Materials and Design 24 (2003) 519529

Design, materials selection and marketing of successful products

Lennart Y. Ljungberga, Kevin L. Edwardsb,*
a

Department of Engineering Science, University of Skovde, SE-541 28, Skovde, Sweden b School of Engineering, University of Derby, Kedleston Road, Derby DE22 1GB, UK Received 10 January 2003; accepted 6 May 2003

Abstract There are many things that make products successful in the market place. This paper is a comprehensive tool for understanding how to develop products with special respect to integrated product development. Materials selection, marketing and design analysis in the form of a design manual are presented as a tool for the product developer. Many different methods for materials selection and design have been presented over the last couple of decades. However, most methods have been limited to the material as a physical entity to give shape for a product. The method presented in this paper is an approach to present a materials selection model that is an integral part in an integrated product development model, in which both physical and metaphysical properties are analysed for different types of products. The new integrated product materials selection (IPMS) model presented incorporates factors such as fashion, market trends, cultural aspects, aesthetics and recycling, as well as the target group. Interesting examples of successful product contra failures are presented, as well as examples of materials selection for different products. Different methods for materials selection are discussed and analysed with respect to the IPMS method presented. 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Product design; Materials selection; Marketing

1. Background There are many different ideas on how material selection for a product should be made. Many of these ideas only consider the creation of a functional product. However, a functional product is not enough for many consumers. For example, many consumers require more than a simple watch for showing the time. For a prestigious customer an advanced design in combination with an expensive material could be the solution. In fact, the accuracy can be of less importance for a prestigious watch buyer. The accuracy of a prestigious mechanical clockwork watch can be inferior to a more accurate electronic watch and cost much more. Physical and metaphysical aspects have almost been neglected by some designers. Such aspects related to design, materials selection and marketing of a product have been important factors for the successful development of products, as shown in this paper.
*Corresponding author. Tel.: q44 1332 591729; fax: q44 1332 597739. E-mail addresses: k.l.edwards@derby.ac.uk (K.L. Edwards), lennart.ljungberg@ite.his.se (L.Y. Ljungberg).

2. Recommendations for successful design and product development Development of a successful product is not usually an easy task. The place to start is with a definition of the problem: 2.1. The problem There have been estimations made which tell us that approximately 90% of all good technical products are not a success in the marketplace w1x. Note that a product itself can be technically advanced according to function, materials selection, etc., but for many reasons the product is a market failure. A product must be acceptable to people for a variety of reasons, some technical and some non-technical. People must understand the products physical advantages, accept them and learn to like them. They must also appreciate the metaphysical advantages of the product. This demands good understanding of the problem, and methods of ensuring more complete product knowledge are key to achieving the successful development of a product to solve the problem.

0261-3069/03/$ - see front matter 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0261-3069(03)00094-3

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2.2. Product development One reason for product development is to make a seldom-sold product into an article of consumption. Product development today is not only carried out for customer satisfaction, but also to make products that attract more customers w2,3x. The ordinary telephone is a good example of a seldom-sold product that was developed to an article of consumption during the 1960s. Today most families have more than one telephone and it is common to change telephones quite often, for example for a new design or new options. A central aim today is to give announcement and publicity for a product both for the seller and the buyer in a society dominated by information from mass media research and the Internet. A central task for a company today must be to estrange (alienate) from the traditional apprehension where a product is just material. From the human side a product is much more than material. For a customer a product also has values like (reputation) and our own interpretation of the product. The development of a product can be divided into two important areas, physical and metaphysical development: a. Physical development is the more materialistic and traditional way to develop a product. The product here is just a product with certain functions and aims. For example, the materials selection of such development typically aims for a technical fulfilment of the product, e.g. with a certain lifetime, service need and acceptable recyclability. b. All products have a certain degree of existence beyond the physical appearance, a metaphysical existence. The metaphysical value of a product is related to how our senses, including imagination, knowledge, experiences and preconceived ideas apprehend the product. To simplify it, it is how we feel about a certain product. Integrated product materials selection is a way to understand what a material means for a product. Classical materials selection involves systematic specification of the requirements. Selection charts are a popular theoretical way to select materials with mathematical calculations w4x. Such methods are interesting for the theoretical selection of material, but in most cases are less useful in practise because the metaphysical value of a certain product can never be simplified with mathematical formulas. Experienced designers and engineers know this fact, even if many of them do not think of it in the terms just mentioned. 2.3. Product image The image of a product is related to the history behind it. Trademarks and logotypes have a great influence on

a product. Advertising of a product must be based on scientific investigations, which here means the analytical psychology w5x. The main reason is to generate interest in the product so people will buy it. Thus, the ultimate goal of an advertisement is not to make nice pictures or good text, etc. An advertisement should give a mental picture with a certain profile for a product. Marketing itself is not enough; an image and a history must be generated for a product. With regard to materials selection, natural materials are popular for many products. A natural material such as wood or wool can give a certain degree of history to a product: This product is made from a tree grown in the Alps or This coat is produced from sheep wool from Scotland, etc. 2.4. Marketing Marketing is typically oriented towards customers, competitors, distribution, trademarks and attitudes w6x. Marketing itself is a way to bring a product to the ultimate user. In a society dominated by mass media and computers, all marketing must be carried out with respect to the customer. How does a potential customer look at a certain product? Product development some decades ago was more directly related to the production possibilities of a certain product. Today many successful products must be adjusted for the market and not for the cheapest production. Many car producers are aware of these ideas. A new car model must suit the market and not the cheapest production methods. There are at least three important possibilities for marketing w6x: a. When a product offers something that is lacking or missing; b. When a product is offered in a new or superior way; and c. When a new product is offered. It is important for marketing to identify customer groups with unsatisfied needs. An example of this is the development of the Chrysler Voyager motorcar some decades ago. The need for a car with space for more than five or six persons, including a lot of luggage space, created a new niche for cars. Today, many other car manufacturers have introduced their own models of the Chrysler Voyager concept. Another example from the materials point of view is the use of plastics for watchcases. Some decades ago people realised the advantages of watches made mostly of polymers. The price and weight were low and the potential designs were interesting and trendy. Today these watches have a remarkable niche, attracting younger and sportier customers.

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The material used for a certain product must be selected to fulfil the needs of the customer and not for the price itself or for cheap production methods, etc. 2.5. Market contact A company should avoid producing new products that exceed their technical and marketing competence w7x. It is too risky to enter a totally new field, which often leads to unsuccessful products. A typical factor behind unsuccessful products is poor contact with the market. For example, the time spent on identification, understanding and drawing conclusions on a new situation is often insufficient. Competition between companies is increasingly global; a typical risk is when this fact is neglected and market contact tends to be too national w1,6x. 2.6. New ideas A company must organise a system for collection and evaluation of ideas, or there is a risk that good ideas will expire before product development starts. Successful organisation can be achieved as follows w6x: a. Identify an experienced person responsible for new ideas; b. Regularly evaluate ideas using representatives of different groups, such as engineers, researchers, buyers, marketing staff, economists, etc.; c. Release a free-of-charge telephone line for consumers to contact the person responsible for ideas; d. Encourage people from the production company to send their ideas to the person responsible; and e. Create a model for official acknowledgement and reward persons with good ideas. Such a system will give a natural flow of good ideas instead of letting them expire. 2.7. Product life cycle

production was stopped for good. The price was comparable with that of a metal bicycle when sold on the market, but what were the benefits for a customer? The plastic bicycle has now become a curiosity, with the few remaining fetching quite high prices, with many thousands of pounds being paid by specialist collectors. However, one of the main reasons for the product failure was that the epoch for selling bicycles in Sweden during 1982 was declining when Itera was released on the market: all kinds of bicycles were sold in small amounts in 1982, and of course the Itera project suffered from this fact w9x. In cases such as Itera, it is also important to state that a company must be extra careful when choosing a materialsuch as plasticsthat is not known as a good and prestigious material for most customers. The material used (plastic) was also conspicuous, with a greyy brownish plastic appearance; perhaps a trendy paint colour could have extended the product life. The paint or surface finish is quite important for many products. 2.8. Life cycle assessment For an idea of the life cycle assessment (LCA), it is necessary to divide the whole life cycle of a product into parts, such as mining of metals, refinement, manufacturing, practical use of the finished product, recycling, etc. With such an analysis it is possible to determine which material is the cheapest in the long run and how the material and manufacturing affect the environment w10,11x. For example, in the X-2000 project (the Swedish high-speed train) it became clear that stainless steel was the cheapest material in the long run. Ordinary steel is much cheaper, but needs a lot of maintenance (rust removal, painting, rust prevention, etc.) which is quite expensive. Stainless steel is also easy to recycle when the life of a train is ended. 2.9. Environmental influences

Most products have a limited life and can be classified into different phases: introduction, growth, maturity and decline. Products should not be released when there is a risk of a decline in the market w8x. An example of this is the Itera project in Sweden. The Itera project was an attempt to manufacture bicycles from polymers. The Itera bicycle was released on the market in the spring of 1982. However, the strange design caused by the inferior Youngs modulus of the glass fibre-reinforced polymer did not convince the customers. In fact, the torsional rigidity was inferior to the traditional metal bicycle and the weight was rather high (approx. 16 kg). After a short time, the problem was obvious and many of these plastic bicycles were considered as junk and could never be sold. In 1985

The environmental aspects can be evaluated together with the above-mentioned LCA. In this way, the influence and damage to the natural environment w12x can be minimised. 2.10. Laws for manufacturing and selling of products Manufacture and release of products is typically restricted by different laws that must be followed. For example, motorcars sold in many European countries must be equipped with exhaust emission control and safety belts. In many countries freon gas is prohibited for use in refrigerators, etc.

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2.11. Ergonomics Different people have different body measurements that must be allowed for when producing products such as chairs, clothes, doors and so on. Measurements for 95% of the population can be obtained from standard ergonomic tables w13,14x. To be attractive for the market, a product must also feel good to use and have an appealing design. A functional camera, for instance, can have quite straight lines due to cheaper production methods, but does not always feel good in the hand. An attractive design with a camera body designed for the fingers and with controls that are easy to grip and influence is important for most customers when choosing a camera. Today, attractive designs with ergonomic functions are quite easy to achieve with plastics, whereas metals for example are more complicated to manufacture with reasonable costs. However, plastics do not give the quality feeling desired by many customers and therefore metals are still used in many cameras today, but with a typically higher cost and a more traditional design. A traditional design is in fact popular for many customers because the design varies with time and many trends come back again after a time. Today retro-design trends are evident for many products. 2.12. Safety The safety of products is in many cases controlled by the law, such as earthing for electrical products and welding regulations for pressure vessels. New safety equipment for a product cannot be patented, because it is of importance for all to have safe products. However, new safety equipment can greatly influence the marketing of a new product. In such cases, when new safety equipment is invented, it is important to release it on the market as quickly as possible and give it an attractive or catchy name. For example, some years ago Volvo constructed an impact system for side collisions. They gave it the acronym SIPS for side impact protection system. Some other motorcar manufacturers also had quite similar and effective systems on their cars, but they neglected to give it a name. SIPS became well known by a lot of safety-conscious customers and a topic of conversation, and for many customers a reason for buying a Volvo car. 2.13. What is the ultimate choice mechanism for buying a certain product? We can categorise products into categories to make it simpler: a. Hidden components, i.e. components within a system; b. Semi-hidden components, i.e. components covered by e.g. a door or a hood in a motorcar; and

c. Uncovered components, i.e. the complex product itself, or the surface of a complex product that is assembled of many separate components. An example of a hidden component is a cogwheel in a combustion engine or a single lens in binoculars. Such components are typically made of materials selected for their physical properties. In these cases, the physical properties that can be quantified, such as a specific Youngs modulus or a certain refractive index, etc., dominate over the metaphysical properties. Here, traditional materials selection methods can be successfully used in most cases. However, there are exceptions. A combustion engine in a motorcar is for many customers a hidden component in a system (the motorcar itself). However, for many technically interested car buyers the engine is of significant interest. Today it is common to have the engine (cylinder) block made of aluminium. The popularity of aluminium is mainly due to its low density and good reputation as a construction material. In fact, a block made of cast iron can be thinner than an aluminium one because of the higher Youngs modulus of cast iron. This leads to quite minor differences in weight for cast iron compared to aluminium engines. However, aluminium in combustion engines today gives an impression of high technology to many customers. The engine is here referred to as a semi-hidden component because it can normally only be seen when the bonnet is opened. This is an example of how metaphysical properties can be of importance for a semi-hidden component. A typical example of an uncovered component is a chair or a writing pen. For such products, both the physical and the metaphysical properties are important. A chair can be made of many different materials, such as wood, metal, textile, polymers, etc., and a pen can be made of wood, metal, polymers, etc. In these cases the materials and the design used are very important because the materials also dictate the appearance of the surface of the products. When we see a chair or a pen, we can usually immediately determine the materials the products are made of. As previously mentioned, in the engine case the bonnet must be opened to see the engine. The metaphysical properties become somewhat inferior here. This may be the opposite in the case of a motorbike, for which many of the mechanical components are visible. In the cogwheel case, a customer never sees the cogwheel unless the engine is disassembled or repaired. In the latter case the metaphysical properties are often quite insignificant. However, there are exceptions. In the case of a motorcar, for example, hidden components made of low-quality materials will eventually be discovered by customers. The reputation (obtained from service records) of the manufacturer will rapidly become a problem and is difficult to regain. Thus, the metaphysical

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Fig. 1. The direct relationships between metaphysical and physical properties for different components.

aspects for a hidden component are as important as the physical aspects. Thus, there is a balance for every product between the physical and metaphysical properties. This balance can never be formulated by a simple mathematical calculation; it is something that must estimated by qualified and experienced product developers. The direct relations between physical and metaphysical properties vs. different components are shown in Fig. 1. However, as mentioned above, these relations can change over time. Note that every specific product has a certain balance between physical and metaphysical values. This balance differs from customer to customer, even for the same product. The flow of information for a product is always of importance. A lot of information is good for an advanced customer evaluating different products. However, for many customers a lot of technical information is just a great problem. Many people do not have the time, interest or knowledge to compare technical information between different products. Our experience determines what we see in a certain product. This leads to a specific communication between a product and every human being. Every product will then have an immaterial contentwhat we know about it and what we feel for it w2x. How is the choice between products typically made in practise by a customer with too much technical information? Such customers typically chose products from well-known companies and often products made in their own countries: freezers from Electrolux, cars from Volvo, computers from Dell and so on. However, many products from well-known companies are not even produced in the traditional country related to the specific company. Many products are produced from components made all over the world, but many customers are not aware of that, they just consider the brand name. For these customers, the trust in a brand name is more or less enough. In many cases it is not good to inform the customers of where a product is made. It can lead to unwanted associations. For example, Swedish-produced Volvo cars are not advertised as a Swedish product in the USA. It

is then probably better to focus on other aspects in the advertisement and to let people think that most Volvo cars are produced in the USA. 2.14. Price and refinement The traditional way to increase demand for a product is to advertise. Today a product typically receives a higher value through advertisement. A careful balance needs to be attained between the cost of advertising, which can be significant, and the expected sales margins on products sold. The price for a product gives interesting information to a customer. It can give an indication of quality and even of the prestige of a product. The value of a product can in fact be related to metaphysical product development, leading to highly perceived quality w2x. Seiko deliberately do not sell cheap watches and as a consequence have a reputation for high quality. An investment in good-quality material, which gives an attractive outer impression, and in good design can lead to a metaphysical product development at a moderate price. Successful materials choice combined with a good design can definitely lead to increased customer demand and make it possible to raise the product price, even if the production cost for the product does not increase much. Another way to give products a higher value is to certify the production, such as according to the ISO 9000 quality assurance series of standards. In fact, such certification does not assure anything specific about the quality of the products made in a certain company. It only guarantees that the production apparatus fulfils a certain specified standard. However, the manufacturing company can show this certification mark in advertisements and brochures, giving the impression that its products have a higher quality. The market value for a product can be expressed according to the criteria in Fig. 2. The market value for a product is the sum of the price for the physical product and the meta-product (Fig. 2). The refinement value can be drastically increased by investments in design, advertisement and materials selection. The value of the meta-product is typically

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Fig. 2. The breakdown of market value for a product w2x.

easiest to increase for uncovered components, as mentioned in the text above. 2.15. Case studies A simple and useful definition of a successful product is a product that has been accepted by the target group andyor is in demand. The British Scientific Activity Predictor from Patterns with Heuristic Origins project was one of the first projects in which successful and unsuccessful products were compared pairwise w15,16x. From more than 100 factors investigated, over 40 were found that separated successful products from unsuccessful ones. Five factors of particular importance for a successful project could be pointed out, as follows: a. Close contact and relationships with the customers help to meet their needs. b. A successful project is characterised by effective marketing, including advertisement of the product. c. Innovators who develop successful products tend to carry out their development work more carefully, but not necessarily more rapidly. This means that they have time to eliminate different faults with the help of a development group before introduction of the product to the market. d. Successful innovators gather technology and information from outside sources and are interested in technical solutions. e. Responsible persons in successful projects are often older and more experienced than their unsuccessful competitors. 2.16. Cultural aspects In order to be successful with a product in a certain market, it is important to know the cultural aspects the metaphysical product w1x. The material itself can have a certain metaphysical value. For example, villas made of wood are quite popular in Scandinavia, but in Middle Europe such houses are often met with scepticism. Many wooden villa producers in Scandinavia have tried to export houses to Germany, for instance. How-

ever, this is a tough market, since the German people normally think that wooden houses are inferior and simpler than houses built of stone or concrete. However, in Mediterranean countries, wood is quite rare and therefore an expensive material, and is viewed more as a luxury material. In Scandinavian countries wood is very common and a house built of stone is typically more expensive and therefore more prestigious. Supply and demand are clearly determining factors for the metaphysical value, as well as the actual cost of the material. In a country such as Turkey, kitchen worktops and sinks have traditionally been made of stone (e.g. marble), while in Sweden stainless steel has traditionally been used. This is just another example of culturerelated materials selection. The design is also an example of a culture-related value. For example, stereo equipment made in Japan has for a long time been equipped with many knobs, lamps and functional parts visible on the outside. This is a way of giving an impression of quality to the product. For many Asian customers it is a way to indicate that the equipment is advanced and has many functions inside. Bang & Olufsen (B&O) in Denmark has used another idea to give high metaphysical value to their products. Advanced design and materials with a high finish for the uncovered components (as mentioned previously) and a unique look with a clean surface, with only a few controls and instruments, is a way to give an impression of a prestigious product. Some decades ago many customers were somewhat unsure of the performance of B&O products, but most customers have now realised that the electronics in the products are also of excellent quality. Today B&O products are identified as prestigious, expressed to the customers by a unique design and the use of valued materials such as aluminium, which gives a cold and somewhat Nordic feel to the products. In fact, few Japanese customers buy B&O equipment. For customers who want an outstanding product that looks and sounds different to the traditional Japanese equipment, B&O products are a good alternative.

L.Y. Ljungberg, K.L. Edwards / Materials and Design 24 (2003) 519529 Table 1 Examples of trademarks or materials for the different target groups Product example Wrist watches Group P Prestigious Rolex Breitling Cartier Rolls Royce Ferrari B&O Kahrs Gucci Boss Cross Schaeffer Hasselblad Leica Polished granite Diamond Gold (18 carat) Platinum Leather-predominant Gore Tex Group M Moderately priced Seiko Citizen Volkswagen Peugeot Sanyo IKEA Melka Ballograf Parker Minolta Canon Hardwood, e.g. oak Zirconia Gold (9 carat) Synthetic combinations Simple leather

525

Group F Functional and cheap Casio Q&Q Timex Fiat Hyundai Mark Daewoo Various imports H&M BIC Halina Kodak Stainless steel Polished stone Silver Nylon Rubber-predominant

Cars Televisions Floors Clothes Pens Cameras Kitchen worktops Jewellery

Shoes

It should always be remembered that a product popular in Greece, for example, is not always popular in Canada and vice versa. Experienced product developers with international contacts are a prerequisite for the release of quality products sold throughout the world. A simple example is to have products with options for different markets. Air conditioning and automatic gearboxes are not as important for motorcars sold in Iceland, while for cars sold in Texas they are almost prerequisites. Another example is the use of materials for different markets. For example, a used Mercedes-Benz motorcar bought in Sweden and exported to Mexico can experience problems with the plastic parts in the Mexican sun (cracks, colour changes, etc.), while a used Volvo normally does not suffer from these problems. Volvo has had a tradition of using the same materials for different markets, while Mercedes cars have typically been more optimised for certain markets. 2.17. Customer support During new product development (NPD) it is of importance to make a comprehensive evaluation of the customer support requirements w17,18x. Good customer service before, during and after the sales transaction gives a quality reputation, which must not be neglected. Important key elements of customer support are w19x: 1. Installation: this is especially important for complex products and where safety aspects are involved. 2. User training: the Efficient use of many complex products demands training programs. 3. Documentation: good documentation helps to save time and reduce support costs.

4. Maintenance and repair: quick and good service typically minimises the costs of downtime. 5. On-line support: telephone support is essential for quick consultation. 6. Warranty: this is a way to reduce the financial risks of owning products. 7. Upgrades: the lifetime of a product can be increased by upgrades of parts, computer programmes, etc. 2.18. Target group The definition of a target group for a product must be clarified from the beginning of the development of a certain product. As mentioned earlier, trying to avoid product development that does not fit into the business concept of the company can be detrimental to the success of that product. Different companies or trademarks are more or less directly connected to a certain market group. As an example, three important market groups are pointed out as follows: a. The market for prestigious products (P); b. The market for moderately priced products (M); and c. The market for functional and cheap products (F). Examples of these groups are given in Table 1. Some companies span two groups, but rarely span all three groups. A brand name is usually connected to a certain degree of quality, and therefore some companies release products under different names. For example Toyota produce moderately priced (M group) motorcars under the name Toyota, while for their prestigious motorcars (P group) the name Lexus is used. This is a way of maintaining a certain image for a brand name.

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If we look at the groups individually we can discover some common types of materials for each group. a. Typical materials for Group P: Pure materials (or carefully improved with additives); Metals used are typically rare and expensive; Plastics are typically avoided or only used in very specific parts, generally with expensive additives such as carbon fibres for reinforcement; Ceramics are typically pure and dense; Natural materials are always popular (wood, stone, cotton, silk, wool, etc.); No fake materials; Cheap materials, such as cotton or wood, are typically carefully refined, selected and enhanced. b. Typical materials for Group F: Fake materials (laminates, veneers, plated surfaces, etc.); All kinds of synthetics and plastics are typical; Natural materials are popular, but in cheap forms; Cheap metals with or without an inexpensive surface treatment; Refining, selection, ennobling etc. are only performed to a minimum. c. Typical materials for group M are materials as close to the materials for Group P as possible, but with moderate prices and refinement. When choosing material it is very important to look out for trends, fashion and consumer demands, as mentioned earlier. It is recommended that an opinion poll is taken and that the products of competing companies are monitored. An alternative to follow the trends is to be trendbreaking. This means choosing a new material for a certain product. This can lead to a successful product, but there is always a great risk of a failure. Examples of trend-breaking materials selection are: Itera: the bicycle made of plastics (mentioned earlier) became a product failure. Dunlop: the outer surface of tyres for bicycles, wagons, etc., was typically made of wood and steel during the 19th century. The pneumatic tyre was in fact patented in 1845, but the breakthrough only occurred when the Dunlop company started to use rubber for making tyres in 1888. This trend-breaking materials selection for tyres is dominant even today more than 100 years after the invention. Itera is today an almost forgotten name, while Dunlop is a company name that is well known to most people. These results occurred because of a trend-breaking material in a certain application. If a doubtful material is usedsuch as plastics in the Itera bicycle caseit must be remembered that the

product must be superior to earlier products, e.g. lighter, stiffer or cheaper. When choosing the target group there are some important things to be stated: Firstly, the groups can be further divided. For example, group P can be divided into a status symbol group and a connoisseur group. The status symbol group includes only the most attractive and expensive products and materials, which will bring status to the owner, while the connoisseur products must have special and certain quality demands to satisfy the buyers. The functionality is more important here. Secondly, do not mix companies to produce products for different target groups. A company for production of prestigious products needs to have staff with a high quality focus, while staff producing functional and cheap items will have a different emphasis. The aims of these two companies are different; with mixed staff, production could be confusing. This is because for one product the measurements and product controls are very important and for the other, the tolerances are not as important. Thirdly, a company producing products for different target groups must keep some sort of a wall between the products andyor names. For example, the VAG company in Germany produces prestigious cars down to cheap cars with different names, such as Pheaton, Audi, Volkswagen, Skoda and Seat. Each name is associated with a certain target group with individual needs. In this case all the brands are separated from each other more or less when sold. This means that new cars such as Audi and Skoda are not be sold by the same business. The target groups are distinctively different for these two products. In many cases the target group is already defined from the beginning. For example, when a new product is being adapted from an already existing product, the existing product normally defines the target group. This is the case when for example a camera producer develops a new lens for an already existing camera body. An exception to this is e.g. when a company wants to produce a cheap accessory for motorcars such as a sunblind, which in fact can be used in both prestigious and cheap motorcars. How is market analysis developed for products? a. Use qualified personnel to conduct the market research. If necessary, use a professional market research establishment. It is, for example, of great importance that the right target groups are questioned, otherwise the market research can be almost total meaningless. b. If possible, check the market reactions by showing a prototype, but be aware that possible patents and protection of designs should be in place, otherwise

L.Y. Ljungberg, K.L. Edwards / Materials and Design 24 (2003) 519529 Table 2 Design manual for integrated product materials selection 1 Product idea, market demand or legal requirement Definition of target group for the product Market research and pre-design

527

Specification of requirements

Property profile of possible materials Manufacturing method Final selection of materials, manufacturing methods and design Product release Market reactions and feedback during use

6 7

Consider the idea in terms of: market contacts; former case studies; customer selection mechanisms; identification of the main functions to achieve Group P: prestigious products with ultimate quality Group M: moderately priced products Group F: functional products for the low-price market Evaluateystudy the following parameters: physicalymetaphysical balance; ergonomics; product image; legal implications; product life cycle (LCA); environmental influence; recyclability or final disposal; safety; degree of uncoveredyhidden components; cultural aspects; total product cost, price and refinement; customer support; preparation of a prototype or model if possible to check market reactions Define the physical and chemical requirements for the product; determine the limits (max.min. levels) the product must fall within: e.g. temperature; density; UV radiation; price; pH value; Youngs modulus; density; lifespan Select some possible materials and check if they fulfil the requirements; if no material is found, try to change the requirements (e.g. design, expected lifespan) Plan and evaluate possible manufacturing methods for the material(s) that fulfils the requirements above Selection of material is dependent on manufacturing methods and ultimate design and must be simultaneously evaluated; return to step 3 if a parameter changes before production starts One of the most important steps in the product development, but not the last Collect customer reactions and reactions from workshops and service centres, etc.; early reactions and production changes are of vital importance so that possible problems can be solved; if many inferior products have been released on the market, it can be very expensive to guarantee products already sold and can lead to a poor reputation Close market contact is one important factor for the development of a successor to the product released; in an early phase it is normally enough to redesign the present product if necessary; for design of a new product or even minor redesign of a present product, it is advisable to start from step 1 again

8 9

10

Strategy for possible redesign of or successors to the product

there is a small risk that a competitor could steal important ideas. 3. An integrated product materials selection model A new integrated product materials selection (IPMS) model is represented here as a simple step schedule or framework for the designer to follow, i.e. a design manual for IPMS, as shown in Table 2 below and exemplified later. Table 2 is initially used to obtain an overview of the idea during its estimated lifespan. For example, start with the product idea and carry out a quick overview from step 1 to 10. Then let the idea be influenced by each step and, if it still seems to be of interest and worthy of development, continue to the next step, subjecting the idea to careful and appropriate analysis. In a modern, integrated product development process, the materials selection must be integrated into the

development model. Physical product development must be carried out together with the metaphysical product development (as previously mentioned). It must be remembered that the foundation for a physical product (essentially mechanical) is the material itself. This means that the integrated product design is based on a systematic materials selection methodology w4,20,21x. Here the method for selecting materials is the integrated product materials selection model. The product idea is the start of the development of a new product (step 1). The ideas can be quite different, as illustrated by the following examples: A new material to replace an existing material; A new component or sub-assembly to improve an already existing product; or A new product for a specific market. The next stage is to scan the overall design manual in Table 2 to identify potential problems, or to refine

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the idea before continuing with steps 210. It is important to allow time to reflect at this stage, seeking advice from others where necessary. Typically, as a member of a design team in a manufacturing company, it will be normal to perform this process co-operatively. The IPMS model is an ideal framework for concurrent engineering environments. Attention should also be paid to protecting the intellectual property (e.g. registering patents) of any new ideas. This will allow free access to suppliers and sub-contractors, although ultimate protection of a new idea is not assured. The IPMS model typically starts with step 1, with an idea of a new product, market demand or a legal requirement. Through steps 26, much work must then be carried out before the final material can be evaluated, together with the manufacturing methods and final design, which is represented in step 7. Even after the product is released (step 8), it is of vital importance to have close contact with the market in order to maintain market position for the product and, if possible, increase the market demand (steps 9 and 10). 4. Discussion This paper was mainly written to show the complexity of developing a new product according to the theories of the integrated product development concept as a basis for successful product release. However, the new theories presented have led to a broader perspective on product development. In this paper it has been shown how non-physical factors, such as ideas, product images, cultural aspects, case studies, etc., can be combined with the physical factors, such as materials selection and manufacturing processes. Furthermore, the analyses made at the beginning of the product development process are the basis for making a successful product. With this new IPMS model, it has been shown how these early analyses lead to the final synthesis, in which design, materials and manufacturing processes are combined. The IPMS model is not always rational, like traditional materials selection processes. For example, ceramics and plastics are normally the best materials for a kitchen floor with regard to lifespan and ease of cleaning. However, a parquet floor made of wood is very popular in some cultures. This floor is rather sensitive to water damage and is quite easily scratched, but it is still popular in many homes. The metaphysical aspects (e.g. to have a natural material with some sort of history) are the determining factors over the strictly rational ones. It takes time and experience to understand and accept the balance between the physical and the metaphysical demands of different customers and cultures. Future product developers (whether they have a background in engineering, industrial design, marketing, etc.) must be more aware of the integrated development process for a

product and the customer-related contacts in order to be successful. Sometimes it can be of interest to think in different ways and to browse unconventional materials or designs for a certain product. It is possible to make everyday products from unusual materials, such as a mobile telephone of wood, a computer mouse of metal, a calculator of stone, etc. In the 1990s the rock watch by Tissot with the watchcase made of stone was popular. But is it what the market wants? Do not be afraid of new ideas, but confirm the ideas with the potential customer first. It must be remembered that the quality of a product is related to the customers experiences and personal tastes, and not the opinion of the engineer, designer, or someone else in the manufacturing company. If a product already exists, then this has an important effect on the decision by the customer to purchase a new version of the product. In this situation, which is quite normal, marketing people tend to give an impression that the older product is somewhat inferior to its replacement. This is typical of mass-produced consumer products, such as motorcars, with new models promoted as better than the older models. When the new model is radically different to the old model, it is often found that the older model is generally more reliable than the new model. This is because the older model is at the end of its development cycle and all the problems have been sorted out. The new model is at the beginning of its development cycle and it takes time to sort out any problems. This effect is less of a problem than it was a decade or so ago with advances in materials and manufacturing technology for components, build quality on assembly, and sophisticated design analysis and modelling techniques. 5. Conclusions The IPMS model is a modern method for increasing the likelihood of successful product development. The model, accessible as a straightforward manual, is in a format that is simple and lucid and can be used for almost all types of physical product, ranging from simple single-component products such as a spanner to more complex products, such as a motorcar comprising of thousands of components. However, for a complex product it is necessary to use the IPMS model for both the individual components and the whole product. In the case of the motorcar, the components making up the sub-assemblies, such as the dashboard, seats, lights, engine, transmission, suspension, etc., all have to be analysed separately and concurrently with their subassemblies and with the whole motorcar using the IPMS model. The modelling process can therefore become quite unwieldy in manual form if complex products are analysed in fine detail. However, the underlying princi-

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ples are still valid, and significant improvements in product development effectiveness can be achieved by disciplining the design process using the framework provided by the model. 6. Future developments Revisions of the IPMS model are expected as a result of experiences in using the model on practical product development projects, and in order to keep up with recent developments in market analysis techniques, life cycle assessments, product image, new technologies, etc. There is also demand for more specialist IPMS models for specific product types, markets, material classes, etc., but based on the generic principles of the original IPMS model. The concept of a high-level generic methodology with a set of underlying specific modules is envisaged. It is important, however, that the underlying philosophy remains constant throughout different versions of the model, ensuring continuity in future developments and in use. The authors believe that the model should be sufficiently broad in its principles, i.e. not too prescriptive, allowing individuals and companies to tailor its use according to their own needs and normal practices. A computerised program based on the IPMS model is a likely outcome for more rapid analysis andyor for analysing complex products. In computerised form, parameterisation of the handbook stages will facilitate rapid comparison of alternatives and execution of what-if scenarios, making it easier to chose the best material, manufacturing process or physicalymetaphysical balance. There are a variety of design support tools available to the product designer; some are manual, some are computerised and some are available in both forms. Interestingly, even when available in computerised form, many designers still prefer to use the manual tool in preference to the computerised tool. It is anticipated that this will be the case for IPMS, which is essentially a framework to support the use of other tools and procedures. Furthermore, the market is not rational and trends cannot be totally predictable. This important aspect of IPMS is therefore difficult to embody in computer code and is probably best incorporated through conventional means. However, the idea of making progress in the direction of simpler methods for choosing optimum materials and manufacturing processes, in conjunction

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