5 HARDWARE TROUBLESHOOTING

UNDERSTANDING THE SYSTEM BEEP CODES Beep codes The bio performs a POST when the system is turned on. This test is used to ensure that the system is functioning properly and to gather information about what the system contains. When a problem is identified with the system during the post, the bios will normally produce an error message. However, in some cases the problem is detected so early in the test that the bios cannot even access the video card to print the message! In this case the BIOS will produce a beeping pattern on the speaker to tell you what the problem is. The exact meaning of the beep codes depends on the type and version of BIOS that you are using. Some BIOSs use very simple beep codes in a pattern of varying numbers of short beeps, while others may mix short and long beeps. However if you are using a PC made by company that writes its own BIOS, you will have to consult your owners manual or the companys web site or other technical information for assistance. The three most popular types of bios are those made by (AMI, AWARD, and PHOENIX). The Phoenix company bios is famous for its complicated beep patterns that are actually in up to four groups one or more beeps and then a pause, followed by as three more patterns.

Common Beep Codes Beeps One short beep One long beep One short, one long beep Two short beeps Repeating short beeps or a continuous beep One long, one short beep One long, two or three short beeps One beep, followed by three, Four or five beeps Two beeps, followed by three, Four or five beeps Three beeps, followed by three, Four or five beeps Four beeps, followed by two, Three or four beeps Probable Causes Normal startup Keyboard error Monitor problem The POST numeric code appears on the monitor Power problem System board problem Monitor/Display error System board problems, possibly with DMA, CMOS setup chip, timer, or system bus First 64K of RAM has errors Keyboard controller or video controller failed Serial or parallel port, system timer, or time of day problem

WINDOWS DEVICE MANAGER

What is Device Manger?

Device Manager provides you with a graphical view of the hardware that is installed on your computer. You can use Device Manager to update the drivers (or software) for hardware devices, modify hardware settings, and troubleshoot problems. The windows device manager made its debut in Windows 95, took a brief leave of absence in Windows NT 4.0 and has been in every subsequent release of windows since then. It can be accessed by following these simple steps. 1. 2. 3. 4. Right click on My Computers Select Properties Click the General tab. Click the Device manager button. In windows XP Right click on My computers Select Properties Click Hardware tab Click device manager button

1. 2. 3. 4.

Here are some of the tasks you can perform using the Device manager. Check the current status of hardware. Look for symbols next to a particular device to see if there are problems with it. Configure device properties and settings Uninstall and reinstall hardware Update, views and roll back device drivers. COMMON PROBLEMS IN HARDWARE General Hardware Troubleshooting Tips Regardless of the problem there are a few steps that must be taken whenever troubleshooting a hardware problem. These may seem rather insulting to most people, but one must never forget to do them; if they are not done you might very well waste allot of time and possibly create a new problem from fiddling around in your computer chasing down a phantom. Here are some quick steps: 1. Power Cords - Make sure that all of the power cords are firmly in place on all of the devices that could possibly be causing or attributing to the symptoms you are experiencing (i.e. If nothing shows up on the monitor make sure that the cords are attached to both the monitor and the computer itself). Then trace the cords back to the wall and make sure that the other end of the cord is attached to a power outlet or surge protector.

2. Outlet Power - It is not uncommon to blow a fuse; if the outlet in question is not receiving power than you should not expect any of the devices connected to the computer to receive power. You can test this simply by looking at the device and seeing if any LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) are lit. If there are no LEDs lit, try pluggin in a device that you know works into the outlet, such as a clock or radio. 3. Power Button - This step goes hand-in-hand with the last step. Many people don't think to check for this because many computer devices stay on all of the time (i.e. monitors, printers, power supplies), and as such do not check the power button. Also, some devices have two power switches on them, and both must be in the "on" position in order for the device to work (i.e. there is a power button both on the front, and on the back of most computers). 4. Communication Connections - Once you've settled that the power to your devices is fine, the next step is to make sure that the device has all of the connections needed for it to communicate. This step consists of making sure that these cables are firmly connected at each end, and that they are connected at the correct port/interface. Do not forget to check internal connections; if your computer has been bumped it is possible for some connections inside to pop loose. 5. Device Configuration - This steps provides both hardware and software configuration. There may be jumpers or switches on the hardware that need to be configured. If these accidentally got moved or switched the device would fail to work properly. Also, most hardware ships with configuration software (i.e. Wireless cards); make sure that the software configurations are compatible with what you are trying to accomplish. 6. Follow Instructions - Computers are not evasive when they report errors; all too often we just do not understand them, or are confused by the amount of information that is given. Many times there are suggestions on how to fix a problem accompanied with an error message. Simply follow the steps the message suggests; even if the suggestion seems to be ridiculous follow it so that you can discard it as a possibility. 7. Windows Recognition - If you go into the Control Panel, open the System dialog, click on the Hardware tab, and then open the Device Manager, you will see a tree-like structure of all of the hardware that is attached to your computer. Look under the appropriate category (Monitors, Graphic Adapters, etc.) and click on the item/items that you are having problems with then click on properties. The dialog that opens will inform you if the operating system is having any know troubles with the device. 8. Update Drivers - If possible, try connecting to the internet and going to the manufacture's web site to download the latest drivers for your hardware (this requires that you now the model specifications of your hardware). Often conflicts can arise when you install new hardware and software; although these are unanticipated, once found the developer will fix the problem and post updated drivers. Refresh Device Manager/Reinstall Device - This step falls into the "I don't care what the problem is, I just want it fixed" category. Open the device manager again and delete the devices that are not working properly. You will probably be prompted to restart your computer, if not restart it manually. When the computer restarts the hardware you deleted will be detected again and be reinstalled with the default configurations. If you cannot find the device in the device manager try to uninstall all software that came with it and

What are the common causes of hardware Failure? AGE: Nothing lasts forever. This holds especially true for technology. Age has multiple effects on devices. Some break because they get old, others become obsolete. Most manufactures establish a life expectancy for their devices anywhere from one year to five years. Hardware also ages quickly because of cost factors. Faulty Development: Here problems range from out-of-box failures to poorly and cheaply designed, second-rate devices. Cheap, second-rate devices not only break easier than more reliable, common devices. Incompatible devices: Just because a piece of hardware works in one computer doesnt mean it will work in another one. Be sure to read all system requirements when buying new hardware and make sure that your existing equipment is compatible. Damage: For some reason, most things on this planet dont like to be bumped, kicked, dropped, stomped, cut and scratched. This is especially true for tech devices. Tech devices are extremely intricate, containing millions of microscopic transistors, tons of interconnected working parts, and complex power management features. You're having a problem with your PC. No matter what the problem, the first step is always to reboot your computer: There are a number of ways to reboot (restart) your computer. If in Windows and the system is not frozen, click start, click shut down, click restart. If in Windows and the system is frozen, on your keyboard, hold down ctrl, alt, and delete all at the same time. In Windows operating systems prior to Windows XP, press ctrl, alt, and delete a second time. In Windows XP, if possible, click Shut down. If these methods are unsuccessful or not viable, you may reboot manually. On some systems, there is a reboot button located on the front of the PC. This is a very small button, usually located beneath the power button. If there is no reboot button or if the reboot button does not respond, press the main power button and keep it held in for about five seconds. The PC should shut off automatically. Once it does, boot the machine. The last resort is to unplug the power on the back of the PC. Wait a moment, then plug it back in and try to reboot. Once a computer has been restarted, if it does not work normally you should follow the basic troubleshooting procedures listed below MONITOR Screen is dark or tinted If the monitor screen is too dark or if the entirety of the screen is tinted, first try changing the display. 1. Right click anywhere on the blank desktop. 2. Click Properties. 3. Click Settings. 4. Under Color Quality, try changing the settings. If this does not work, try changing the settings on your monitor. The brightness menu buttons are located below the screen on most monitors. Try making the screen lighter or darker. If this still does not

work, the problem may be with either your monitor or the video card located inside the PC. If another monitor is available, try hooking it up to your PC. If there are still problems, the video card is to blame and must be replaced. If the problems are resolved, the monitor will need to be replaced. DISPLAY If only a portion of your screen is tinted or warped in any way, the problem needs no troubleshooting as your monitor's tube is going out. The monitor will need to be replaced. Screen is Fuzzy 1. Remove any electronic devices such as fans or electric pencil sharpeners from the proximity of the monitor. 2. Ensure the monitor is plugged tightly to the computer. Monitor Not Responding (No Power) 1. Ensure all power sources are plugged in and turned on. Check the power cord going from the back of the monitor to the power strip and the power cord going from the power strip to the wall. 2. Make sure the power strip is turned on. 3. Try plugging the monitor directly into the wall. If the monitor then works, the power strip has gone bad and will need to be replaced. If not, the monitor must be replaced. Error on Monitor Reading "No Signal" This error means that the monitor is not plugged in to the PC. Double check the cable and make sure the Cable going from the monitor to the PC is plugged in and is in the appropriate place.

KEYBOARD Computer Does Not Recognize Keystrokes If the keyboard does not work at all: 1. Check the back of the PC to make sure the keyboard is correctly connected. Remove the cable and reconnect it, then reboot your PC. 2. If the problem persists, you will need a new keyboard. If only some of the keys work: 1. Run your hand firmly over the keys to ensure none of the keys are stuck. 2. Follow the steps listed above. The keyboard beeps when any of the keys are pressed: 1. Check to see if anything is resting on the keys and remove that object. 2. Follow the steps listed at the top of this page. Keys on Keyboard Move Stiffly/Not At All The keyboard is probably dirty. Lift the keyboard up, turn it over, and firmly tap to remove any excess Material that may resting beneath the keys. Then, using a can of compressed air, clean out the keyboard as best you can. If the problem persists, the keyboard may need to be replaced. This is a common problem that can be easily avoided. Please do not consume any food or beverages over the keyboard and keep these things out of "spilling distance." Loose make-up should not be applied over the keyboard.

MOUSE Cannot Move Mouse Cursor Check the cable going from the mouse to the back of the PC to make sure it is connected appropriately. Remove then reconnect the mouse and reboot the computer. If the mouse is still not recognized, try another mouse in its place. Mouse Cursor Difficult to Move If the mouse is physically difficult to move, either the mouse pad has worn and needs to be replaced or the mouse itself needs to be cleaned. To clean the mouse: 1. Turn the mouse over so that you can see the bottom 2. Remove the plastic holder covering the ball by twisting it clockwise until it comes off. 3. Remove the ball. 4. Cleanse the inner rollers with a cotton swab dipped in alcohol. You may also scrape off any accumulated lint if no alcohol or swabs are available. FLOPPY DRIVES Error Reading Floppy Disks More and more often, floppy disks and floppy drives are being phased out of the computing world. The reasons are 1) floppy disks do not have the necessary room to store large documents, and 2) floppy disks are unreliable. There are many errors associated with floppy disks. An error message may accuse the floppy disk of having no content, of needing to be formatted, or of having a corrupt or partial file. In most of these cases, there is little that can be done to save or restore the data on the disk. One option: 1. Go to My Computer and double click. 2. Right click Floppy A 3. Click scan for viruses. What should I do if my computer wont boot? Make sure your power is working: Check your power cord is plugged in properly. Check your wall sockets and check the PC power supply. Check your power on light of your system. Try turning the power switch on and off on your computer a few minutes. Make sure your monitor is power on. Make sure your computer runs the POST. Look for any sort of output on your screen and a single beep. Unplug everything that plugs into your computer on the outside with the exception of the power cord. Try booting it up while listening for any beeps, still its not responding then remove the computer side cover and remove the ram, processor, video card all PCI cards and driver cables. Make sure that your hard drive is working correctly. Check the hard disk.

What should I do if my hard drive is having problems? Check the hard disk connectivity in bios. Check the hard disk power supply and bus cable. The results of these tests will give you a good indication of whether your hard drive is any good. Run the CHECKDISK utility to scan and repair any errors. You can run this utility from windows.

How can I help prevent hard drive failure? Proper Ventilation: Keep your devices vents open and clear from debris. Properly cooling your devices internal components is paramount. Physical impact: Dont drop your device or subject it to severe shock. This can cause damage to the drivers platters and reading heads. Voltage: Use a protector or UPS. This will prevent any voltage spikes or drops from damaging your computer. RAID: Purchase and install drive mirroring hardware. Basically this is a card you install in your pc.

Why wont my monitor turn on? Make sure the monitor is actually turned on. Is the power light on? Check the power cord of monitor. Some computers have an on-board video card and a third party video card. Make sure your monitor is connected right connector on the desktop or laptop. Check to make sure that the connector pins arent bent or broken. Make sure you have power. Verify the monitor is plugged into a power source. If it is plugged into a power strip or UPS, make sure that power strip or UPS is power on. Check the monitor power switch on. Make sure the power button is working perfectly. Try to replace the card. Get help of monitor manufactures or computer tech supporters.

Why does My Monitor Make Noise? CRT monitors traditionally make noise when turned on or when the resolution / refresh rate is changed. This noise is usually a buzzing or clicking sound. The noise is caused by the voltage changes that occur. They are perfectly normal. If your monitor is making noise even when you do not change resolution /refresh rates, this may indicate a hardware problem and you should have your monitor serviced. What should I do if My Device Cant Read or Write to a CD/DVD? First check your Drive, Is it CD drive or DVD drive. Check your inserted disk CD/DVD. Older CD & DVD players may not be able to read recordable media. Even newer players may not be able to. Consult your owners manual for more information. Insert a disc into the drive and see if any LEDs light up on the drive. In addition check to see if the ejects mechanism works properly. If no lights are visible on the front of the drive, check the power connection on the drive.

A dirty laser lens can cause the drive to have difficulty reading the disc. Is your computer mounted sideways? Most drives have catches to allow sideways mounting, but they do not always work.

What can I do if my Floppy drive wont work? Your floppy drive LED should blink when you are booting your machine. If it doesnt, you should check to make sure it is plugged into the power supply. Make sure the drive is being detected by the BIOS. Check your floppy disk, and change it.

What should I do if My computer Keeps shutting Off? Make sure that you have a good constant flow of power to your PC. Make sure your power supply is providing enough current to feed the computer and all of its accessories. Check any recent hardwares installed. Install all windows critical updates. Check your bios configurations. Install or Repair the Operating System.

What should I do if My Desktop computer has NO Sound? Make sure your speakers are on. Verify the Speaker are connected to power and switched on. Pump up the volume. Verify the volume is turned up and not muted. Make sure the speakers are connected to the proper outlet jack. PINK OR RED GREEN LINE LIGHT BLUE MICROPHONE INPUT OUTPUT LINE INPUT

If you hear crackling from the computer speaker, the cables and connectors are loose or need replacement. Open device manager check the status of the sound card.

CHECK LIST TO IDENTIFY THE DEFECT IN COMPUTER OPTIMIZING PERFORMANCE Optimizing Windows is the process of fine-tuning its performance. Both Windows XP and Windows 2000 include some utilities that help optimize the OS performance. In this section, we will discuss how the OS can be fine-tuned for optimum performance Virtual memory. Windows operating systems use virtual memory to temporarily store data when it is running out of the physical memory (RAM) in the computer. This data is stored in a file on the hard disk (which is known as

swap file or paging file). For most Windows installations, the OS automatically manages the size of the paging file. You can manually increase or decrease the size of this file or split the file across multiple hard disks depending on your requirements. If you feel that the system performance is poor, you can increase the size of this file or divide the file into multiple disks. The following steps explain how you can change the virtual memory settings in Windows XP: 1. Click Start Control Panel System. 2. Click the Advanced tab. 3. Click the Settings button in the Performance area. 4. Click Advanced. 5. Click Change in the Virtual Memory area. 6. Enter the Initial size and Maximum size and click Set. 7. Close all windows. DEFRAGMENTING HARD DISKS. Defragmenting hard disks helps improve their read/write performance. Hard disks become fragmented when some applications are installed or after a large number of files are moved or deleted. Fragmentation refers to the state of a hard disk when it no longer has contiguous space available to store new files or folders. The Disk Defragmenter utility can analyze hard disks and defragment them to free up contiguous space. Disk Defragmenter works on FAT, FAT32, and NTFS volumes. There are several ways to access the Disk Defragmenter: Click Start All Programs Accessories System Tools Disk Defragmenter. Open Windows Explorer; open the properties of disk or volume. Select the Tools tab. Click Defragment Temporary files: The Disk Cleanup utility in Windows XP is used to free up disk space by deleting temporary files and folders from the disk or volume. This utility can be accessed from Windows Explorer or from the System Tools folder under Accessories in the All Programs menu. Disk Cleanup essentially gives you options to delete several types of files. These files include: Program files downloaded from the Internet, including ActiveX controls and Java Applets. Temporary Internet files to clear the computer cache. These files are stored in the Temporary Internet Files Folder. Temporary Files located in the Temp folder. Files stored in the Recycle Bin. MSCONFIG: The msconfig.exe is a command-line tool that eventually opens a GUI called the System Configuration utility. This utility displays the current system configuration and allows you to safely change system settings. The settings that you can change include the following: System startup options for diagnosing startup problems. Advanced boot options to start the system in a selected diagnostic mode.

CHAPTER 6 SOFTWARE TROUBLESHOOTING

SOFTWARE Computer hardware such as the MOBO CPU, ADAPTER CARDS, DISPLAY DEVICE AND I/O DEVICES, are only a part of the entire computer system. To make this hardware work we need software that acts as interface between human beings and the hardware. Software can be classified into 3 major categories as follows. 1. Operating systems: The piece of software is responsible for controlling a PC and other devices. It manages memory, printing, networking, those silly smiley faces you send using AIM, disk drivers, and a myriad of other things. You see the hardware through the operating system. 2. BIOS: BIOS stands for basic input/output system. Its what a device uses until it loads the operating system. Most of you have seen the black and white screens that scroll past as you boot up your computer. That is the BIOs hard at work, waiting for the operating system to grab the baton. 3. Drivers: Drivers are a type of software that allows the operating system to communicate with hardware. Every single piece of hardware inside of and connected to you PC needs a driver or it will not work. 4. Applications: Applications is the software program that takes commands from the user for a specific task, executes them and produces the results. Type of Software Installations When software is installed, the installer may add, modify, or delete files, registry entries, or even text within files. There are many different types of software installation packages: Single executable installation: This is probably what comes to mind when you think of software installations. It consists of a single, compressed file that includes all of the instructions that are needed to install the program. Web-based installation: This type of installation has become very popular in recent years, most likely because of the proliferation of broadband internet access. Media based installation: This type of installation places all of the necessary files on a span of discs. Also included is an executable file that knows where to copy the files and what changes to make to the system. Windows installer: Windows installer was introduced with Windows 2000. It can install, repair, and remove software using instructions that are provided in MSI files.

Types of Operating Systems An operating system of any kind is one of the biggest software applications around (some with over 45 million lines of code). The operating system is what people interact with and the environment on which other programs run. Operating system all fall into one or more of the following categories: GUI: The graphical user interface operating system is what most of you will be familiar with. It consists of graphics and icons that are manipulated using a mouse or other input device. Multiprocessing: These operating systems are designed to use more than one processor. Once only a privilege of supercomputers, you can now find these powerful operating systems running servers in a doctors office. Multiuser: The multiuser operating system allows many people to use it all at once or at different times. Multitasking: A multitasking operating system can run multiple programs at the same time. Multithreading: A multithreading operating system allows different parts of software to be run concurrently. Troubleshooting Techniques In order to troubleshoot problems related to the operating system, you must understand the Windows boot sequence, the advanced boot options available, and basic diagnostic procedures. Additionally, you must have good knowledge of using built-in troubleshooting utilities. Familiarity with different types of error messages and common operational problems will help you resolve problems easily and quickly. Understanding boot sequence: The following discussion explains the boot sequence in both Windows XP and Windows 2000: Pre-boot Sequence. When the computer is started, it performs a pre-boot sequence in the following manner: 1. A POST is performed to check the hardware components, which include Physical memory (RAM), video, and the keyboard. In case the computer BIOS supports Plug and Play (PnP), the configuration of PnP-compatible hardware devices is performed. 2. The Master Boot Record (MBR) is loaded from the selected boot device. The MBR in turn loads the NTLDR file from the boot device. In case the computer has a Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) device as the boot device without its own BIOS, the NTBOOTDD.SYS file is loaded. Boot sequence. NTLDR takes charge of the process from here on and performs the following steps: 1. NTLDR switches the processor to 32-bit flat memory mode and loads the file systems driver to access the FAT, FAT32, or NTFS partitions. 2. NTLDR reads the BOOT.INI file and selects an operating system. If multiple operating systems are installed on the computer, the BOOT.INI file prompts the user to select an operating system. If the MS-DOS operating system is selected, NTLDR loads the boot sector from the BOOTSECT.DOS file.

3. NTLDR calls on the NTDETECT.COM file to perform hardware detection, which displays error messages if any hardware problems exist. If the computer has more than one hardware profile, the user is given a choice to select an appropriate profile.

UNDERSTANDING THE ADVANCED BOOT OPTIONS Some of the Windows startup problems can be resolved using the Advanced Boot Options during the startup phase. The most commonly used advanced options include Safe Mode, Last Known Good Configuration and Recovery Console. When Windows fails to complete the boot process, you can access any of these options by pressing the F8 key immediately after the POST is complete. Safe Mode In the Safe Mode, Windows XP loads with minimum basic system services and device drivers sufficient to boot the operating system. These components include the keyboard, mouse, hard disks, the VGA monitor, and other most essential system services. Safe Mode provides access to all system and device Configuration options so that you can enable or disable components one by one and try to pinpoint the problem. Safe Mode with Networking Safe Mode with Networking is similar to Safe Mode except that networking devices, drivers, and services are also initialized. Safe Mode with Command Prompt Safe Mode with Command Prompt loads the command interpreter, just like in MS-DOS, instead of the GUI. Last Known Good Configuration The Last Known Good Configuration option loads the last used system configuration that allows you to return the system to the previous working configuration. Windows saves two types of configurations in the Registry: Default and Last Known Good. The Default configuration is saved to the registry when you shut down the system. Enable Boot Logging This mode enables the boot logging option that stores the boot process information in a file named NTBTLOG.TXT. This file is stored in the /WINNT directory and is helpful is diagnosing startup problems. Enable VGA Mode This mode loads Windows with basic VGA device drivers and other normal configuration. This mode is helpful in diagnosing problems with the display driver. System Restore (Windows XP) The System Restore in Windows XP helps restore the system to a working state after you make changes to the system settings or install applications that make it unstable. It uses system restore points to store a snapshot of system settings at regular intervals. When you run the System Restore, a calendar is displayed in which you can pick a particular System Restore point. The System Restore can be accessed in one of the following methods: 1. Open the Help and Support Center, located in the Start menu. Under Pick a Task, click Undo Changes to Your Computer Using System Restore. 2. Click Start All Programs Accessories System Tools System Restore.

You can also create System Restore points manually when you expect to make changes to your system. The following steps explain how you can create a System Restore point: 1. 2. 3. 4. Click Start All Programs Accessories System Tools System Restore. Click Create A Restore Point. Click Next. Type a name to identify the restore point in the Restore Point Description box. Click Create.

Common error messages The following sections cover some more common error messages that you are likely to encounter: Missing NTLDR The NTLDR is missing error is accompanied by a Press Any Key to Restart message. This error is caused if any of the system startup files are missing or have become corrupt. The files that can cause this error include NTLDR, NTDETECT.COM, and BOOT.INI. You can restore these files by using the Recovery Console, an Emergency Repair Disk (ERD in Windows 2000), or by using the setup CD-ROM and selecting the Repair option when the installation starts. You can also restore these files using a system restore utility in Windows XP. Invalid Boot Disk This error is displayed when the system BIOS cannot access the disk partition that is supposed to contain system startup files. You might have to reinstall the OS to address this problem. Operating System Not Found This error means that the BIOS cannot find an operating system on the configured boot partition or boot device. This error is common in new computers that do have a boot partition configured in the BIOS and on which no OS has been installed so far. Inaccessible Boot Device This error is displayed when the computer finds a critical error with a boot device. This can be due to a malfunctioning device driver or to some resource conflicts. What are the common causes of software failure? The worst kind of software failure you can have is when your computer refuses to start up because your operating system (windows) refuses to work. The other type of failure you might experience is that an application refuses to run. Both of these types of failures can really stop you tracks and ruin your day. Here are some of the common causes of software failure should put on the top of your troubleshooting list: Registry problems: The good news with windows is that it has a built in database and control system to keep track of all the software and critical information that lives on your PC. This feature is called the Registry. When the Registry has a bad hair day. Your pc might not start up or an important program installed on your pc might not work. Improper Installation: Software can be really fussy. If it isnt installed just right it might not ever run at all or it might run inconsistently. A recent software installation: It might seem that just out of the blue your operating system or an important application starts acting up. This problem will occurs because youve recently done something

such as install some new software, a new hardware device like a printer, or attacking virus. Expired Software: Many programs that users install on their PCs are often downloaded from the Internet. Many are trail versions. Subscription based software may continue to work after it expires but not fully. Viruses: Viruses can create havoc on a PC because of the importance of viruses, weve devoted an entire chapter to them. Poorly written code: Software developers tell you, their products are flawed. They are riddled with code flaws, bugs and security holes. SOFTWARE PROBLEMS What should I do if my operating system will not start? Investigate all of hardware failure problems: You might just get lucky and discover the problem is due to a faulty power cord. Try to return your system to an earlier state: This solution will work only of your computer is still booting up and you are using Windows Xp. If you installed some new software or hardware drivers recently. You can then use the Windows system Restore feature to restore your computer without losing any of your personal data. Use the windows Setup CD that came with your PC: This is another important solution that can be used if you are running Windows XP. Windows XP setup CD provides a repair option that can fix startup problems, problem with system files and more. With this software we can repair and recover the OS. Try to fix a Registry boot problem: Your computer may be suffering from having a corrupted registry. This is a problem that we fix with reinstall Windows. Use the windows upgrade feature: This is another nice trick you can try if you are running windows XP. Insert the Bootable CD, boot from it and run the Install/Upgrade option. This option will install windows XP, but it will treat the installation as an upgrade and therefore it will be repair and install programs. Perform a clean install of Windows: If youve tried everything else and you still cant get you PC to boot, youll need to use your windows setup CD and perform clean install. What can I do if my computer boots really slowly? Remove some of the programs that get loaded when windows startup using with MSCONFIG Clean the Registry using a commercial registry cleaning utility. Check your antivirus software and scan the entire system. If the virus is there remove it. What should I do if I cant run an application? Application shortcut: Check the shortcut of application and make sure the shortcut is pointing the correct executable file. Software Expiration: The software will typically run for a year or so and then expire. If you have a program that suddenly stops working, make sure you check to see that the software hasnt expired. Administrative privileges: Some applications will not run unless you have administrative privileges on the computer you are running it on. You must take the administrative permissions to access the applications. Repair: Some programs allow you to repair an installation by running a special utility. Reinstall the application and access it. DLLs: (Dynamic Link Libraries) these files are that application share to provide familiar functionality.

When youre opening an application it displays some DLL file missing. This can make programs that are dependent upon them not work properly. Contact your software manufacture if you suspect DLL problems. What should I do before installing software? Check the Compatibility of your PC. Reboot the PC to clear memory errors Before installing the application you have to delete the temporary files in the TEMP Folder. Before installing the application make sure you have administrative privileges on the computer. Do not open the applications or files when youre installing applications. Turn of you screen saver because it may also cause you to cancel your inadvertently. When youre installing application on laptop check battery power status. When application installing is processing keep your kids away from the keyboard. How do I start a Software Install? Auto run: This method involves putting a CD-ROM in your device and closing it. Your drive will blink and make whirling noises signifying that it is reading data off of the disc. You should shortly see a splash screen for the program you are installing. Executable file: Executable files are another way to start an installation. They are typically named setup.exe, update.exe, or a host of other names. Archive: Some programs are archived inside of another file such as a ZIP file. In a case, you should extract the contents of the archive to a normal folder and then run the install program. What should I do if I cant find a program after installing it? Start Menu: This should be the first place you look. Just click start in the lower left hand corner. Program File folder: Most window applications install under this main folder. You can find the folder by double-clicking my computer and then Local disk (C :). You will see a folder named Program files. Root of your hard disk: Some software will create a folder on the root of your C: drive. On a different partition or hard drive: If you have multiple partitions or multiple drivers the software may have been inadvertently installed there. Why cant I install/Uninstall Software? Microsoft created different levels of permissions in order to accomplish this: Are you an administrator? To install software you need to be a member of the Administrators or Power Users group. Are you in Terminal Services? Terminal services are a technology that allows multiple people to log into a server and access a Windows Desktop. Are you logged on as administrator? Some programs require that you are actually logged on as the administrator account. What can I do if my software install fails? Reboot and retry Check the event log: The event log keeps a history of errors and warnings that are generated by the software and hardware installed on your computer.

Check the install log: During most software installs, a record is kept of all of actions and error messages that were generated during the installation. It can be found in root of your C: drive and is usually named install.log Make sure your system is up-to-date or not Clear you temp file folder Disable you antivirus program: Disabling the real-time scanning of your antivirus software may help in installing stubborn software. Install the software using safe mode booting. How can I uninstall software? Use the Add/Remove Programs feature: Add/Remove programs can be found in windows control panel. This method is the preferred method of uninstalling software on the windows operating system. Use the program files menu: Find the program in the program files menu. Click start Select all programs Find the program you want to uninstall Click the uninstall option. Use an uninstall file: These files can usually be found in the softwares folder in the program files folder. Contact the software company What can I do if my uninstall fails? Reboot the PC Clear your system temporary files in the TEMP folder. Click start- select run- type %TEMP% Use safe mode Booting Contact the software company. How can I Update Windows? You have two options can manually update or use automatic updates. Click start- then RUN, type in wupdmgr.exe and click ok Click start and then click windows update Go to HYPERLINK "http://windowsupdate.microsoft.com" http://windowsupdate.microsoft.com Updates come in several different types: Critical Update: These are important security updates that Microsoft releases in response to vulnerabilities in its Windows operating Systems. Recommended Updates: These consist of regularly released updates to windows, Internet Explorer and other Microsoft products. Windows Tools: These are utilities and other tools offered by Microsoft for use by system administrators. Internet and Multimedia Updates: These are the latest versions of Internet Explorer, windows Media Player, and other Microsoft Software. Additional Windows Downloads: These are miscellaneous updates for desktop settings and other Windows features. Click Review and install updates and select the ones you want to install.

How can I install updated drivers? It can be done from the Device manager using the Hardware Update Wizard. Open the Device Manger Right Clicking My computer Click properties Selecting the hardware tab Click Device manager If its and INF file, you can right click on it and choose install. INF files contain all of the necessary information to install a driver for a particular piece of hardware. Most drivers come packaged into an installer program. What is a device driver? A software routine that links device to the OS. It acts like a translator between a device and the OS.

Device drivers
Device drivers are system programs, which are responsible for proper functioning of devices. Every device, whether it is a printer, monitor, mouse or keyboard, has a driver program associated with it for its proper functioning. Whenever a new device is added to the computer system, a new device driver must be installed before the device is used. In modern operating systems, most hardware drivers, such as the keyboard driver, come with the operating system. A driver acts like a translator between the device and program (typically, an operating system) that uses the device. For example, when a user prints a document, the processor issues a set of genetic commands to the printer driver, and the driver translates those commands into the specialized instructions that the printer understands. Note that each device has its own set of specialized commands that only its driver understands. A device driver is not an independent program; it assists and is assisted by the operating system for the proper functioning of the device.
How can I Rollback a Driver? You will still be able to revert to the last driver that was installed. Follow these simple instructions: Open Device Manger, You should be an expert in this by now. Right click the device in question Click Properties Click the Driver tab Clicks roll back Drivers. Windows Optional Components IIS: Internet Information Services (IIS) allows you to run a website from your computer. Although this may be overkill for the majority of the readers of this book, it may prove useful in some situations, such as in a small to medium office. You can share information with co-workers using an internet website. FAX Services: Windows Fax services allow you to send and receive faxes via your PC without the use of

third-party software such as WINFAX.

To Install Windows Optional Components Open the Windows Control Panel. Double-Click Add or Remove Programs Click Add/Remove Windows components Check off any Components you want to install and Click next.

How can I Prevent My Self from Deleting Critical System Files? Right click start Click Explore Click Tools in the upper Menu Click Folder Options Check Hide protected operating system files Check Do not show hidden files and folders Uncheck Display the contents of system folders Click OK.

CHAPTER -7

Introduction of WWW The Web is a vast collection of information that is stored on the computers that make up the Internet. The term World Wide Web is often used interchangeably with the terms WWW and W3. It consists of huge collections of pages containing information, images, sounds and video clips stored in computers around the world. It is basically a collection of millions of files stored on thousands of computers which are connected through the internet. The information provided is regularly updated. Each page is called Website. The very first page of any web site is known as its Home page. A link is any text, image or figure, which when clicked takes us to some other web page or some other section of the same web page. These links are commonly known as hyperlink or hypertext links. Evolution of the World Wide Web: The Arpanet (Advanced Research Projects Association Network) was born with four host computers (in the Research Department of the US Department of Defense) connected to each other. However as time passed the number of computers connected to the Internet increased. The number soon reached 3, 00,000 in 1990. And then the number of host, connected to the Internet crossed over 109 millions in just a decade. It was in 1991, that the emergences of e-commerce led the business to enter the Internet world. The NFSnet was responsible for this major development. Basic Features: 1. Client and Server: In a client/server scenario, we have a client program, which interacts with a server program. When talking in context of Web, the server is called the web server and all the computers connected to the Web server are the Web clients. A web server is a repository of all the files on the web. It is the duty of the web server to store, retrieve and manage these files on the web. All the host computers requesting the web server for these files are the web clients. 2. HTTP: Hyper Text Transfer protocol is a set of rules that are responsible for the transmission of web pages- on the web. In other words, it is the standard language that tells how the client and the web server are going to communicate with each other. It has been exclusively designed for the World Wide Web. When a request is made from web client to the web server, the server uses this protocol to fulfill the request made. 3. URLs: A URL is the address of a resource accessible on the Internet. The URL contains the name of the protocol required to access the resource, a domain name a file located on that computer. You can instantly display a web page if you know its URL. For example, http://www.wileydreamtech.com is a URL. 4. HTML: Hyper Text Markup language (HTML) is a computer language used to create web pages. Thus, a web page is an HTML document made up of text and various HTML tags. It is the browser, who is responsible to transfer the tags in the HTML document and display the

5.

6.

7. 8.

document as a web page. However, each web browser interprets the HTML tags differently. When a web browser does not understand a tag or attribute, the information is usually ignored. The HTML tags tell a Web browser about the structure and formatting of a web page. XML: Extensible markup Language (XML) WAS DEVELOPED BY THE W3C to create information formats and share both the format and the information on the web. It was not supposed to replace HTML, but to extend the power of HTML by separating data from presentation. Java and Java Script: In java, there are small programs known as applets that can be sent on the web. Java Script is a scripting language that is an extension of HTML. Using Java script small programs called scripts can be embedded in web pages. VB Script: This is a scripting language that `closely resembles Microsofts Visual Vasic. Like java script, VB script can embed small programs on web. Multimedia: These days all kinds of files graphics, sound, video and animationare being used over the Web. Technologies such as Shockwave and Java allow these files to be transferred to your system and played over there.

WWW Browsers A browser is a computer program that accesses web pages and displays them on the computer screen. It is the basic software that is needed to find, retrieve, view, and send information over the Internet. In fact, to access the World Wide Web, the user requires a web browser. When you open the Internet Explorer browser, the home page of Microsoft will open by default. If you have the Netscape browser, the home page of Netscape Incorporation opens in your screen by default. Browsers are two types: 1. Graphical browsers: It allows retrieval of text, images, audio and video. Navigation is accomplished by pointing and clicking with a mouse on highlighted words and graphics. Both Netscape navigator and internet explorer and Graphical browsers. 2. Text browsers: It provides access to the web in text-only mode. Navigation is accomplished by highlighting emphasized words on the screen with the arrow up and down keys, and then pressing the Enter key to follow the link. Mosaic This was the first Web browser and was developed by the National center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. It is available for Macintosh, Window and X Windows platforms. This software is available free on the Internet and can be downloaded from ftp.ncsa.uiuc.edu by any anonymous FTP. Netscape Navigator Netscape Navigator was released in 1994 and is one of the fastest Web browsers currently available in the market. It is available in different versions for UNIX, Windows and Macintosh platforms and has built-in the e-mail and Newsgroups facilities.

Microsoft Internet Explorer This is based on NCSA Mosaic and is distributed under a licensing agreement with Spyglass Inc. This is shareware software and can be downloaded from the Internet. It comes in different versions for various Windows products. We will discuss Internet Explorer 3.0 in detail. Web Servers A web server can be any computer, which stores various web pages and contains the web server software. The web pages on the server are mostly HTML documents. The web client (i.e. a browser, like Internet Explorer and Netscape) makes a request to the web server. The web server software running on server accepts this request, makes a search client. Let us first see how the web server works: Whenever you have to look up a web page, you type that URL into your browser and press return. After a while, no matter where in the words that URL lives, the page appears on computer screen. Your browser forms a connection to a Web server, requests a page and receives it. If you want to get into a bit more detail, here are the basic steps that occur being the scenes: The browser broke the URL you typed into three parts: 1. The protocol (http) 2. The server name (www.mypage.com) 3. The file name (web-server.htm) The browser communicates with a www.mypage.com to translate the server name into an IP Address, which it uses to connect to the server at that IP address on port80. Following the HTTP protocol, the browser sends a request to the server, asking for the file http://www.mypage.com/web-server.htm. The server then sent the HTML text for the Web page to the browser. The browser read the HTML tags and formatted the page onto your computer screen. Internet Information Server (IIS): This is a product of Microsoft and runs on Windows NT or Windows 2000. It is the most widely used web server. One of the reasons for its popularity is that it is easy to set up. IIS offers various tools. These tools are as follows: 1. Microsoft Transaction Server: It is used for building distributed applications. 2. Index Server: Index Server is used for indexing and searching web pages and Microsoft word documents. 3. Site Analyst: The site Analyst carries out the task of site management. IIS supports a large number of features. Some of the important features are--- crash protection, support for active server pages and java, script debugging and content management. IIS is also being used for providing support for HTTP.

HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

Protocols are the rules that describe how clients and servers communicate with each other over a network. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol is a protocol used by the WWW. It can be defined as a set of rules that signify how the web pages are transmitted over the web. We know that there are various types of files that are to be transferred from one host machine to another. These include text files, sound files, music files, graphics, etc.

Some of the commands that help in the communication between the browser and the web server are listed below 1. GET: This command initiates the server to retrieve the information located at the path specified in the URL. 2. HEAD: This command is exactly the same as the GET command. The only difference is that unlike the GET command, The server retrieves only the document header to the browser. The body of the document is ignored. The HTML document is divided into 2 parts: The Head and the Body. 3. Post: The post method instead of reading the page, writes the page. However, instead of replacing the existing date, the new date is appended to it in some generalized sense. The transaction in HTTP uses the TCP/IP protocol. Given below are the various phases which a transaction must undergo: Connection: This is the first phase of the Transaction cycle. In this phase, a connection is established between the browser and the web server. The browser requests the server for the connection and the server on receiving the request establishes a connection. Request: Once a connection has been established, the client sends a request to the server, specifying the files it needs to access. Response: The server searches its database, finds the web pages requested by the client and sends the results back to the client. Close: When the server has processed the request made by the client, the connection is no more needed. The client delivers a request to the server to close the connection. Uniform Resource Locator A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is the address of a resource accessible on the Internet. The URL contains the name of the protocol required to access the resource, a domain name that identifies a specific computer on the Internet, and a hierarchical description of a file located on that computer. Example of URL: http://www.yahoo.com Search Engines A search engine is a software program that searches a particular piece of information, according to the specified criteria. We all know amount of information available on the Web is huge. Most of us are not even aware of the names of the sites available on net. Even if we know the names of a few sites, it is quite possible that we do not remember them tomorrow, however, search engines have made searching a particular type of information very easy. On to any of these search engines and get the required information, without much effort and wastage of time. The is way a search engines makes a hunt for the specified criteria through its own database. In a survey conducted by Neilsen /Net Ratings, it was found that for the year 2002, the two most popular search engines for navigating the Web were yahoo and MSN.

Components of the Google search There are three components that work together to provide us with the search results. These arethe Robot, the Database and the Search Form. Let us now have a look at these components one by one: 1. Robot: Also known as Spider or Bot, this is a program that automatically navigates the various hypertext structures on the Web. It makes a move like a robot spider and retrieves and lists the various web pages. The robot works by categorizing the web pages and storing information about the web site and the web pages in a database. 2. Database: A database is a repository to store and manage the information (here on the web). Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server, IBM DB2 are some of the Database Management systems that are used to configure and manage the databases. The search engines make a list of the web pages and sites using these databases. Remember that different sites have different databases. Therefore, the search results will vary, depending on the database used by a particular site. 3. Search Form: This is an interactive form, which is used by a visitor to make a request for some information. This mainly consists of a text box and a submit button. The visitor usually types the topics related to his or her search and clicks the script, which then searches the database using the criteria specified by the visitor. The result of the search, often known as the result-set is sent by the web server to the browser for display. The sequence in which, the web pages are listed, depends on the alphabetical order of the sites, amount spent on their advertisements by their owners, link popularity etc.

INTERNET
What is internet? The internet is a global collection of computer networks that are linked together by devices called routers, modems and use a common set of protocols for data transmission known the TCP/IP (Transmission control protocol/Internet protocol). The Primary purpose of the Internet is to facilitate the sharing of information. This global network links thousands of computers at universities, research institutions, government agencies and business houses throughout the world. Using a small pc at your home and telephone connection, you can access information from any place in the world through internet. There are many different tools used on the Internet to make this possible. Some of the more common tools 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Email Information store house FTP (File Transfer protocol) Telnet Entertainment Online Shopping/Electronic Commerce

Email: Electronic mail is a fast easy and economical way to send messages to anymore having an Internet account. Through this most widely used feature on Internet you can exchange messages with your family, friends and business associates around the world. Along with the messages one can also send pictures, audio and animation. Information Storehouse: You can easily access information from internet regarding any subject. Internet is very much like a library with enormous information on any subject. FTP: There are thousands of free programs and softwares available on Internet. You can transfer them to your hard disk through a process called File Transfer Protocol.

Telnet:Telnet is an Internet exploration tool that allows your PC to connect to another network and login as if you were a user on that system. You can communicate with a wide variety of remote systems with which you have an account. Telnet is widely used to access databases and explore public access computer systems. Libraries frequently use Telnet. When you search for resources, and an item is not found in one library, another library needs to be searched. The Telnet application helps you to do this.
Entertainment: Hundreds of simple games are available for free on internet, Like chess, football, etc. Internet also allows you to review the current movies as well as indulge in interactive conversation with people around the world. Online Shopping/Electronic Commerce: Online shopping means buying or selling on the Net. You can order goods and services on internet such as computers, softwares, books, dress, vegetable etc.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR AN INTERNET CONNECTION Computer: Any good IBM compatible pc and unix or windows os, computer that has good storage space and minimum configuration of pc. Modem: The term modem is derived from Modulator/Demodulator. A modem is a hardware device that is used to convert digital signals from a computer to analog signals (modulation) in order to transmit them over analog lines. At the receiving end, it converts the analog signals back to digital signals (demodulation) so that a computer can understand them. It can be built onto the MOBO of the computer can be installed as an extension card, or can be and external device. External modems can either be connected to one of the serial ports or to the USB port of the computer. Web Browser: The software used to navigate through the web is known as a browser. The most popular browser types today are Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer. Before you start working on the Internet, make sure you have a web browser in your computer, otherwise you will not be able to surf the net. The Microsoft Internet Explorer comes installed along with MSOFFICE. Telephone Line: It is essential to have a telephone connection to get connected to Internet. All the data and information pass through the telephone lines as analogue signals. ISP (Internet Service Providers): If you have a computer with a web browser, a modem and a telephone line connected to your computer, you now need an Internet connection. You can get and Internet connection from various Internet Service Providers. EX: BSNL, VSNL, MTNL.

INTERNET TERMINOLOGY
TCP/IP TCP/IP is the protocol suite that is designed especially for the Internet. Basically, the TCP/IP handles network communications between network nodes (computers connected to each other over the Internet).The suite is actually composed of several protocols including IP, which handles the movement of data between host computers and TCP, which manages the movement of data between applications. URL (Uniform Resource Locator) A URL is the address of a resource accessible on the Internet. The type of resource depends on the Internet application protocol. Using the World Wide Webs protocol, the HTTP and the resource can be and HTML page. The URL contains the name of the protocol required to access the resource, a domain name that identifies a specific computer on the Internet and hierarchical description of a file location on that computer. Here is an example of URL: http://www.google.com.

HTTP: (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) HTTP is a protocol used by the WWW. The main task of HTTP is deals with the messages format and transmission and what actions Web Servers and browsers should take in response to various commands. The main standards that controls how the WWW works is HTML, which deals with how Web pages are formatted and displayed. Modem Modem: The term modem is derived from Modulator/Demodulator. A modem is a hardware device that is used to convert digital signals from a computer to analog signals (modulation) in order to transmit them over analog lines. At the receiving end, it converts the analog signals back to digital signals (demodulation) so that a computer can understand them. It can be built onto the MOBO of the computer can be installed as an extension card, or can be and external device. External modems can either be connected to one of the serial ports or to the USB port of the computer. Network A network is a group of interconnected systems sharing services and interacting by means of a shared communications link. A network therefore, requires two or more individual systems with something to share (data). The individual systems must be connected through a phyiscal pathway called the transmission medium. All systems on the physical pathway must follow a set of common communication rules for data to arrive at its intended destination and for the sending and receiving systems to understand each other. The rules that govern computer communication are called protocol. Types of Internet Connection: The must be connected to a telephone line to access the web. However modems do not need a special telephone line. Most people use their regular phone line to connect to the Internet. Apart from a normal telephone line, you could also use other channels to connect to the web. Some of the other common types of Internet access, available for the use these days, are briefed below: Dial-up: A dial up connection is the access method that uses telephone lines to connect to the Internet. It is the most common way that individuals who use home computer connect to the Internet. To connect to the Internet by using dial up, the user needs to specify a username, a password, and a telephone number. After the connection is established, the user can start browsing sites on the Internet. ISDN: It stands for Integrated Services Digital Network and is more common in business and ISDN involves the digitization of telephone network so that voice, graphics, text and other data can be provided to users from a single terminal over existing telephone wiring. Digital connections have fewer errors in transmission, which means speed of downloading graphics, web pages, sound and so on is increased to four times faster than with dial-up modems. DSL: Digital subscriber Line service is provided through the existing phone line, but it works differently than regular analog modem dial-up access. DSL operates over normal telephone lines and it can be used

simultaneously with the telephone. DSL can increase the connection speed by as much as ten fold form a standard dial-up modem. Broadband: This type of access is good for remote locations, where ISDN, cable or DSL are not available. It gives a decent download speed, but to upload data, the user sill needs a regular analog modem to dial in, via a phone line. Satellite connection can be either a two way service or a one-way service. In case of two-way satellite service, the data is transmitted via satellite to a dish antenna at the users house. In one way system, the user needs a conventional modem and telephone link to an ISP. Satellite connection is expensive but sometimes is the only fast option for people who are beyond the service area of cable and DSL providers. Internet Softwares: TCP/IP: It is the basic communication protocol of the Internet. It allows programs on users computer to communicate properly over the Internet. Usually when you are setup with direct access to the Internet, Your computer is provided with a copy of the TCP/IP program. Similarly every other computer that you may send messages to or get information from also has a copy of TCP/IP. Dialer Software: This software is provided by the ISP to instruct the modem to dial the phone number and to identify the users machine to the access providers system for access to the network. Browser: To use the Internet a web browser is essential. This program allows the user to view the information available on the World Wide Web. Internet Relay chats The internet relay chat (IRC) feature of internet lets you instantly communicate with people around the world. Using IRC you can converse on the Net with one or more individuals simultaneously by simply typing replies to lines coming in from the other individuals. This is a great way to meet people and exchange ideas. During Internet conversations, if you type text, it immediately appears on the screen of every person involved in that conversation. Unlike talking on the telephone, the IRC lets you chat with friends and colleagues in other cities, states or countries without your having to pay long distance charges. TYPES OF CHAT 1. TEXT BASED CHAT: It is the oldest and most popular mode of chat on the Internet. This mode enables you to have conversation with one or more people. During chat when you type text, the text appears on the computer screen of every person participating in your conversation. The test gets transferred quickly across the Internet through the modem. So you do not need a highspeed modem for text based chat. 2. WEB BASED CHAT: In this type of conversation, you make use of multimedia. In fact, multimedia chat is a new feature of the Internet. This feature enables you to have voice conversations and communicate with other people through live video over the Internet. Since sound and video

signals get transferred slowly across Internet, it is recommended that you use a high speed modem for web based chat. However, web-based chat is not functional in India as yet because of the narrow band-width available for use in India. Browsing the WWW When you open the Internet Explorer browser, the home page of Microsoft will open by default. If you have the Netscape browser, the home page of Netscape Incorporation opens on your screen by default. Each Web page on the web has a unique address. This address is called a URL (Uniform Resource Locator). The URLs of web pages start with http:// where http stands for hyper text transfer Protocol. To view a particular website, you will have to provide an address that is a URL of that website. 1. Open the Internet Explorer and it displays the homepage of Microsoft. 2. Move the mouse-pointer inside the Address box and click the left mouse button. 3. Now type the URL http://www.google.com and then press the Enter key. List of Popular Websites www.rediff.com www.timesofindia.com www.hindustantimes.com www.navbharattimes.com www.filmfare.com www.msn.com www.google.com www.cards4you.com www.bluemountains.com www.yahoo.com www.hotmail.com www.ibm.com

IP ADDRESSING The task of assigning a network address to your network and a host address to each of your servers and workstations is known as IP Addressing. An IP address is a four-part number in which each part represents an eight bit binary number. The four parts are known as octets or bytes and are separated by periods. The total length of an IP Address is 32 bits. A simple example of IP Address is listed here under. IP addresses are assigned and controlled by an organization called Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). There are two current versions of IP addressing IPv4 and IPv6. A part of the IP addresses is known as the network address, or network ID, and the rest of it is known is the host address or host ID. Example: 192.68.1.15 Subnet Mask The subnet Mask is used to identify which part of the IP address is the network address and which part is the host address. The subnet mask is telling the network that the first eight bits of the corresponding IP address are to used as the network address. The last 24 bits in this example are to be used as the host address. Different classes of IP Addressing PUBLIC IP ADDRESSES A-CLASS: B-CLASS: C-CLASS: D-CLASS: E-CLASS: 1.0.0.0 TO 126.255.255.255 Default subnet mask: 255.0.0.0 1 NID- 3HID 2NID 2HID 3NID 1HID

128.0.0.0 TO 191.255.255.255 Default Subnet Mast: 255.255.0.0 192.0.0.0 TO 223.255.255.255 Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0

224.0.0.0 TO 239.255.255.255 Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.255 Multicast 240.0.0.0 TO 255.255.255.255 Reserved for Experimental usage

PRIVATE IP ADDRESSES: A-CLASS: B-CLASS: C-CLASS: Domain A domain name is one that follows the at sign (@) in an email address, such as hotmail.com. The domain names have different words, separated by periods that indicate different levels of organization. The size of the organization increases from left to right. For Example, the domain indianrail.gov is meant for Indian railways, which is part of Indian government and comes under its direct jurisdictions. 10.0.0.0 TO 10.255.255.255 172.16.0.0 TO 172.31.255.255 192.168.0.0 TO 192.168.255.255

Domain can be categorized into two broad categories: Three letter top-level domains and two-letter top level domains. Three Letter Top-Level Domains TLD .com .net .gov .edu .org .mil .int MEANING Commercial Business, a company Network provider, ISP Government agency Educational Institution Non-profit institution U.S. Military International EXAMPLES Hotmail.com Usa.net Indianrail.gov Stanford.edu Redcross.org Army.mil Itu.int

Two Letter Top Level Domains: these are country codes TLD In Us Uk De Jp COUNTRY India United states United Kingdom Germany (Deutschland) Japan EXAMPLES www.drc.in Nasdap.us Bbc.uk Sgi.de www.nihon-u.ac.jp

Sending and Receiving E-mails using Outlook Express Outlook Express is a message - or E-mail handling software. This comes along with the Internet Explorer. The Electronic Mail is sent and received in the form of text or images to different Internet Users. The Internet Explorer mail and news program, Outlook express is used to exchange Email messages. Receiving an Email 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. You will notice a mail button present on the standard toolbar of Internet Explorer Then click the left mouse button on the mail button. Inside the pull down menu click on the read mail option Immediately a Microsoft outlook express logo appears on the screen for a few seconds. Now to view all the Emails you have received, move the mouse pointer over the inbox option inside the Folders box and click the left mouse button. 6. If you wish to read the contents of a particular mail, in our case a mail that has come from Microsoft Outlook Express, Just move the Mouse-Pointer to it and double-click the left mouse button. Replying to and Email using Outlook Express 1. Click on the particular mail which has to be replied to. 2. Now click on the reply button.

3. Type the message in the mail. 4. Now send the mail to To Email address. Sending an Email using Outlook express 1. Click on the new mail button present on the standard toolbar. 2. Inside the pull down menu click on the any letter option, Instantly a new message box gets displayed on the screen. 3. Now type the Email address of the person to whom you wish to send a message. 4. Then press the tab key two times to move the cursor in the box beside the Subject option. 5. Next, type a brief description for the subject of Email. 6. Then pres s tab key from the keyboard to move the cursor into the typing area. 7. Now type the message in the mail. 8. When you are ready to send your message, click on the send button. 9. Click on the Outbox option present inside the Outlook window. Instantly all the mails present inside the outbox get displayed. HOW TO CREATE EMAIL ID: 1. Connect your computer to the Internet. 2. Step 2 Open a Web browser and type in the Web address of the company with which you want to get an email ID. Yahoo is free and very easy to set up 3. Step 3 Click on "Sign up." On the Yahoo page this says "Don't have a Yahoo ID?" above it. 4. Step 4 Fill out your personal information. This includes your name, date of birth, gender and country. Most companies do not ask for your specific address. 5. Step 5 Get out a pen and paper and begin writing out email ID's that you would like to have. He best ones are easy to remember. Your name or a nickname that everyone knows you by are good places to start. 6. Step 6 Start with your favorite ID and type it in the ID box on the email service's Web page and click "Check." A few seconds later you will be told whether this ID is taken or not taken. 7. Step 7 Create a password. This is usually longer than eight characters and it is best to make it a combination of both letters and numbers. 8. Step 8 Type in the letters on the screen and click done. 9. Step 9 Let your friends know what your new email address is and start sending and receiving your emails.

Dealing with a search Engine Google 1. First of all you need to open the website of google by typing www.google.com in the address bar of the Internet Explorer. 2. Once the home page of google appears on the screen, enter the search query in the text provided on the home page for entering queries and press the Enter key from the keyboard. 3. In a few moments google will display the links and name of websites that can provide you information on search query entered by you. You can click on any link to view the information. E-Learning Electronic Learning is the mode of learning and acquiring knowledge by means of Internet, Intranet, CDROM, which can include text, audio, graphics or animation. In e-learning, you can learn about any subject at anytime and anywhere with the help of a computer. Types of e-Learning 1. 2. 3. 4. Knowledge-based e-learning Online Support based e-learning Synchronous Based e-learning Asynchronous Based e-learning

Knowledge based e-learning: This type or e-learning involves giving step-by-step instructions to perform a particular task. Example: Software Websites. Online Support-based e-learning: In online support-based e-learning the user puts up his query on forums, chat rooms, online bulletin boards, emails etc. and gets the answer to his query online. Synchronous based e-learning: The synchronous based e-learning operates in real-time environment where an instructor provides learning and training to students. In this type of e-learning, students and instructor can set a time for communication over the internet and can communicate directly with the instructor and fellow students. Asynchronous based e-learning: This type of e-learning is most common as it involves self learning by means of Internet, Intranet and CD-ROM. E-Commerce In todays web-oriented society the most discussed word is e-Commerce . The concept of e-Commerce originated from the word commerce, which means transaction/exchange of goods and services for their worth. This applies to e-Commerce too, but the difference is that e-Commerce involves selling and purchasing of commodities and services using a computer network, usually the Internet. Product: To conduct e-commerce you must have some produce to sell. Selling place: In a e-commerce, the place of selling and ordering goods is an web site.

Accessibility to people: This element decides how people would access the web site that is hosting ecommerce. How to place orders: The website must have some on-line forms that people can use to place their orders. How to accept money from customers: In e-commerce credit card is the most convenient and commonly used means of accepting money from customers. Delivery mechanism: The website that is hosting e-commerce must have the provision to deliver commodities to their customers. Internet Telephony Internet Telephony is one of the latest and most discussed technologies. From the very first day of its launch, this technology has found increasing favour with corporate companies and programmers. This technology was first introduced by Vocal Tech Inc that deployed this technology in its Internet phone software. To use this technology you must have the following devices. 1. 2. 3. 4. Sound card Speakers Microphone Voice-capable modem

Category 1: PSTN to PSTN using voice over the Internet In this category communication between two users takes place over PSTN line. As a phone call is made the telephone exchange transfers the telephone call on an IT gateway, which delivers the call to the target telephone exchange. The target telephone exchange on receiving the call delivers the call to the intended user. Category 2: PC to PC using Voice over the Internet In this category a user makes a call to the other user by using a computer and applications such a s phone dialer. When a user makes a call by using a computer, the IT gateway delivers the call to the target telephone exchange. On receiving the call the telephone exchange delivers the call to the target user. It must be remembered that only a person using a computer can make a call to another user irrespective of whether the other user has a computer or not. Category 3: PC to PC using voice over Internet In this category there is no role of PSTN whatsoever. Here two users communicate with each other over the Internet using H.323 protocol, which is specially designed for delivering voice over the Internet.

CHAPTER - 8 CUSTOMIZE THE WEB BROWSER

What are Favorites? When browsing the World Wide Web you will come across certain web sites which you might want to visit again. Instead of typing in the address each time, you can store a list of Favorites in Internet Explorer which require only a simple click to take you to a web site. View Favorites To view your current list of Favorites, in Internet Explorer 6 click on the Favorites menu at the top of your browser. In Internet Explorer 7 you can access your Favorites list by clicking on the Favorites Center button. Add a Favorite Site To add the current web site page to your list of Favorites, right-click somewhere on the page and select Add to Favorites from the menu that appears. Alternatively, in Internet Explorer 7 you can also click the Add to Favorites button at the top left of the screen. A new window will open allowing you to give this Favorite a name to help you remember what the site was about. Type it into the Name box. What is popup? Pop-up ads are a form of online advertising on the World Wide Web intended to increase web traffic. It works when certain web sites open a new web browser window to display advertisements. The pop-up window containing an advertisement is usually generated by JavaScript, but can be generated by other means as well. A less intrusive variation on the pop-up window is the pop-under advertisement. This opens a new browser window, but in the background, so as not to interrupt the user's page-view. OPTION A: Disable the pop-up blocker in Windows XP Service Pack 2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Launch Internet Explorer. Click Tools > Internet options > Security tab. Click the Custom Level button. Scroll down the Security Settings list to find and select the Use Pop-Up Blocker Disable setting. Click OK. When prompted with a security settings warning, click Yes.

OPTION B: Create an exception for the pop-up blocker in Windows XP Service Pack 2 NOTE: The pop-up blocker remains enabled in this option

1. 2. 3. 4.

Open Internet Explorer. Click Tools > Popup blocker. Select Popup blocker settings. Under "Address of Web site to allow:" enter "*.platoweb.com" and click Add. If the URL you use to access Web Learning Network is different, use the appropriate URL for your school or facility. 5. Click Close to close the Pop-up blocker settings window. What is ACTIVE X CONTROLS? A control using ActiveX technologies. An ActiveX control can be automatically downloaded and executed by a Web browser. ActiveX is not a programming language, but rather a set of rules for how applications should share information. Programmers can develop ActiveX controls in a variety of languages, including C, C++, Visual Basic, and Java. ActiveX controls have full access to the Windows operating system. This gives them much more power than Java applets, but with this power comes a certain risk that the applet may damage software or data on your machine. To control this risk, Microsoft developed a registration system so that browsers can identify and authenticate an ActiveX control before downloading it. Another difference between Java applets and ActiveX controls is that Java applets can be written to run on all platforms, whereas ActiveX controls are currently limited to Windows environments. Active X Control 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Click "Tools" located on the IE 6 toolbar. Select "Internet Options." Click the "Security" tab. Click "Custom Level." Configure the categories by following the directions below: o Active X Controls and Plug-ins - Enable Download signed ActiveX, Run ActiveX controls and plug-ins, and Script ActiveX controls marked safe for scripting. o Cookies - Enable both options in this category. o Downloads - Enable File Download. o Miscellaneous - Set Software Channel to Medium. o Scripting - Enable all options in this category. 6. Click "OK." Web Browser Plug INS There are a core set of key programs from third parties that you can download to extend the capabilities of your browser. Several companion programs for Internet Explorer can be set on the window accessed under "Tools / Internet Options / Programs", and others under the "Manage Add-ons" on that window. Internet Explorer generally downloads additional plug-in automatically the first time it needs them, and will prompt you for permission if it runs an installer program. You can get information on Mozilla Firefox plug-in from the menu "Tools / Options / Downloads / PlugIns".

You should try not to download too many plugins if they aren't needed, especially if they provide duplicate capabilities -- try to stick to one preferred plug-in for each type of media. You can delete any extra and/or old plugins if find they aren't being used. Resources: The average plugin is between 500 KB and 1 MB in size. If you have the disk space, you should get the latest copy of the following key plugins which are widely used across the Internet:

Acrobat Mediaplayer Quicktime Realplayer Shockwave Flash Player

PROXY SERVER In computer networks, a proxy server is a server (a computer system or an application program) that acts as an intermediary for requests from clients seeking resources from other servers. A client connects to the proxy server, requesting some service, such as a file, connection, web page, or other resource, available from a different server. The proxy server evaluates the request according to its filtering rules.

To speed up access to resources (using caching). Web proxies are commonly used to cache web pages from a web server. To apply access policy to network services or content, e.g. to block undesired sites. To bypass security/ parental controls. To scan transmitted content before delivery for malware. To scan outbound content, e.g. for data leak protection.

How to configure Internet Explorer to use a proxy Internet Explorer 6.0 1. On the Tools menu in Internet Explorer, click Internet Options, click the Connections tab, and then click LAN Settings. 2. Under Proxy server, click to select the Use a proxy server for your LAN check box. 3. In the Address box, type the IP address of the proxy server. 4. In the Port box, type the port number that is used by the proxy server for client connections (by default, 8080). 5. You can click to select the Bypass proxy server for local addresses check box if you do not want the proxy server computer to be used when you connect to a computer on the local network (this may speed up performance). 6. Click OK to close the LAN Settings dialog box. 7. Click OK again to close the Internet Options dialog box.

CHAPTER -9 COMPUTER VIRUS/ANTIVIRUS

Computer Virus A virus is a piece of programming code usually disguised as something else that causes some unexpected and usually undesirable event. A virus is often designed so that it is automatically spread to other computers. Viruses can be transmitted as attachments to and e-mail, as downloads, or be present ona diskette of CD. It must be remembered that a computer virus does not spread on its own, rather it requires some carrier to transport it from one place to another. Categories of Computer Viruses The three broad categories of viruses are as follows: File Infectors System Infectors Macro Viruses 1. File Infectors: Some file infector viruses attach themselves to program files while some can infect any program for which execution is requested. When the program is loaded, the virus is loaded as well. Other file infector viruses arrive as wholly-contained programs or scripts sent as an attachment to an e-mail note. 2. System infectors: These viruses infect executable code found in certain system areas on a disk. They attach to the DOS boot sector on diskettes or the Master Boot record on hard disks. A typical scenario is to receive a diskette from an innocent source that can be read without triggering the boot disk virus. However, if you leave the diskette in the drive, and then turn the computer off or reload the operating system, the computer will look first in youre A drive, find the diskette with its boot disk virus, load it, and make it temporarily impossible to use your hard disk. This is why you should make sure you have a bootable floppy. 3. Macro Viruses: These are among the most common viruses, and they tend to do the least damage. Macro viruses infect your Microsoft Word application and typically insert unwanted words or phrases. Symptoms of a Virus Some common symptoms for a virus are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. The computer begins to run slowly Unusual messages and graphics appear on your screen for inexplicable reasons Music, not associated with any of the current programs, begins to play Some of the program and/or data files have either been corrupted, or they have become difficult to locate.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Unknown files or sub-directories have been created. The sizes/dates of executable files change automatically. The computer does not remember CMOS settings. The disk volume label has been changed unexpectedly. The hardware devices begin to exhibit unusual behavior.

WORM: A worm, like a virus, is a program that is designed that is designed to harm the computer and destroy data stored on a computer. Worms are considered more harmful that viruses because they rely less on human behavior in order to spread themselves from one computer to another. TROJAN HORSES: A Trojan horse, or simply a Trojan, is a malicious program that is embedded inside a legitimate application. The application appears to be very useful, interesting and harmless to the user until it is executed. Trojans are different from other computer viruses in that they must be executed by the victim user who fails for the interesting software. Anti-Virus Software: Anti-virus software protects your computer from unexpected virus attack. Apart from protecting your system, anti-virus performs the following tasks: Detects the name of virus and its type. Detects the name of infected file or folder and mentions the exact location of infected file or folder on your computer and removes the virus from the computer. Most of the anti-virus softwares come with Alert feature. This feature keeps a vigil on your computer and as soon as some virus-like activity is found, the Alert feature displays a message box and alters the user. By changing the settings of anti-virus, you can instruct it to scan the computer on a regular basis.

The names of some popular anti-virus softwares are listed below: Norton Anti-Virus: This anti-virus software is most widely used and can easily be purchased from the market. Norton antivirus has direct patch up with software firm Symantec, which specially deals in anti-virus operations. McAfee Software giant Microsoft used this anti-virus software for its email website Hotmail. Whenever you open some email or download some file from hotmail, the McAfee anti-virus software automatically checks the files for viruses.

HOW TO INSTALL ANTIVIRUS

Heres what to do before installing your antivirus software: Back up your files: I dont mean copy them to another directory on the same hard drive that would be like making copies of important documents and putting them in the same drawer. Convenient until you have a fire. Instead, copy everything to another computer, or to a CD-ROM that you have verified is readable on another computer.

Reboot your system: Stop all of your other programs Open the Antivirus software CD in the OS Open the setup file (Executable file) Install your new anti-virus program. Follow the instructions carefully. If you become dazed and confused, stop the install, and get some help. After completing Installing restart your computer Open the Antivirus Application and update through Internet After completing update process Scan the all Hard Drives.

Virus Information:
This section provides a list of the latest viruses and their symptoms. You can use this section to prepare yourself for facing the latest virus threats. Virus name: W32.KazaA.Benjimin This new type of worm spreads via a computer network known as KaZaA. Whenever a contact is made with this type of worm, a message is displayed to the user which forces him to believe that this worm is a new game or utility to enhance the performance of computer. Virus name: W32.Klez.H W32.Klez.H is file type worm, which infects files by renaming them with a random extension and copying itself as the name of the original file. It is network aware and detects all open shares and copies itself to them with random filenames. Virus name: W32.Nimda W32.Nimda is a very highly infectious worm, which creates.EML and .NWS files in all folders that are accessed by the user. This is a network aware virus and creates the .EML and/or .NWS files in the shared folders of other computers as well. When any of these files are opened in Outlook, the virus automatically gets executed on computers without the outlook patch.

Virus name: W32.Sircam This is a network aware trojan. It installs itself as a hidden file in the RECYCLED folder with the name SIRC32.EXE.It changes the registry to execute the virus whenever any .EXE file is run. Virus name: CHM.Britney-Pics.Worm This is a worm that arrives in emails as a CHM (Compiled HTML) attachment. The subject of the mail is RE: Britney Pics. It spreads through e-mails by using addresses it collect from the Microsoft Outlook Address Book. How to avoid Virus? If we follow some simple safety measures, we can easily protect our computers from getting corrupted by viruses. For this keep the following tips in mind: First of all you must prepare yourself against viruses by knowing about their symptoms, behavior, general working and their common source of origin. On a regular basis collect information about the latest virus threats. You can find such information from websites like www.s-cop.com and www.symantec.com. Never download files from unfamiliar or doubtful websites. Do not open any suspicious or unfamiliar email. Simply delete it. Maintain a separate folder for downloading files from the Internet. Once the download is complete, scan the folder with anti-virus software. Once the scan is complete, move the file to some other location on your computer. Scan your computer thoroughly on a regular basis and never stop the scanning operation in the middle. Update your anti-virus software regularly from the Internet to empower it against new viruses. Always scan a floppy disk before using it because it may also contain viruses. Take regular back-ups of files so that a possible damage is minimized if a virus attack does occur. Create strong passwords so that virus could not guess the password and breach the security settings of your computer. Maintain a strict security level for browsing the Internet. Remove files having extension .TMP and .CHK regularly.

What is malicious code and software? Malicious codes are the software programs that generate threats to the computer system and precious data. This code can be in the form of viruses, worms, Trojan horses, Logic bombs, and other uninvited software. Viruses are a small segment of code, which replicates by attaching copies of itself to existing executables files. The new copy of the virus is executed when a user executes the new host program.

SCANNING HARD DISK FOR VIRUSES

To Open the Antivirus Software: Start Button- Mouse Cursor Place over the Programs Option- Select the Antivirus Software-Click it. The main window of Antivirus appears. Select the Scan drivers Option and click it. By default antivirus software selects all drives present on computer for scanning Select the which drive do you want to scan Next click the scan button Antivirus starts scanning selected drives for viruses After completing the scanning, antivirus display a Summary window. This window mentions how many files or folders scanned by antivirus, number of infected files detected by antivirus, files repaired and deleted by antivirus. After viewing the scan summary, click the finished button.