Professional Documents
Culture Documents
UNIVERSITY LIBRARY
LA728.P33
The German
W5
1895
universities:
The
original of this
book
is in
restrictions in
text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924030562940
.m^
DEVELOPMENT
BY
FEIEDRICH PAULSEN
Profkbbor of Philosophy amd Pedagogy in the TJniveesity of Berlin
AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION BY
New York
WITB AN INTRODUCTION BY
WeiD gorfe
MACMILLAN AND
AND LONDON
1895
All rights reserved
CO.
COPYfilGHT, 1894,
By MACMILLAN
AND
CO.
Nottoootr
J. S.
^S0
8c
Berwick
Smith.
Norwood, Masg.,
TJ.S.A.
CONTENTS
Translator's Preface
INTRODUCTION
The Relation of the German Universities to the Problems op Higher Education in the United States. By Nicholas Murray Butler
.
ix
CHAPTER
I
1
CHAPTER
German Universities
i.
.
II
16-88
Universities Method of Organization Attendance Control of Students Teachers Course of Instruction Subjects and Methods of In^
struction.
ii.
in
Modern
The
the
Established
Century
VI
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
The German Univeksities
III
in their Relations to THE State, to the Church, and to the Com89-125 munity
to
the Church
to
the
Community.
CHAPTER rv
Teachers and Teaching
ing
in
the TJniversitt
126-173
174-223
Age of the Students Vacations Mode of Life Expenses Change from One University to Another Societies and Clubs Pursuit of Study Lernfreiheit Fafor Study and the Use Made of Them Examinations.
cilities
CHAPTER VI
The Unity of the University
....
.
224-238
APPENDICES
I.
239
241
II.
Bibliography
Statistics of
III.
German
Universities, 1894
248
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE
Professor Paulsen's admirable outline of the history and character of the German Universities, forms, in the original, the introductory part of the work published
under the direction of the Imperial German Government as an accompaniment to its educational exhibit at the Columbian Exhibition at Chicago in 1893. The full
title
of that
:
wort
die
is
as follows
taten
Fur
Universitdtsausstellung in Chicago
1893
ben von
W.
Lexis.
is
The
excellence
of the account
Professor Paulsen has quite recently treated some of the questions here
more
detail, in
an
article entitled
Die
und ah Werkstdtte
September, 1894.
German
may be but
slight.
My hearty thanks are due to Professor Paulsen for his ready consent to the appearance of his work in English
to Professor Nicholas
cooperar
than for the Introduction which he has so kindly contributed to Professor Brander Matthews, whose great taste and valuable criticism were most generously put at my disposal and to Messrs. Macmillan
tion
and
advice,
no
less
and Co. for their careful publication and the dress in which the little book appears.
attractive
E. D. P.
New
York, January,
1895.
INTRODUCTION
THE EBLATIOK OF THE GEKMAN UNIVERSITIES TO THE PKOBLEMS OP HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES
Nowhere,
countries
versities
themselves, have
German
uni-
been
so
Just
its
the
historic
American college
traces
and
new American
uni-
influence
tradi-
tions of Heidelberg
of Leipsiq
and Berlin.
The
college
distinction
which
be-
the
understanding
to
INTRODUCTION
American people
;
for
and
and
universities,
schools,
it
the
expert to disentangle
we
cut
by allowing every
institu-
education to classify
it
assumes,
then
there
in
are
than
134
universities
are
of in
the
United
Of
these, 7
Illinois
(although
is
the
new
in
University
Chicago
not
included
in
Kan-
14
are
in
Ohio,
the
are
in
Tennessee
(of
which
total
city of
Nashville alone,
and 4 are
this
in the city of
New
is
Orleans.
When
surprising
number
German Empire,
evident, withis
some
1398-1413
INTRODUCTION
tries,
xi
is
and that
to
be a university in fact
to be a university in
name.
Only
so distinguished an authority as
now
said
:
attached to the
^
University of
Chicago,
is
" There
in the
United States
as yet not a
word by Europeans.
tutions bearing this
of
insti-
name
compounds
college
and
university the
still
university, as
an aftergrowth, figuring
as a
to
some extent
col-
lege
or
or, finally,
An
instij
work
all
the four
connected to a Universitas
Inasmuch
as there
is
no common agreement
among Europeans
versity " means
1
as to as
may
Educational Beview,
113
; :
xii
INTRODUCTION
and
definition
of
interpretation.
With
upon
as technically correct;
false
rests
two
assumptions
of the
German
United
and that
until
this
development takes
is
to
as
be
a
with
the
German gymnasium
Into
these
secondary
those
school.
of
two blunders
or-
observers
American educational
the
ganization
who occupy
of
exclusively Gerfall
;
man
point
view habitually
and
in
higher education
in
who
force
share
that
Professor
von
Hoist's errors,
to
German
precedent.
INTEODUCTION
xiii
The
American
university
its
may, or
rather
German
prede-
should be expected
indeed,
to
it.
in
order
r
university must
represent
the national
life
and minister
When
)
life
and
institutions
of the people,
and
fail to
those
who would
of
readjust
of influence are of
numbered.
The same
is
true
any system
educational
organization.
For
no other, an edu-
man
with
indeed,
undisputed excellences,
it
would
not meet our needs so well as the yet unsystematic, but remarkably effective, organization
that
circumstances
have
brought
into
is
existence.
in
the
United
States,
its
if
he persists in
technical
German
sig-
But using
the
word
in a broader,
xiv
INTRODUCTION
the
sense that,
it
or however
ancient, nor
any
and
re-
of libraries,
museums,
edge
is
in
day,
this
one
six
or eight
American
half as
and
many more
in the process of
making.
To confuse the American college with the German gymnasium is inexcusable. Neither
a large
like
college
like
one
Williams or
The
American
tantum sui
school,
college
similis
is,
the
French
nor the
German
INTRODUCTION
gymnasium,
dent-life
is
XV
Its
its
counterpart.
of
;
free
stu-j
i1
studies liken
in
some degree
to a university
work
of its instruc-''
it
has in view,
mark
The
it;
off as
col-|
demands
American
life
and
to be a powerful force
in
American
is
civilization
and
culture.
Its use-
fulness
lessened
different
now
aim and a
As
Bowdoin
:
" For
combining
for
sound
making
free;
men both
intellectually
and
spiritually
with reverence
development
and
sufficiently elastic to
1
encourage individual-
xvi
INTEODUOTION
taught by professors
scholars
who
are
men
first
and
afterwards,
se-
and
to
the
college
population.
Of
in
some sections
less.
of the
country the
was much
In Massachusetts, for
student
for
in Utah, one
These
sta-
p.
827
2
The
was
4.93
INTRODUCTION
tistics,
xvii
territory of the
ogeneousness of
are ample proof,
population of 70,000,000,
proof were needed, that
the college
is
can
life,
and that
colleges, perhaps
no
of study
same
equipment;
but
the
common
known.
them
are well
The ancient classics, mathematics, the English language and literature, the modern European
languages, the natural sciences, economics and
philosophy; are doubtless represented to
some
yet every
'
their
arrangement.
it is
that wherever
on
the
of
Atlantic seaboard,
the
in
some
inland
town
West
is
college
lectual
a force
making
life
of
citizenship.
]
xviii
INTRODUCTION
members
The
it
when
contrasted
gymnasium makes
foundation.
university
to
the
in
preparation
if
knowledge and
forces
training.
But work
the healthy
recently set at
in
the field of
their
the
efficiency of
the uni-
and
its
power
for
good
will
be
dis-
tinctly increased
rather than
diminished
by
its
all cast in a
common mould.
The
and
election of studies
and
the
i
scope
of
their
application
widens year
by year.
The American
college graduate
is
who
thus enabled to
enter upon
it
man, with
tastes formed,
INTRODUCTION
oped, ready to
xix
exists.
He
is
much more
is
distinctly supe-
to
the German.
line
In Germany a clear-cut
the
dividing
between
is
gymnasium and
in
the university
carefully
spirit,
preserved
method, in
and
between them.
The
contrast between
many
force,
a university
much
precious time
and
in
adjusting
new
surroundings.
In
same corporation,
kins, Columbia,
as at
the
Even when,
as is generally
as a thing apart,
XX
the later
so
INTRODUCTION
years
of
its
course
of
study are
make
the
transition
from
college
to
university
is
easy
and natural.
This practice
sound in psy-
chology, sound in
economics,
and sound
in
common
sense.
amply
is
demonstrated
by the
fact
that
there
no
American university
that
not in
is
the a
closest
relation
to
a college
which
member
of
of the
same corporation.
and university"
The
are
institutions
"compounds
of
pounds
gymnasium and
American educational
organization and
its
peculiar strength.
uniwill
versity
But though the foundation on which work in America rests, differs and
many by
the same
indeed,
its
organization
has been
in
effected largely
'
INTRODUCTION
the
xxi
toj
German
universities,
form of the
scientific
activity
lished
and
own
American
universities
although
is
it
as fully lived
up
to as
ought to
be.
man
it
closely
At
present
complaint
is
is
made
other,
man
sidered
merely as
teaching
institutions,
the
in
American
'
universities surpass
the
German
2 '
in educational
Review, VII
xxii
efficiency.
INTRODUCTION
The
is
ing, at the
universities
American university
for
many
years
engaged
ing,
off
in the
quite as
much
to
tendency.
of
university teachers,
tion of
whom
not yet
lens,
electrode,
possible,
of
overlook
good teaching
universities,
spirit
and
also to
vital
of
teaching,"
The
INTRODUCTION
exaggerate the influence of
xxiii
research in pro-
in the
United States.
Our
wisest university
who
The main
in
America
science for
its
own
ple,
sake, as
is
technical
sities,
and
and even
Indeed, in this
integrity
of
lies
the
chief
uni-
danger
versity
to
the
American
far
development.
University
Thus
has
the
Johns
in-
Hopkins
escaped
these
fluences entirely,
check.
But
at
some other
menacing.
1
institutions
The danger
allowing
p. 8
xxiv
the
INTRODUCTION
claim that closely specialized work in a
to be regarded as legitimate
uni-
work and
university recognition
and rewards.
do this
It
need
the
tendency
in
to
is
under
full
its
headway
with
the
essential narrowness
its
success in
The
general
public
attribute
unmerited
scientific
be-
Both
and
of science
an end in
to
The
difficulty
if
removed,
cine, technology,
INTRODUCTION
true university basis by insisting
XXV
upon a
liberal
'|/
them.
about a
condition
and would
raise the
American
universities to a
For,
no professional schools
America
of
university rank.
The
their
others,
without
exception,
admit
to
courses
;
training,
or
'
When
such a state
legitimate
source
of
no
matter
of students they
may
the
attract.
greater
influence
for
evil,
for
brought down to
intelligences
of
the
level
of
the
least-trained
among
and in
the
this
is
heterogeneous body
students,
way
the
university
lowered.
xxvi
I
INTRODUCTION
this
So far as
must be confessed
its
existence
is
of
college course.
By
refusing to mathematical
and
scientific
by the
side of
I
of science
in
many
cases
I
on the
basis
I
with
ment
of
or technical
on the college
way
that
and
to the college,
and greatly
to the
education.
The time
if
when
is
this
past; but
is
generally to raise
schools
of
law and
'qualifications of lawyers
and physicians.
How
INTRODUCTION
long
this> indifference will
xxvU
continue unmoved,
there are no
means
of determining. to insist
Here and
making
upon some
of law
schools
and medicine.
But
open
to
any one,^
This arrangement
some-'
many men
or
physicians,
education whatever.
is
true, but
So far
as law, at least, is
may be found
offers the
tics;
is
easiest to
mode
in
and
engage
many young
rest
satis,
it
stamp upon
xxviii
INTRODUCTION
in law,
no graduates
who
shall
men.
When
one
of
others
will
as
remain.
as
it
necessary in
to be in Ger-
America
Paulsen describes
of the university
This faculty
is
at
of
university and
it
its
true
Stand-
ing alone
may
But
to
make
subordinate or to keep
it
weak and
life-blood.
means,
I,
is
to
sap
the
university's
The
when
un-
'
Through
is
kept in sympa-
thy with
supports
the
rest.
When
dissevered,
its
parts tend to
INTRODUCTION
ficed.
xxix
No
Du
Bois-Rey-
mond,
the
physiologist,
and
Hofmann, the
words of
Du
Bois-Reymond
"
The
philosophi-
between
the remaining
action
of
faculties.
The
reciprocal
of
the
different
branches
human
philo-
would naturally be
lost
with
division,
utes very
vidual,
much
indi-
and
to preserve in
him a
right judgment
The
the
^
finally ap;
stamp
of the
And
Hofmann defended
the
The
preserved in
'
must
p.
15
XXX
INTEODUCTION
and
and
techni-
would thus be
multiplied)
made not
a half but a
as
one-twentieth,
the
schools
it
could have no
another lesson
existence."
This
is
still
that the
sities
administrators of
American univer-
One
sive
common
is
to all universities,
lies in
the exces-
which
so
often
warmly
recommended
table result
is
to university students.
Its inevi-
Perhaps the
divi-
of
New
See Beport of the Secretary of the University of the State York for 1893, p. 176
INTRODUCTION
value of the product, but certainly
carried too far for the
it
xxxi
can be
good
of the labourer.
" Denn nur der grosse Gegenstand vermag Den tiefen Grund der Menschheit aufzuregen, Im engen Kreis verengert sich der Sinn."
is
to correct it
life
Whatt
is
and
practical
alike
need
not
j
To
train
such
is
success
in producing
them must
its
e6ciency be finally
judged.
New York
January, 1895
The
may be reduced
The English
ancient-
fundamental types:
by the two
of
and venerable
is
Oxford
and Cambridge,
the oldest ; in
the original
is
most com-
The university
is
ecclesiastical basis
it
governs
itself,
and main-
tains itself
upon
a property derived
ordinary administration.
The
rulfes
of daily
2
life
in
the
main those
of
the mediaeval
university,
and teachers
conventual community.
The
instruction, too,
The
pur-
essentially a broadas
re-
gentleman;
strictly
scientific
learned professions,
aims.
lies outside
of its regular
all,
The
make
The mode
of teaching
is
that of
many
the
cases
is
purely private.
ancient
form.
The
it
many
other historical
institutions,
to
new
structure after
The
place
of
the ancient
universities
GENERAL CHARACTER
the
separate
professions
;
which require a
de
droit,
scientific
preparation
facultis
lettres.
de
The ancient
the
university
university
name
it
not
strictly
At
state officials, in
state
examinageneral
Scientific
investigation
and
fall
scientific culture
do not properly
is
within
The German
and
to the
type, indigenous to
Germany
external organization
is
The Geris
man
French
faculty,
is
state institution
it
main-
tained,
control.
by the
state,
it
and
is
subject to state
itself
Yet
not
unimportant
organization,
relics
still
ancient corporative
chooses
it
its
own
cises
its
officials
rector, senate,
and deans;
exer-
filling of
by determining,
through
the
individ-
In
its
general organization as
the
original
form
GENERAL CHARACTER
most
faithfully,
instruction,
life
drawn
On
in contrast to the
French system,
consoli-
undergone no change.
of the
attention
acter
it
is
at once"
the
workshop
research,
and an
;
scientific training of
a general nature
this
task of the
philosophical faculty.
Like the
train-
French
But
uni-
beyond
this the
German
versities are
work
in
of
nurseries
at once
we must
in fact say: In
Germany
academic youth.
As
a necessary consequence,
is
above
all
strictly
sight
place.
we
German
there
call
university.
would
work
of the nation.
Not a few
of
men
like
Bentham,
Ricardo,
stand
are
outside
the
universities,
and
we
a
entirely justified
in saying
of
many
one
GENERAL CHARACTER
among them,
sible in
that he
an English university.
But even
the
learned
men
perhaps,
in
the
course of a year,
is
instruction
the
:
fellows
and
tutors.
And
so,
too, in
France
the
they
may
the
public
free
;
admission
to
which
is
everybody's privilege
the
German
it is
ers of the
academic youth.
And
on the other
hand
by
no
teachers
in
provinces)
investigators.
justified
that
all
university teachers
all
who
are,
8
(
fessors.
there
who
,'
professors (suffice
it
helm and Alexander von Humboldt), and besides there have always been many names of
excellent reputation
ers.
there
among the gymnasial teachAgain, among the university professors are not only individuals who produce
of
nothing
also
else.
importance
as
investigators,
but
all
to be teachers
above
is
But
this is
the
in
identity of scholar
and
of
:
professor.
When
Germany we speak
question
is
soon
follows
if
At what
he?
And
So,
he
is
we may
slight.
as a
is
if
there
is
soon
What
has he written?
What
relation
has he
achieved in science?
The consequences
most important.
of
this
for
the
is
an academic teacher;
life
GENERAL CHARACTER
of our nation.
Our
teachers.
was above
all as
men
as
their
writings
was
published
only
after
their
death, from
drafts of
lectures, or
from
also
notes taken
down by
Christian
their
pupils.
So
Kant and
professors.
Wolff
is
were
university
And
the same
philologians, of
mann;
their influence
by
as teachers in the
Grelehrtenschulen,^
men
also well
worthy
of
notice
that
among
Schiller;
sig-
gymnasiums.
Tr.
10
nificant
the
Luther and
Without doubt
for both sides.
this relation is
most
fruitful
into
leaders
In
the
German
the
years spent
part,
at
university play a
commanding
and not
tendency.
is
relation
men and
with
The
personal com-
an encour-
is
The presence
keeps the
is
upon what
of
in-
The
German
GENERAL CHARACTER
knowledge
is
From
life
which
satis-
and
less
factory to
contemplate
for
instance,
a
to
ten-
dency to
ovefcprQdnation^ of
books,
the
agement
of
outsiders,
which
is
taken in
bit-
terness of spirit
by these and
cast as a violent
of
Schopenhauer know
it is
full well.
It
quite
is
true that
who
his
outside
to
of
way
;
the
front
than
in
England or
France
and true
to a higher degree
by
its
side
for this
might
it less
biassed views
and a more
standard of judgment in
yet on the whole the
And
can
find
no
reason
to
be
dissatisfied
12
the
as
historically
lie
conditioned.
If learning
and science
nearer
we must
doubtless attribute
this
of
our
academic
The
to attract to themselves
and hold
maintain
in
ing spirits
the
life
position
of
which
nation.
It
is
they
have
won
the
our
change will
necessity
come about.
at
The
be-
position taken
by the universities
the
German
people had
life
And
and
its
success
world of commerce,
competition in
GENERAL CHARACTER
the world's markets, so long beset with
culties,
13
diffi-
its
powers
and bid
it
seek in the
defeat in
for- its
And
so
it
European family
or
Germany
to
have
exchanged the
proverb:
"The
Italians
The German
a passive object in
European
has again
come
Th The
unity of
Germany
than
rests
nowadays on other
universities.
felt
foundations
on
her
itself
in
more than
fact
tention devoted to
in the
New Empire
no longer
possible.
14
commanding
to
men
in official
in the
world of commerce, in
a chance of employ-
the colonies
-everywhere
make
itself felt,
And
spicuous place
among our
still
national institutions.
Even
to-day they
of German unity. The interchange of teachers and students among the universities, as it goes on day by
day between
in
the various
races
and
districts
still
helps
little
to
perpetuate
the
senti-
ment
of the
national unity
among
let
the
members
state-
boundaries.
the
And
forever,
us hope, will
the
reputa-
German
university
preserve
tion of being
learning.
German
preserves
This reputation
heiress
to
assured to her
past,
while she, as
that spirit
of
the
:
inwardness
the
calm delight
GENERAL CHARACTER
in her
15
In
the
university
may
her''
by foreign countries
shown
in the
deter-
France has!
begun
to gather
;
and
to
in
England the
university
attempt
is
being
made
its
restore
instruction
out
of
scattered
existence in
the colleges.
of of
Thus
far the
greatest measure
by some
American
universities
prin-
in their effort to
ciple of the
German
union of
scientific investigation
and
scientific teaching.
CHAPTE'R
II
The
in
origin
of
universities is to be sought
;
it
Ages.
While
in the earlier
past,
on Christianity
end
of
the
The
intellectual life
was now
mighty impulses.
The Crusades
and
on
Mohammedan
the horizon.
religion
and
civilization rose
new
orders of Franciscans
16
and Domini-
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
cans arose
itual
I7
new
or
belonging
in
great
orders.
part
to
one
the other of
struggle
for
these
Everywhere the
of
settled
of
Simultaneously
the
chief
works
the
Aristotelian
philosophy
were
arose,
made known.
And
so
the
problem
how
to
reconcile
belief
church's
teachings
with
and
to
solution was
This
new
the
spiritual
and
its
support.
Paris,
first
speculation.
It
scientiarum
studii
ex Parisiensis that
particular
Italy,
the
German
universities
in
were
of
derived;
yet the
universities of
an
18
While
the
oldest
universities
of
France,
Italy, Spain,
to the thirteenth,
and
the
twelfth,
sities
century,
oldest
German
univer-
fourteenth.
The
earliest foundations
were at
in
latter
for
the
Toward
of
;
same century,
with
the
in 1385, the
West followed
in in
university
Heidelberg,
1388
Ger-
and
Central
many
1392
the
two
latter
lishments.
The
dispersion
the
university
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
of Paris
19
Besides,
most important
To supply
the place
of
was founded
in 1409;
and that
of Rostock
was opened in
The seven
are,
universities
of this
first
period
still
in exist-
ence
the
first
centuries,
spiritual
territories to
many
in
ancient
1794,
Cologne
was
closed
Erfurt in 1816.
the beginning of
into ex-
movement.
It called
20
istence nine
new German
Freiburg
in
universities:
Greifsin
wald
1460,
in
1456,
in
1457,
Basle
in
Ingolstadt
1472,
Treves
1473,
in
in 1477,
Wittenberg
Four
en)
still
exist in
Treves
and
Mentz,
of
both
archiepiscopal
universities,
and never
to
an
close
of
the
last
cen-
The remaining
and
of place,
the university
Landshut
in
1802, and
to
Munich
and Frankfort
German
uni-
may
The proper
title
of such an institution
was studium
generale.
In distinction from
stijr
dium
particulare, a school
founded for a
par-
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
ticular locality or district, the
21
university
was
it
aimed to be a teaching
boundaries,
it
and
also
were recog-
Christian countries.
The
orig-
word
universitas,
Accordingly,
we read
the
universitas
But gradually
titles,
the
name
after which,
Method of Foundation
The German
Italy,
universities
The
spiritual
and the
22
The Pope, by a
the privilege of
bull,
as
a teaching establishment,
and endowed
it
with
it
for
conceptions
teaching
had
its
alone.
On
ereign,
the
other hand, a
practical
existence
local sov-
was assured
to the institution
by the
who
;
founder
sometimes also a charter from the Emperor, permitting the foundation; he endowed the
insti-
general
consisted
mostly
of
ecclesiastical
prebends,
and
finally
he
and
taxes,
self-
government.
HISTOEICAL DEVELOPMENT
Organization
23
The
first
German
universities
Paris.
show
a twofold
model of
The teaching
concerning the
work
of
latter the
At
The
and succeeded by
Still, it
and
brilliancy
itself.
On
this as
is
gen-
it tells of
thousands
at
24
And
the matricuin
many
universities
of matriculations
we seemed to come
to six years
and a
critical
use of the
to
more modest
go into
truth
if
figures.
This
is
details,
we suppose
German
more
universities
less.
The
great
Among
the
three
upper
faculties,
to
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
25
was quite
insignificant.
Control of Students
The mediaeval university resembled in few respects the German university of to-day; one
would most naturally compare
boarding-school.
it
to a great
those
Every uni-
of English universities
Germany
meaning a course
of lectures),
When
the
that the
no longer
sufficed to contain
al-
collegia,
gave
rise
to the
the inmates
of
26
man
In
all
course of
pattern,
was regulated
plainly
as
a great
number
and
of
statutes
still
existing
show us
in great detail.
We
find in
common
and
use
(dormitories,
study
lecture-
maffistri
mere
cells or camerce,
warmed,
for
the scolares.
of the
twenty
years.
The whole
community
es-
was regulated in
tablished
its
The
time for rising and for going to bed, and for the
coena, at
about ten
mode
sumptiones')
for
:
each and
all
of these there
of
existed rules.
things forbidden
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
etc.,
27
were
prohibited.
it
We
if
must of course
assume, and
could
necessary be proved
own
circumvented in
ways.
Teachers
to six theologians,
about as
many
professors of law,
of medicine,
university.
The
jurists
The
besides teaching,
least important
The teaching
lectures.
of
the
who gave
In the
the
number
university
may have
The
even more.
but
28
pendent on the sums received from the students, whether as board-money or examination
lecture-fees
:
and
pastus, minerval.
In this faculty,
re-
life,
but as a mere
magistri
Very
often the
who taught
same time
students in one of the higher faculties, as candidates for the degrees there given, after attain-
down
in
some
some similar
position,
When
the
school,
the
beanus
or
school-boy came at
from the
local
where
learned
was
to
For
this
remitted
propter
paupertatem,
or
sometimes
propter reverentiam
the
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
29
pupils
recommended by them.
He
then
number
of
aid of
or of the dean
the oft-described
was
academic culture
laris, studens.
he
became a student,
seo-
He
the prescribed
lectures
and exercises
was
in
the
deficient
The course
four years.
in arts extended
over three or
It
was divided
first
into
two
parts,
separated by the
study lasting
one
or
two
years,
consisting
When
he
pre-
30
scribed courses, to
the
gained
thereby
the
quantum
of
knowledge
academic
called for
first
public formalities.
each received a definite rank in the class according to the result of his
examination.
After
upon
the
remaining
philosophical
sciences, physics,
and
political
magister
artium
bestowed.
new
magister
The
similar to these.
It is noticeable that as a rule the
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
to be attained
31
by
this
custom.
First, the
main-
any
them
and secondly,
to
it is
likely
ensure the
for
in
one's
own
training,
the
the
And
it
was
in the
as in
work
of
disputations.
scolaris,
Furthermore,
the
triple
is
scale
baccalarius, magister,
evi-
artisans.
The apprentice
even teaches when occasion offers the master workman produces and teaches. In the local
schools
we
find the
same
scale
schoolmaster,
often called
Qudi
magister'), associate
(socius,
32
And
arts,
yet
we must not
offered
by one
of
was
the
rule in
mediaeval
The majority
arts.
At
the
for
is
being
Ages
was
any
made
ment
to
any
office.
The
ecclesiastical office
and was
ordination.
Before
the
ordination an
by
demanded
of the candidate
more
scientific training
than some
It is likely
knowledge
j
'
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
connected with any university.
33
We
may
well
'i
and
in
knowledge
of
itself
For
[
even
its
The
Roman
memall
These were
scolaris,
and
Subjects
Certain
subjects
instruction
presented
The problem
hand
down
body
knowl-
34
edge.
the
Holy Scripture
of
pagina)
is
decisive
authority,
the understanding
which,
the
it is
church
binding.
Out
of the working-
dogma
real subject of
theological instruction.
Roman and
and
canonical
commentators
for
scholiasts
being
drawn upon
faculty
of
elucidations.
Similarly the
materials
Avritings
medicine
chiefly
drew
its
for
of of
instruction
from
certain
all
the
works
taught
philosophical,
all
purely
theoretical
deduced from
natural reason.
matter
of
instruction
canonical
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
treatises,
35
above
all
sides
in astronomy,
Summula
of Petrus His-
As
to the
where two
parts,
lectio) to
canonical
for
instance
work
of
was
own
texts.
The
aloud
among
of real
importance.
The memorial
texts well
enough
Prsamitto, sciiido,
summo, casuraque
figure,
36
was
to give prac-
learning.
Of
was the
disputa-
The
less
iQcture;
the
alike, ap-
One
of the magistri
the
theses
bachelors, as
by pulling
inter-
posing
when
necessary.
reg-
we
conducted
for
by masters or bachelors
students.
as exercises
the
was attached
The number
who
ment.
instruction
was
thought to centre in
them
and
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
37
excellent means
making the
acquisition of
of
knowledge a sure
affording
practice
application.
They were
calculated to
command
of knowledge,
and
perceive
thought and
tions.
its
relation to one's
own
of
concep-
We
may
departments, the
man
learning
modern
The
of reference for
many
his
memory
and
own
faces,
thoughts, on the
moment and
in
whom
would not be
it is
cause
Disputations,
They
:
prefirst,
community
body
of
philosophical
principles
universally
38
accepted,
more
correctly,
an authoritative
works of Aristotle.
:
Of
contra
From
As
a conse-
first
all
but a
II
II
Development
of
German
Universities in
Modern
Times
The modern world separated itself from the Middle Ages in the great revolutionary periods of the Renaissance and the Reformation. Both
of these
the
The conquest of the German universities by movement known as Humanism was carried
HISTOPaCAL DEVELOPMENT
through during the
sixteenth century. old and
first
39
of
two decades
the
bitter struggle
between
new
filled
this
whole period.
The
the universities,
in particular
ology,
the
new
representatives the
in fact
poets and
who had
begun
to
whom
In the Epistolce
Virorum,
of
gathered
about Mutianus at
by the
monument
Among
the
men who
of
power
Humanism, Desiderius Erasmus and Reuchlin jtand at the head. The latter opened
the
way
for
Hebrew
results.
studies in
Germany, and
man
of stu-
40
German
he awakened an apprecia-
/philological
-)(^
historical
and
finally
Humanism and
New
lastic
theology to
their
original
sources, to the
mus always
urgently.
The new
line,
\
way
into all
New
new
1.
schemes of study
ideas
in lectures
and examinations.
Everywhere
:
two
things
came
cal
into prominence
The old
ecclesiasti-
Latin was replaced by classical Latin; Roauthors, particularly the poets, were
man
tion,
made
of AristoteKan
by new
translations on
2.
by the Humanists.
Greek
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
41
of arts,
and courses
and
literature
were established
in all universities.
Among
cians " of
German
be noted Reuchlin,
at Tiibingen
who taught
at
Wittenberg,
and
among the
Tiibingen.
Latinists
Conrad Celtes
at Vienna, at
Eobanus Hessus
at Erfurt,
and H. Bebel
was
overtaken
impulse,
and
suc-
and depth
the
religious
may
and
of
Rome.
of
freedom.
to lead the
German
people.
of inward, anti-rationalistic
and
anti-ecclesias-
42
rationalistic
and
to the fact,
and
almost without
In very truth
it,
the Reformation
to
would be
culture.
essentially hostile
In the fearful
standstill,
I
the instituforth,
tions of learning
\
so that
Uhi regnat
Lutheranumus,
But
,
the last
in this matter.
ance
remained
son of Melanchthon.
activity, in
spite of
man whose
joy was in
studies
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
in
43
German
universities
and
schools.
For
forty-,
and
were understood
own
person representing
After
fre-
From
all districts
all
parts of Europe,
to hear him.
When Me-^
which there
pupil to
of
Germany
one
in
was not
at
least of
grateful
mourn the
loss
the Prmceptor
Grermanim.
Long
and
philo-
and
universities.
The development
it
of
German
universities, as
in-
fluence of
Humanism and
of the Reformation,
:
The period
controlled
eral states.
characterized
44
by the predominance
inational interests
is
-/
;
and denom-
ties
The period of the invasion of the universiby modern philosophy and culture, covering
It is characterized
by
and
of the faculty
C of
law
as well.
1 leading universities.
3.
The period
German
universities
life of
the nation.
This period
;
nineteenth century
k
^
it is
marked
by the
in
The
HISTOEICAL DEVELOPMENT
45
First Period
the
Church
The
reached
first
its
end
in
the Peasants'
War
the
The
and a great^nUmber of
.r*^
tutions were
newly created.
The
first
be'eri
which remained
to
the
Wittenberg, along
with
had
In spite of the
46
day maintained
universi-
an honourable position
ties.
among German
very
considerable
equipment.
During the
important
Protestant
universities
especially
prominent
among
its
instructors
were
the
history.
Among
both
established
;
by and
in
free
Nuremberg
to Altdorf,
and
gymnasium, which
of
academic
off-
shoot from Marburg, founded in 1607 on Lutheran principles for Hesse-Darmstadt, as Marburg
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
47
in the
to Calvinism,
and Rinteln
Reformed university
at Duisburg, in
1655.
Of greater importance on
the other
hand
for
By
the
up a coni
siderable
number
of so-called
academic gymna-
selves
Some of these have maintained themdown to our own time, as, e.g. in Hamburg.
at
Herborn
also
had con-
The
earliest
some
Germany.
(1582),
Next
in
order
came
Wiirzburg
endowed by
There followed
48
(1630),
dations.
all episcopal
foun-
Some
these, however,
J
!
and
\
chiefly
few possessed
addition
faculty
of
>
law.
On
universities
established
less
Of the ten
five
still
Protestant foundations
mentioned,
German
ceased to exist
when
the
spiritual
onlj^ Wiirzbxirg
form
of theo-
49
universi-
Of the Austrian
still exist.
The
tions
numerous foundaterritorial
and
political
territory strove to
first
possess
own
of
university, in the
place to
make sure
in
state
sound doctrine
i. e.
of doctrine
and,
home.
youth of the
money
at
the
or thalers suf-
professors,
an old
convent
would
furnish
the
buildings,
if
and
there were
at
no "institutes";^ but
the means
this,
for
the
gymnasium academicum or
illustre,
for which,
offer,
These
etc.
Tn.
50
could
now
Emperor with-
out serious
t
As
of this
of those of the
of
interler-
The boundaries
)
creed,
sity's field.
German
scholar could
was exercised in
in
The
two directions
on the one
The imprisonment
of intellectual
makes
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
51
mode
we
find in the
The four faculties still remain, and with them the fundamental scheme"
of instruction
and examination.
Still,
the bacsix-
ealarius gradually
replaced,
taining itself
down
held in this
in
now
become, what
it
whole body of
the fact that
a natural consequence of
made a
compared with
And
latter,
]
was in
its
in being
original devotion
_52
The
Bible
is
'^ The
grew
in
size
and
of the
modern
state
and
with an
the interpretation
canonicaL_texts
The
show;
nineteenth century.
important changes
to cut
and
to
The philosophical
artium was
\
as
the facultas
now
main
its
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
ing link _between the schools below
it,
53
which
scientific training;
object
The
by the
ri stntel i an
either directly
in the
to
or in adaptahumanistic,
and manuals,
for
established the
model.
By
philosophical course
we
find the
with appropriate exercises in rhetoric and poetry; but this loses in strength
and importance
"
the further
we
are
humanis-
tic" period.
in, at
more than a
54
same
which
it
had prepared
at the
for scholastic
The holders
belles
and
Middle Ages.
As
mode
of life,
also
of
inasmuch
as the
development of school-systems,
And
it
strictly enforced.
How-
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
ever, it
55
receive
It
may
most universities a
convic-
was established,
at
number
more
often, in
ecclesiastical
or scholastic
positions.
at public
cost, for
The funds for both kinds of were most commonly derived from _^
century.
sities
At
the end of this period the univerto the lowest level of influence in Ger-
had sunk
To
quated,
nay,
almost worn
out,
institutions.
Such a man
56
versit)'-
where he
and support
of his ideas
prehensive plans.
The
universities were
now
life
The number
of
memory
of
is,
in com-
And
it is
well
known
into
what
things that are connected in more ways than one^ had reached the flower of their
full
inter-
point in English.
Tk.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
57
Second Period
The new
of
era
two
universities,
H alle
in 169 4, Gottingen
Erlangen
for the
Franconian principalities
flourishing condition.
On
to be
mentioned.
The
Jesixits
equipped a phil-
of a
university.
The development
of this instituafter
as a university in
Academy, with
losophy.
faculties of theology
and phi-
its
impress
jurist Christian
58
'
the phil-
Thomasius, a pupil
first
instructor in
German
uni-
the
first
chair for
the
treatment of
law
after the
created at Hei-
delberg in 1662
a type of the
p
was
new French
first
He
published the
the
German language, beginning in 1688, and was first to employ the German language in
Despising alike scholasphilosophy and humanistic eloquentia, theo-
university lectures.
tic
logical orthodox}'
Being forced
to yield, he retired to
Halle, where he
tion,
and the
circle of students
ered about
him became
the nucleus
the
most representative
masius, had been
of jDietism,
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
59
"I
and
Halle
his pupils
the young.
In the
J.
eighteenth century,
S.
ment
of the
in
the
A man of
who taught
Marburg.
His expulsion
I.,
from
his
and
that had
of
come about.
philosophical
scholastic
his
and in
its
of
cal instruction
to be the
60
Aristotle, in
Melanch-
view
of
preparation
for
theological studies.
Reasonable Thoughts
Wolff's works
in the
to be
German language.
ancilla theologice,
aimed no longer
after truth,
sciences in
its
foundation.
And
claimed
all
and
the
nature of
man and
of society.
century,
made
Protestant universities.
and
of jurisof
prudence,
the
its
Reasonable
rationalism,
with
principle.
ushered
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Q1
and
to
phy.
The
universities
of
the
able
those peoples.
Germany they
for it
are within
it.
To Halle belongs
really
first
modern university,
modern
In Halle
itself this
was plainly
its
At
foun-
Gundling delivered an
which lauded
free thought.
The
close
was
as
follows:
62
et
applaudemus
The
had
university
instruction
and that
it
was
The newer
system
starts
And
so,
its
During the
afterward surpassed
her
the
university at
Gottingen.
By
gen ranked
Here
Roman Empire
jurisprudence
science
and
Piitter; here
Mosheim
lec-
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
eloquence,
subjects
;
63
and
J.
D. Michaelis on Oriental
ematician Kastner.
new
the
science
its earliest
nursery
philolo-
M. Gesner and
J.
G. Heyne, to
of
whom
Greek authors
new
of
point of
;
view
not
Latin and
communion with
New
and
and the
And
this
new
humanism stands
64
;
a relation
the
It will
German
"^
Society,
and
to the
Mainhund.
of
German
universiof
ties
itself
by the end
succession to the
seventeenth,
we may sum up
the differences
no decisions
by
mere authority.
2.
Instead of the deadening pursuit of ancient languages for the sake of imitation
merely,
we
find a
lively pursi\it
of
the
As
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
4.
65
5.
of text-books, ^vhich
seminars.
philological
Gottingen, and
j
Wolf soon
followed.
Third Period
The
testify
and (what
is
66
Thus Schleiermacher ^
Not long
after this,
in 1811,
the ancient
to Breslau,
and united
new and
great university.
sion of peace a
new
;
state of Bavaria
itself in
Ingolstadt, survives.
The
list
is
closed
re-
stored in 1872
i
Thus
political
themselves in
to-
The
universities ceased to
Thoughts on the
p. 145
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Just as all the larger
67
the
German
states, in
also
laid
off
their
confessional
human
the
The
ter returns,
though the
contrary direction.
life
of
the whole
nation
To
belong probably as
in point of
body.
68
At
period philosophy
it
was Kant,
ceeded the Wolffian, during and after 17901800, in domination over the
sities,
German univer-
phy
of
Fichte, Schelling,
their instruction at
may
it
by the Ministry of Education, and on the other hand Hegel was the enthusiastic apostle of
the "state-idea."
This condition
William
IV.,
who detested
the
Hegelian rationalism,
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
and called the aged Schelling from Munich
Berlin to combat
it.
69
to
logical lectures.
As
representative of another
may
be
His
have
Hegelianism, especially in
the
Austrian
universities.
Among
philology.
new humanistic
soon proved the
F. A. Wolf,
who
in Halle,
and afterwards
universitj'-,
at the university
of Berlin.
This
active cooperation of
W. von Humboldt,
its
very inception
and has to
this
purpose.
Here (simultaneously
Boeckh,
and
in
succession)
taught.
many
years an influen-
70
tial
with philo-
logical studies.
Munich,
F.
Thiersch,
Spengel,
Halm.
Hermann, and
in Gottin-
Of much importance,
of
too,
ment
new branches
of philological research.
Above
all
of Germanistic studies
by the brothers
J.
first
and
in
W. Grimm, who
lived
and
taught
by Diaz at Bonn.
The study
to
of the languages
and
on a fresh
impulse.
of
enough
both in Berlin,
[
and and
Most
significant
Leopold
Ranke
of Berlin
must be named
in this connec-
HISTORICAL BEVELOPMENT
tion as a
71
after
whom
chiefly
which he inaugurated,
of
in the
investigation
"sources"
[^Quellen-
forschung~\.
We
may
also
remark
in
that, in this
period, university
historical
instruction
affected
history and
literature
considerably the
chiefly in
working
histo-
rians
make them-
selves
more prominent.
At
Johann
of
was
school
phjsiology,
natural
72
(
on
'
While the
I
first
was thus
is
marked rather by
investigation, the
a lateral growth,
and
physical.
/
a necessary concomitant.
This state of
affairs
shows
itself in the
sity, in the
number
of full pro-
during
the
present century.
Berlin began
i>
with twelve
,'
sophical faculty, and has now fifty-three. '^ If we may attempt here to give a sketch in
outline of the history of the three other facul-
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
ties, this
73
maybe done
as follows.
somewhat
At
still
most closely
peculiar posi-
occupied by Schleiermacher.
On
the
one hand, he was himself an original philosophical thinker; on the other hand, he took
philosophy to which
it
was subject
in the ortho-
dox no
less
systems, and
he sought to do by conceiv-
ing
it
the mind.
century two
to each other,
new
The
first
is
the
so-called
itself
positive
school,
which establishes
of this
man
great
Catholic church
it
made
part of the
restoration
74
which led
is
now
The second
chiefly
theology by D. F. Strauss.
of
jurisprudence.
of this period,
Here
also,
at
the beginning
we
new
the
philosoph-
construction
put
upon
and
law
and
Kantian,
the
Hegelian
in
philosophy successively.
Afterwards, as
hand by the
in Berlin),
historical
Savigny
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
is
75
no
less plain a
tendency
to adhere to Schleiermacher,
position.
of history, a his-
and
political science.
The medical
at the
faculty also
is
controlling
science.
theories
of
natural
\
methods of research.
Within the
nearly the
last
Until
end
faculties of theology
and law;
at the present
of
:
day, in not a
their students
first
place.
sorts
economy
of the university.
While
their
76
growth in
More
of
wounds.
As
ties, 'no
The
some
But
of a
in
some
number
by the addition
second
unrepresented,
faculties
or through
the
separation of
of natural
In the
outward forms
remnants of an-
There are no
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
77
more
eonvictus,
but vanished.
The student
is
body
else,
an ordinary citizen;
he has
the
about
him
he
is left
entirely to his
own
devices.
from
We
;
may
evi-
used
to be the general
scientific preparation
for
special
professional
has
now become
78
higher schools.
Down
to the
beginning of the
office
was an ap-
pendage
to clerical orders
in
up
for
of teaching, securing a
the church
was open
Nowadays
of
teach-
this
century
changes
tremely
church
positions
The introduction
exam-
plete separation of
united.
Its
purpose was
or
rather the
creation, of
a class
gymnasial
The necessary
of the
its
approximation to the
humanism
of
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
79
pre-
business to
sum of
generally accepted
own
researches.
The expression
other,
would regard
it
as
an
The
object of
this feel-
ing
in.
it is
The
This
J-osopJiy.
is
In
it research,^
t
and instigation
to re-
^earch, foruL
he controlling purpose.
In the
the
knowledge necessary
as
the technical
equipment
80
to be, scholars
above
everything else
tical profession
makes
itself
more plainly
felt
This
is
TEs^tudents,
as
may
its
ous academies of
philosophy there exists the most extensive personal union, while the other faculties are in the
Another indication
is
it
its
rise.
The
is
awarded
by
it is also characteristic.
The
doctor's de-
gree
and
as a
But
the doctorate
The
to.
Tk.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
acquisition of the doctor's title
is
gl
in this case
shown himself
meaning
of
'
by his dissertation to be
Yetjbhis
is
a,
learned investigator.
**
With
mony;
all
in har-
production of .scholars.
ogy,
of history,
The
of mathematics,
.^exclusively
scholars
and
professors.
He
overlooks,
hearers
look
to
practical
profession,
the
profession of teaching.
Or
is
overlook
it
at all,
but he
teacher can bring to the exercise of his_profession no better Jraining than the training of a
gejuiiiie scholar.
To
this everything
points.
of the
proper task of a
82
lehrtenschule]
points
a
to
it.
the teacher in
ficial
"learned
^^the
of-
name "gymnasium"
of
beginning
the
present
century
of
any
other professional
[Grelehrsamlceit]!
training than
"learning"
Another
is
indication,
and
the specialization,
of the
its
teachers of ancient
of
modern philology,
almost a
mathematics,
of theology,
and
little
forming of
Lastly,
tests
itself
university.
the
the
fitness to re-
to be
proved point
direction, for
Thus
it
German gymnasial
teacher, as
man
of learning,
when
the
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
impressions
83
the universities
And
to the best of
them
something
their
throughout
whole
Without doubt
its
dark side.
a teacher
This shows
many
who
somewhat disappointed
when he
of a
The lowest
class
gymnasium gives no
It
shows
itself also
when,
and
who suddenly
class,
finds
feel at
suited
home and to develop a manner that is a want which the recently into him
it
must not be
Upon it depends
84
in
of
gymnasial teachers
is
held.
This
is
certain to
scientific worth.
jUpon
this
view depends
also
mind
to scientific
work and
research; (and
to be
if
distinctive
would be preserved
to
Finally,
idea; they
'.
form scholars, because the gymnasial teacher isjield to be a_schola^ There is no doubt that
the great abundance of learned workers in all
fields of
which Germany
is
so proud
is
due
to
this fact.
And
if
the superfluity
may occasionstill
ally
not for-
German
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
85
above
all in
On
point a
not with
indeed
he
Ferdinand
study
1
:
Lot
says,
in
an
interesting
little
"The
fields
scientific leadership of
Germany
in all
without exception
all nations.
is
nowadays acknowl-
edged by
sea;
and perhaps
it
is
may well
be that something,
But M. Lot
is
certainly not
supremacy
to the organization of
German
to
their
freedom
for
teacher and
and most
instruction toward
research.
This again
is
g6
h
'
faculties.
German university
shows
itself
most distinctly
drawn
same
di-
And
so,
to
of the
German
and
of
Germany
in the
world of science.
Nor must we
possible only in
German
in a peculiar form.
There
is
at
our
some branch
renown
of learning,
proud names
of science.
feels himself
in the history
this
ground
atmosphere
of historic life.
feels that thereby
When
himself.
Not
all feel
them
in equal degree,
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
but this
gj
much we may
them
some measure who enters the university community as a teacher, that nearly every one,
in
too,
who
first as
some degree.
carries
-,
Something
of this senti-
of his profession
the
German
parson, or physithis,
small though
far
it
at
least
enough
an interest for
own
field.
But
and
this is
German gymofficial
and
among whose
often in nardistress,
number succeed,
gymnasium
been that
its
it is
own
sphere
it
stands for
for
88
on a larger scale
it is
and
is
but a place
art of
where
scientific
work
scientific
work
is
taught.
May
I
and
of control, to
make
of the teachers
mere
officials,
and
of the schools
mere institutions of
its
goal
If
our
gymnasiums once
would not
CHAPTER
III
THE GEEMAlSr UNIVERSITIES IN THEEB EBLATIONS TO THE STATE, TO THE CHUECH, AND TO THE COMMUNITY
Relations
to the State
German
it
But
nor
is it
necessarily so.
Scientific research
and instruc-
'The
first
universities
which and
carried on the
work
other
of scientific research
Like
societies,
they governed
own
laws, chose
had
memit is
sion of
new
true, there
90
In Germany the state university has established itself with historical necessity.
In their
we have
the land.
From
we
power
ascendant,- they
made the
which they
much
trouble, in spite of
the occasional resistance which these corporations offered in reliance on their right of estab-
lishing their
own
statutes.
The Reformation
power
prehensive charitable
anstalt]
institution [Wohlfahrtsfor
all,
the
smallness of the
German
countries
favouring
91
of the prince.
that
life of
the
community
was the
accomplished
by state
tion.
initiative or at least
velopment of
of roads
and
and
and lighting
agement
Of
The
German common
school,
The
universi-
cational
administration.
92
when
it
declares
system
" Schools
state,
ments of
of
omnipotence.
The various
constitutions for-
paragraph
20
of
the
Prussian Constitution
to
And
it is
Above
last
all,
the
which in
the
century
were
still
come
93
Be-
Education
with
the
necessary
executive
now become
'
of officials of state.
The following
ties.
lines will
describe in more
German
universi-
They
by the
and maintained
no
state.
The right
to confer degrees
likewise
The
state, as
well, founds
\
professorships and
professors
academic institutes.
officials of
The
and the
1
pThe
not s^ordi-
nated to the
provincial
authorities^
is
At
of
number
Curator,
/
of universities there
as
;
to be
found a
the
the
local
representative
is
Minister
in
it
some cases he
is
called Chancellor.
His duty
94
on behalf
But
position,
of state education,
nevertheless occupies, as
which one
It
may
hardly to be
From
the
ancient corporative constitution, important features have been retained, above all the unrestricted
cers.
right
of
offi/
(The head
is
who
of full professors.
He
societies
the
students.
is
]In
like of
Senate,
composed
among
95
Rector being
its
chairman.
The Judge
of the University
The
disciplinary control
against
the
following
penalties:
imprisonment not
exceeding
fourteen
days,
pThe separate
nually a
degree of self-government.
They choose
their
an-
own members,
who administers the business of the facultyj As officials the faculty-members exercise control
over the instruction given, and
ticular
it is
their par-
each semester.
Furthermore,
and study
seen or felt as
96
benefices,
is
their
most im-
the examinations
Dean.
vacancies that
In this respect
The
control exercised
is
really
On
subject-matter, amount,
and form
of
instruction to be given.
The
is
professor merely
and
this
commission
couched in very
97
methods to be followed
all this
own judgment.
officers of
Of
re-
ports or of control
a
by
inspection not
word
is
ever said.
:
We may truly say A greater measure of freedom than that which the university instructors now possess they have never enjoyed. Down
to the seventeenth century the instruction to
and method
of teaching
were
pretty rigid.
sive interference
interit
nal details
of
not rare;
more
draw their knowledge, or the manner in which they were to lecture and conduct their
to
exercises.
Even
98
a similar interference
for instance,
At
the
gone out of fashion, the subject-matter and the form of university instruction being
to the private
left entirely
)
judgment of the
instructor.
In
the
word may
pi'o'
This
is
The
(i.e.
full)
by making pro-
posals,
proposed.
99
the names
thus
made against
the door
is
claimed that
nepotism,
of
schools.
The
German
accustomed to take
conscience,
and on the
whole
they
may
well
do
so.
it
Where
are
could never
happened?
described; and
it
would be
difficult to find a
mode
of selecting professors
man
The
matter of
fact,
ex-
not in
all branches,
100
1
As
it is,
of
is
ex-
perts
in a
its
field,
with
men
consider the
fairness.
personal questions
involved
with
And
of
of
surest.
Germany seems to be the safest and The custom of open competition for
the submission of samof public
lectures on trial
a very poor
at least in
Germany
it
of
would
rather
rea-
IQl
endowment
for
now accompanies an
number
ap-
income
less
of
had.
which
is
un-
could be looked
for, at least
would be removed.
Relations
to the
Church
The
relations
Ages
and seventeenth
tions.
From
the
is
the connection
as
loosened.
In the nineteenth,
universities, like
102
the states to
the situ-
influence.
as
could
her
out,
the state to
is.
work
There
is
mon
state has
affected
come
procure for the ecclesiastical authorities a decisive voice in the appointment of theological professors, since the
103
opinion in
At
present there
is
no great pros-
And
it
may
well be doubted
the
both teachfoot
It
Roman
Catholic
theology,
it
;
the
its
Nor could
the
Protestant
church endure
it.
On
would
as
would
The
relations
of
Roman
104
countries.
Roman church
is
great
any modern
lating at her
own
preliminary
claim.
The Catholic
immediate
episcopal
for
control,
in
for
and
candidates
in
Prussia after
of the clergy
under
is
There
on the part
equivalent of
appointment to a charge.
of
Roman
Catholic
government;
before
any professor
is
is
ap-
pointed, an understanding
105
church authorities, and after that these authorities possess at all times, in the
power
to forbid
means
of putting
made
creed,
in
Roman
in
and
Italy, there
number
is
The
project
already formed of
founding a
similar
university for
site of
German-
which Salz-
Relations
to the
Community
three sides
The question may be viewed from The duty of the university in 2. The position occupied nity.
1.
the
commuacademic
in the comof
The
portion of
the
community
from which
1.
Like
university
is
by the needs
106
of society.
necessity
is
There
are, in
the
first place,
three professions
to venerable tradition,
spiritual,
the
the
three
so-called,
The
century.
now
less
107
preparation.
The
and the
engineer,
the
architect,
the
and the
military or naval
come
knowl-
edge that for those who practise them a special scientific training is indispensable.
This
modern need
forth
of
the
new forms
if
of schools,
we would comprehend
First of all
which Germany now possesses nine,^ almost all in capitals of the larger states, and all founded
in
the
nineteenth century.
schools of forestry
and
of
mining engineering,
at
These were formerly called Polytechnica the nine are Aix-la-Chapelle, Berlin (Charlottenhurg), Hanover,
;
Tr.
108
of veterinary surgery,
last generally
the-
Finally,
we
which nowadays
knowledge.
also
demand
a basis of
scientific
Many
of these training-
and the
life of
the stu-
This
of all training-schools
is
The
practical intro-
is
different with
upon
his
still to
acquainted with
Germany
109
The continued
is
society
which supports
them than
is
their
original foundation.
rela-
and
ideas.
when
first
affairs of
church controlled
faculty
all
public
the
interests,
the
in
theological
held
place
students.
With
The rapid
growth of the philosophical faculty in importance and independence at the end of the eigh-
century
is
which may
be described as a turning away from the supernatural and religious to a rationalistic and
mun-
dane conception
any case
is
of the universe.
The church
This privilege
it
entitle
-Tk.
110
loses her
New Humanism
schools (^Volks-
common
of
Pestalozzi.
The
growth
number
of
its
students,
are
evidently most
which tends
to
and assistance.
But
besides
seemed
to
in anything else.
2.
academic
we may
in the
of
which
HJ
To
and controlling
circles
form
part.
army and
class
we
find
them
and courts
of
offices.
circles associ-
on a footing of social
of
equality,
which does
birth
not,
course, exclude
differences of
and rank.
But whoever
of
many
people in Ger-
many.
One must
112
tial right of
The
result
of this
ing
is
young men
of birth
to the university,
German
to follow
bound
This
is
all countries,
and
it
In the
education was by no
means a condition
class;
of
and
in the
Such studies were necessary only for the candidate for holy orders, and even here could be
In the
half
of
the Middle
nobles
the
elements of
the
end of the
that the
It
was in the
cities
first
became more
113
of
any
importance in society.
ever, a
more extensive
became
early
As
century
we
find everywhere, at
princely courts,
men
to acquire
an edu-
During and
pupils
of
century
the
many
mies,
new national schools and the Jesuit acadewho afterward doubtless passed through
and in the seventeenth and
it
the universities;
eighteenth centuries
came
to be regarded as
young
some university.
The
more
fashionable
who were
there matriculated.
was,
it is true,
way
to
which lay
114
And
in
the
G-elehrtensehulen
or the
But
in the
same
of a place in
was
at best the
study of jurispruCandidates
church occu;
the can-
who
accepted a tutor's
among
if
he became
New
income.
Only
then
as a parish
yet even
to
him
to
the manor.
115
was
such importance
as
This change
is
social
and
political changes
The
nobility
no longer a privileged
class of lords
which has
Hence
it
Even
trasting types
on
they
as
the
sit
by side in
even
high
are
the ministerial
cabinets.
And
they
an
officer of
may become
116
privy councillor.
is
diffi-*
"learned" professions in
all
quarters.
The
which
is
requisite to
The pressure
felt every-
among the
teach-
less
moneyed part
of
of the com-
Students
jurisprudence and of
medicine come to a greater extent from wellto-do families, and in case of success in their
professions can achieve very respectable incomes
as lawyers
and physicians.
and many
try.
of these also
It
117
academic
all
we may we
classes of society.
university
find
and
of the aristocra-
cies of birth
and
of wealth.
As
a matter of
feel
principle,
all
"academic citizens"
them-
selves
to
be equals,
end by shutting
their
On
Whoever
has earned the right of academic citizenship has gained thereby the privilege of treatment
as
an equal
privilege which,
in
case
of
need, he may demand sword in hand, since nobody may refuse him satisfaction on the score
of his birth.
It is thus that
inasmuch
as it excludes
of his birth,
bers.
mem-
118
Wachter :
"As
mind,
may
proudest, and he
in will,
vail
who
is
and
in courage, may,
he wish, preThis
itself
through
inborn
nobility.
proud
again
equality,
among
relic
the
greatest glories
of
German
studentship,
was."
is
different.
Access
In the ancient
so dear as to be
is
The
for
mere cost
of board
is
fifty
this, there
no
classical
119
it
by the remission
tuition
fees,
in
as
schools as
well
boarding-schools which
style
demand an expensive
the
of
living,
form
regular
entrance
to the university.
boarding-schools, the
is,
as a
mat-
to poor as well
as to rich. It
years
for
begun
to be
made
Germany
also.
The
class of factory
and that
of agricul-
the universities.
This
is
is
120
for the
church entering on
middle
class,
the
while
sons
of
not wanting,
Solventes
alms.
and pauperes
the
two
classes
From
the
mendicant
student
friar.
together
But
in the Landesconvictus
[national schools]
and the
made
school posi-
tions,
of theology
was un-
121
Latin school of his native place, or at the Landesschule, to help himself out at the university
some
difficult) before a
member
ment
Nowadays,
is
which
is
'
time
and
to this
of service in the
Then
follows a long
demand
to the cadet-schools or
public schools.
And
so it has gradually
is
See
p. 179,
note
122
The consequence
pear,
now beginning
of
this
to disap-
and there
is
tendency to approve
disappearance.
"We
so
a lawyer or doctor
to say,
may now
read in
and
commencing
that
to say.
We
trained teachers,
their
caste
classes
suffers
if
it,
enter
sons
of tailors
peasants,
that these
training,
insufficient
amount
tion
of social culture,
by which the
posi-
their scholars is
rendered more
Poverty
is
a great hindrance to
who
is
forced to earn
little
123
be not overcome by signal talents and great strength of character, such studies become a
misfortune.
rare.
Nowadays cases of this are not The hankering felt by parents to get
higher walks in
life
a
in
desire particularly
case of the
common and
intense in the
numerous petty
officials
has
and partly
to introducing into
On
the
we cannot
fail to
which
not without
its
dangers; above
is
all,
helped
along thereby.
If
into the
124
rule
crats,
trial
by strangers.
Among
Demo-
who
To them
own
inter-
can conceive of
who do
professions
and
its life
is
would
now the
and un-
of pride
intelligent sentimentality
Nor
is
the
the nation
it
would
lose talents
and pow-
ers
which
exposed
to
danger of
mental poverty.
of our
We
most
125
petty mechanics.
An
his
'
Grimm
upon
passed
"
Penury spurs
us a not
of our
us on to diligence and to
preserves us from
in
many
distractions,
and inspires
ignoble pride,
own
upon
others.
would make
Germans
my
assertion even
more general,
wealthy people.
while
CHAPTER IV
TEACHERS AND TEACHING IN THE UNIVERSITY
1.
The Teachers
universities, in all the facul-
In the German
ties,
The Privatdocent
gaged
or bo and
is
The extraordinary
official
professor
state,
is
a regularly appointed
of
and
generally draws
or vote in
a salary,
the faculty he
no part in
The ordinary
professor
is
the
officially
ap-
official
representative of
profes-
The ordinary
THE TEACHERS
faculty.
127
tunity
is
conspicuous merit, to
ship
is
whom no
full professor-
open, or
who do not
to
desire such, of
legal
relation
the
university, like
of the
that of the
lecturing
members
acad-
emy,
is
the Privatdocenten.
As
a sort of supplement to
may
be reckoned the
and
i.e.
The
The
aspirant
is
appointed
shorter
or
longer
time
may
offer
to
full
professorship.
common
128
that
of
a fixed rule in
the matter.
career
in
follow some
calling
church or
other
some
public
institution;
and some
remain
little
with the
ac-
dinary professorship
is
by no means a neces-
And
finally, a
is
universities
for
which such
Yet
after all,
ever established.
TEACHERS
PRIVATDOCENTEX
'
J 29
German
As
of the
German
universities
|
,
may
and significance.
may
be viewed as a relic
the
corporative
Who-
"master" of
his science,
originally re-
tion
and
gratis,
who
salary.
The
distinction
was
more
sharply
drawn when,
130
the
philosophical faculty as
well.
With
after
this
the
degree
disappeared,
the maintenance
of
instruction
being
its
now
In
for
demand
additional proofs of
who
posed.
An
dissertations
in
type or in
"trial-lecis
not
certain
period
(commonly
studies
at
the university.
It
may
be
it
may
be truth-
TEACHERS: PRIVATDOCENTEN
y^l
is this
The
it
whom
ished
professorial
collegia
are
replenso.
While
or claim to
appointment to a professorship, he
he shows fairly excellent merit,
may
yet,
if
particularly in the prosecution of scientific research, very well count on reaching at least an
Of course
exceptions.
which he spends in
tially the value of
this capacity
have essen-
an apprenticeship.
He
has
art,
of
His activity
which
is
the
number
of his hearers,
is
certainly of the
Above
all,
and that
is
132
The
first
avoid
and
if
The consequence
every university.
this condition
of
German
of
lecturers in the
free choice
instructors
students.
The
of
the official
For
wider range,
such as philology,
and
philosophy, there
is
Privatdocent or extraordinarius,
universities
several,
and in large
who
lecture on the
same
sure.
subjects
To
be
THE TEACHERS
I33
But even
sities, so
suits
his
taste
or his
convenience
better.
The
and better
known
he
is
most cases a
Yet the
influ-
It is also
latter
stand
much
the
students in
is
undoubt-
to impart fresh-
134
out
man
is
is
preserved from
withdraw comdoctrines,
and disregard
all that is
he should
investigations, he
re-
youth he must
part in the
movements
of the times.
To
an
sor
occupation which
is
often
wrongly held
profes-
German
is
a thing
which has
the
THE TEACHERS
ject,
135
by a lively
interest, continual
and thorough
Another point
nection.
is
The
upon
is
not
own
it is
unrestricted
choice.
Naturally, however,
not strictly
is
reached
by
reflection
habit, calculation,
courses.
Yet
it
the
German student
after
all,
not really
who
He
if
generally finds,
that
is
not the(
in-
struction as
is
The
136
/i
'
any form,
it
would
cer-
fA few
here.
eral.
may
At first sight the custom may seem illibWould it not be better to do away with
which
In the
abolished everywhere else?
has been
relations
would seem
to have cer-
The payment
the throw-
sum
all
student to attend
ing open of
the
intellectual
should be paid
once for
all in the
graduating-examinations of
and
liberal arrangement.
Yet
it
will gen-
erally be
1
The
professor
is
which no fees are charged, and of which each bound to deliver a certain number. Tr.
LECTURte-FEES
to the old practice
is
137
It
must be
sought in
of professorships, etc.,
by a new dispensation.
average were struck
it is
On
an
fluctuations.
On
the
much weight
own money,
which
may
be urged.
First,
and uses
has
it to
The
case
would
sum
he acquires
by payments, the
amount
of
which
is
own
discretion.
The
introduction
one general
tuition-fee
lar
would lead
all
to uncertain
and irregu-
attendance on
the authorities
would then
gener-|
138
A
which he
means
to attend.
Secondly,
now
way
fulfil
is
income
in
which he
have no
doubt whatever
j
that,
abolished,
'
make
,
itself
felt
to
and
in
quantity; that
is,
kind
of sinecure, perhaps
of deputies.
The clergy
of the
of former
many examples
find
is
same thing,
and we might
The same
tries
result
The
at
stranger in
the
Germany
is
wont
to be
amazed
number of lectures delivered weekly by the German professor.^ To this tendency, innate
^
The author
American pro-
fessor in mind.
An
German
LECTURE-FEES
in
139
minimum
that will
would make no
lant
exception.
consequence would be: increased, more vigisupervision and more exact control, so
is
guard of
liberty.
And
thirdly,
the
system
making him
to a certain extent
indepen
He would
be a mer(
Thus
tion
it is
payment
of separate course-
fees is a
of
German
to transj
university.
would tend
a
form the
university into
bureaucratically
1
of the university in
German sense of the term. The freedom which the German university offers is one of
her chief attractions;
and
it
is
because the
Still, it
institutions.
Tr.
140
]
professorship
a
liberal
office,
but
profession, that
has
an especial
charm
2.
The Teaching
As was man
marks, the character and the duty of the Geruniversity instructor are marked out by
:
two points
,
he
is
at once
an
is
i:qiyestigator_j!ind_a
teacher.
It
is
The
first
point
teacher,
but
and selection
of profes-
of success in
teaching regard
had
make
scientific researches.
Howall the
is
same in
is
here said
true
mainly
inasmuch
as there is
is
judgment
side
of
the
141
ment
Of the form
varieties, lectures
and
exercises.
Lectures
The
tance
instruction;
even
first
to-day,
place.
They likewise
upon the
professor,
it
being
The
In their
subject-matter a difference
is
also traceable, in
fall to
vate"
lectures,
lectures^.,
\
most commonly concern themselves with sub-\ jects of narrower range, it may be a minor
branch of the science, or the interpretation of an author, or perhaps a group of problems
142
The
dif-
manifests
of time
itself,
furthermore, in
the
amount
I'.the
:
"private" course
as
many.
of
The
lecture, as a
form
academic instruc-
derisive criticism.
all
man-
Year
patient listeners,
years
ago.
as
was done
five
hundred
we
better,
The stay
a costly
university
is,
after
all,
only
always
free
from
danger.
And
in
fact, if
it
down
LECTURES
143
acknowledge
that
(to
use
"
Schleiermacher's
why such
man
sell
may
Yet dictation
at least out-
itself
most comIn
pletely,
and
forms,
and impersonal.
of courses
Another reason
the
lec-
great
turer.
number
given by a single
The
real
real lecture, on
the
other hand
the
justi-
has
its
and
of St.
144
dictate after
and
to
the reading of
known.
we may
thus formulate:
some science in
entirety,
which
it
manner
T
and
this
view should be
lecturer's
it
own engrossment
it is
On
not
its
proper task to
If
it
should
would always be
at
disadvantage,
and exposed
Even
point
a
of
in
of
subject-matter,
LECTURES
145
On
it
impression that
so
it is infinite
and hard
of
to grasp,
endless
is
the
variety
facts,
books,
us.
to take
It
hand and be
his guide.
and orderly
and indicates
him
of
these problems.
It
presents
to his
final decision.
All this may well enough be contained in a book and books in plenty result from lecture;
courses.
But
146
These
lie,
above
at once
subject-matter,
its
of its
signifi-
book
is
a dead
inspires
no
propaa
When
who
man man
it
whom we
trust,
we
ity.
first
its
actual-
It is
countries of which
we have read
in books or
He
tells of
how one
reaches them,
offer.
profit the
land can
things
grows in
us.
Africa or America
exist no longer
LECTURES
is
147
SO
much
faith in
encouragement
such
is
the attitude
science.
From
ing before us
reality in the
mind
minutiae
which no science
and laboriously
gained
develop-
ments
take on an importance
without which he
would
It
was thus
may
be permitted to introduce
study of Aristotle.
"We had
all
heard a good
we
to read
But when,
148
man appeared
who
were,
still
it
faith
"
Who would
learn,
must
is
first first
believe."
To
help to this
belief
the
nor
this
Another consideration
//
is
this:
book
is
fixed.
From
the exter-
amount
this
easily surveyed
by the mind.
to
Nor
n
J
is
produced,
little
little,
in the presence
of the audience.
It is well
LECTURES
149
mere contemplation
this reason a
of
what already
exists; for
map which
in an
latter
may
be in
est with
not easily
by a text-book, and
lecturer.
upon the
As he
relations of
lively
moment,
evident comparison.
In such
contact with
them he comes to
helpful,
feel
what
is
really alive
and
and what
is bootless,
mere
hair-split-
as
fl
The text-book
aims at unity and systematic progress, by preference after the synthetic method, proceeding
from principles,
to details.
The
lecture-course
150
|>
movement;
it
need
fol-
may
to
low
j
this course in
differ-
seem
have
pedagogical advantages.
On
The
tions
facts
ers
with an ex-
start
from well-known
up
an
way from
^vaei
rjfia,';
to the irpoTepov
is
the
way from
that which
nearer to
Then,
too, the
text-
is
of himself he
ter
may
for
greater minuteness
treatment, in
may
tem.
The
LECTURES
151
uniformity
may
and
different
matters
may
be
very
of so
means
doing.
the
inci-
more exhaustively
may happen
;
to ex-
unusual interest
at the time
and
it
would
as it
would be unwise
the overloading
'j
up
all such.
But
lecture-course
usual in text-books,
Minuteness
of
To impress
of the
a great mass of
hearers
would be
What
they
'y
much
memory
full of facts,
its
im-
own
obser-
way
in
which
it is
incorporated in
152
I
they have
this,
the
mass of
detail,
good advantage
The
it is
and
much
better
than books.
be scientific instruction.
But
the lecture
may
be regarded from
still
who
delivers
own
mind
new and
a
in short,
new
rather
it
does
service
which
it
gives
of
own
book.
the .world by
German
text-books,
e.g.
in
jurisprudence,
may
LECTURES
153
man
professors
learn
lecture.
in a discussion of this
same
subject,
:
may bring
Writing
is
our consideration of
it
to a close
"
fluence
ex-
so,
of chief
importance,
in
chemistry or physiology;
discourse explains what
or in archseology,
is
wherever the
as in clinics,
shown,
and
art-history.
Since this
from
The value
Whatever
effect it
it
pro-
This does
154
not,, of course,
lect-
ure,
at the
ity.
moment
of delivery
lias
a sheer impossibilof
No
one
any science
that theTvhole
and the
details are
would have
to arrange his
materials
is
for the
not necesof
demanded by considerations
lecture, then, will
rule, to
teaching.
The
have to be
prepared.
This leads, as a
to say,
noting
down
be
and so
to regularly
[Heft].
more or
and
less complete,
to one's familiarity
one time
may
ment
notes
of
the idea,
or
formulae,
catchwords.
To dispense with
to the
entirely
self-confidence,
the hearers.
room
to
them
LECTURES
tions, arid
155
is
the
like.
The" lecture
not in-
injured by the
use of notes
its
purpose
is
merely to present
form.
But
the delivery
must be
so
far
free
and that he
moment.
off of a
if
complete
manuscript
to be avoided,
is
to be preserved.
it
A lecture
which
is
imparted by a deIt
which
rivets one's
of
attention,
and
to
fresh creation
essary.
It is
not
uncommon
to alternate dictation
are
commonest
in
166
is
The substance
of
what
rigid,
is
stated
and the
destroyed.
The
lazy hearer
is
mere pauses
there
is
When
no
matter by his
own
thought, and to
is
fix it in his
own language.
outline,
There
making
easier for
them
to find their
way, and
Seminars
The
to
an important supplement
the lecture-courses.
To
place
a certain
of
extent
they
have
taken
the
the
former
SEMINARS
"disputations";
ferent,
ISY
character
is
is
yet
their
dif-
not, as
in
the
knowledge already
knowledge.
I
The seminars
tific
research.
was
originally
different.
The
earliest
of
their
in
kind,
the
philological
seminars
founded
were intended to
be,
pedagogical seminars
in
fact
Wolf) before
technic
which the
taught,
of
of philological
is
research was
and
the
this
degree
philological seminars
and
societies
con-
Herr-
others, all
them being
teachers.
The same
true of the
numerous
of philosophy,
They
all,
158
ceptions,
ment
form.
of the
work
This
is
mode
of
In general,
the
method followed
bers
is
memof the
instructor.
The
tory, of political
able
to
command; he
The
own way
to the solution.
essaj',
when handed
the
port,
in, is
and
meeting
of
of
the
the
director,
pointed out.
The seminars
The
are,
exercises of seminars
of
in natural science
course,
somewhat
differently
carried
REPETITORIA, ETC.
out,
159
Where
it is
particu-
should be
common
Under the
direction of an instructor
is
inter-
monuments
or
some philosophical
theological
writer
thought.
are official
seminars,
which
offering similar
training, as
may
A
is
Repetitoria and
classes
for
review,
or
"quizzes."
properly be to
make sure
160
tion of
to solve difficulties, to
principles
and conceptions.
However
desirable
and
the Prus-
Minister of
their adoption
sities
between 1840
and
1850
they
have,
importance.
The cause
is
presuppose,
if
and
attended, and
his
often changes
It is
instructor
unknown people, who are not even acquainted among themselves. Another obstacle is the
fear of
ridicule to be incurred
bj"-
blundering
Under these
LEHRFREIHEIT
1(31
giving supplementary
of
by a succession
to explain
questions
lectures
or of
wrong answers,
his
general
that in
recent times practical exercises of this and of other kinds have attained a greater importance
in the faculties of law, in close connection with
the lectures.
Lehrfreiheit
With
German^
what he
If
believes,
is
is
indissolublyi
'
connected.
he
to be
an independent
scientific investigator,
and
The
case
is
different
in
the schools;
the
new truth,
old.
The schoolboy
1(52
The
universities
themselves
for
in
the
texts,
and
The
were
accepted.
Truth
exists
is
The dogmas
of the
church
received a
new
to be a
one
who
pro-
LEHKFREIHEIT
f esses his
163
To
his
and
everywhere accepted.
No
a philologian
new
merely demanded of him that he adduce good grounds for his new theories.
It
is
only in
made
In regard to theology,
siastical authorities
it is
of course eccle-
church
who
Their presumption
in pos-
The only
toward dogma
is
The
task
to render
them
inaccessible
164
tions to dogma.
To
this
of
equipped to recognize
in
the
and
to root
them
out.
estab-
church.
is other-
The
servants
of
servants
the
be without
scientific
training.
And
so
demands
ence,
of the church
latent,
of sci-
now
now breaking
out in open
in
his
violence.
The
LEHRFREIHEIT
right and his duty to teach what
in his
is
165
establishedy'
]
mind
is
con-
the
The
government,
the
At one time
the scruples
trines
suppressed
at another, it
and then
it
who
on
are attacked.
Of
late the
government
has,
toward the
latter party,
which accounts
the
status,
theological faculties.
It has
why
are
these efforts
They
opposed as
166
of
Since external
Be-
the
In the
Roman
of
voluntary adhe-
The former
is
is
simpler
Life
is
the purely
Absolutism
as a
form of government
it
two elements.
scientific
There
is
a similar
relation
between
grown together
but even
conflict
often
in conflict, it
is
true,
without
no
Whoever
LEHRFREIHEIT
in the
Jgy
end desire
clerical seminaries
and
spirit-
ual exercises
things
Catholic
the
being
very
from
its
been said
of states, that
by the
birth,"
self-same
is
powers which
them
The other
defend
its
science which
is
now and
then has to
It finds
it
Lehrfreiheit
philosophy.
arrayed against
who
demand
that
it
In the
it
ties
an atheistic philosophy
of
is
tolerated
which
makes a business
undermining the
faith
and
The
lecture-rooms of
of
social democracy,
of anarchy;
and
declared useless to
combat
these, so long
168
Even
of such charges,
is
German
universities and
It
whether
is
right,
a nonentity and
can have no
effect.
is
Philosophy
renewed
in
human
unbiassed contemplation of
things existing.
recognition
of
As they
new
and
by science.
It fol-
lows that every age must renew the attempt at formulating final and comprehensive ideas on
I
it
is
its
philosophy.
LEHRFKEIHEIT
169
and we
life
and
fruitfulness, in
avails itself
more conscien-
by earlier thought.
it
itself
the
predecessors,
and
of
modifying
it
may
see
renounce this
right,
tigation,
Phi-
The same
be philosophical
when
it
is
subjected to any
of
unhampered
and
it
such circumstances.
Instruction in philosophy
is
certain
170
con-
and conscience.
We
find
this
matter of
We
should ex-
fast
to
assumptions
to
must not be
tested, or
by outside author-
It
is
The
one condition of
and above
"It
is
and then
it
to prescribe beforehand
on which side
shall fall."
Of
If
he knows or
must
much importance
not
to the
whole subject.
What
is
LEHRFREIHBIT
171
and
of life.
It is especially
an idealistic philosophy to
which
it is
privilege
Every
a suspicion of
its sincerity,
and deprive
it
of influence.
1"
complete Lehrfreiheit,
is
complete
libertas
philosophandi,
The
of the form;
to
done by the
The manner
and
its
of lecturing is restricted,
dignity.
To
treat
with
172
popular meetings
which
is
tigation of truth.
He
If
how
can
it
ions of fools,
when
the task of
making them
is
men
so great?
error,
he must
exhibit
to
them
Besides, no contra-
parliament,
is
open and
free,
attacked
may defend
itself
In
it
the
is
may when he
speak, and
heard.
The
comprise in his
own person
the defendant as
is
not worthy to
LEHRFREIHEIT
be judge.
173
The
professor's task is
not that of the orator; the orator seeks to captivate the judgment of his hearers, that they
may
/^
follow
aim
and
at
him blindly, while the professor should making his hearers independent of him
them on
to freedom of
at leading
view and
n
judgment.
accustomed
CHAPTER V
STUDENTS AND THE PTJESUIT OF STUDY
The
ing springtime of
It
is,
above
all,
their
memory
of the
mature man as
For this
is,
and
fullest
life.
whole
school,
firm-set
own
He
ward
ciates
life to his
own
and
his surroundings.
Nor
is
the dis-
own power;
to accomplish, or
he may,
if
he choose, omit to
set himself
His
life
is
I75
responsible
/
In later
life
many
restrictions.
Family
life
brings a thousand
himself to care
life
for.
Professional and
;
official
limits
are
Such
is
the
who
will exert
must
and
On
is
years.
Youth measures
by
ideas,
and
|
I '
world by thought.
Idealism
is
once the
life,
the "Philistines."!
iln German student-slang "Philistine"
is
man
the
name
Tr.
176
Previous Training
states the statutory require-
In
all
German
of
ment
full
for
admission
to
the
is
university with
the
a
privileges
study
testimonium
maturitatis
\_Reifezeugnis'\
of
gymnasium,
and
this
is
nation
\_Reifeprufung'\
which
concludes
It
is
the
that
true
young men
of
triculated without
such
testimonium,
but
of admission to the to
state examinations,
The gymnasial
course
may
not be begun
Besides
now possess
viz.
those of mathe-
The Bealschule
same
is
attention to mathematics
tically the
bears prac-
Tk.
AGE OF STUDENTS
177
of
the
philosophical
faculty,
while
the
"higher"
questioned by
many whether
this exclusiveness
can maintain
itself
A hundred
kind of school-training.
The requirement
of
of Study
The
In general
it is
Down
to a
178
younger,
the
university being
In
fact, the
much maturer age were not much present day. The cause of
extremes of age were
more
the
definite set-
tling
of
preparatory
courses.
1
dents
rigid
'
gymnasial course
development.
To
science.
l!
German and French, mathematics and natural science, history and geography, are now imporThe general contant subjects of instruction.
sensus of opinion
or graduate of a
now
gymnasium,
eighteenth century
it
was thought
coming
curriculum by
LENGTH OF STUDY
J 79
The length
of study prescribed
by law varies
In
e.g.
in Bavaria,
The
minimum by
ever
suffices,
a good deal.
hardly
the
average
The year
of military
The demand
is
among
study
all,
that an end be
of
However
per-
mits a young
cessfully,
man who
and who agrees to pay his own expenses while "with the colours," to substitute one year of active military
180
may
us
be in
itself,
on every
side.
means an increase
narrowing of the
drawn.
and consequently a
field
It does not
depth
of
study.
help of
make
tasting the
longer,
student
life
a few terms
of
those
who
still
end would
lose the
ability
to
The
by
by the execution
Such a and is not obliged to live in barracks. Every university town in Germany now has a garrison, and a student in military uniform is a
person
is
called an Einjahrig-frHwilliger,
very
common
sight.
Tk.
VACATIONS
181
to
quarter,
to
increase
the period of
which
is
wont
to irritate professional It
is
men
year
of
or nearly two-fifths
it.
tional
natural
tendency to shorten
little pieces at
each end,
vice
is
is
very commendable
by
of the vacations.
recreation,
would be unduly
long.
But, in
certainly not
a reproach
sors,
by university teachers.
be cast at the
Many
profes-
may
German
of
them
of
is
done in Germany
/
f
182
f
Among
natural that
up
entirely
to recreation.
It
may
be that
many
take this
view of them, but probably not those who work most faithfully in term-time, who will find a
good use
Nor do
It
is
them down
of
in a very beneficial
way by
mankind
at large
and by impos-
may
be most
to
But
him
and opportunity
for
extended
travel, the
It
is
for all.
He
is
best off
whose work
is
done
the
essentially
jurist, the
with books
philologian.
the
It
is
theologian,
student of medicine or of natural science to work, for he has not the "institutes "^ at his
' i.e.
clinics, etc.
Tk.
'
MODE or LIFE
183
The
tional
opportunities
in
the vacation-courses.
the
overcrowded
in
term-time,
might be
many an
active
older student,
practitioner
who
means
for
more
would be
Mode
It
of Life
was
said
above
that
in
the
present
and discipline
have
in
been abanthat
doned.
is
Nothing remains
Germany
The student
hires his
some
and
in
some
like the
Te.
184
town he
has, as
a rule, a small
bedroom be-
term.
at a restaurant.
is
in general
rela-
tives in the
letters of
introduction
may spend
There
is
this
way
little or
nothing of
refined
society.
Above
all,
impossibility,
living.
and imperil
An
Oxford
for
of a
German town.
colleges,
We
English
MODE OF
traditions of centuries.
LIFE
185
community
These
of offering
work in
of
many
suffer keenly
from loneli-
to believe that
in-
Where
there
are
such,
e.g.
Melanchthon House
in Berlin, the
great.
demand
is
The cause
offer.
The subjection
liberal,
to house-rules,
no matter
how
tration be in the
themselves,
is felt as
one
is
of his fellow-
students.
The
feeling
is
186
attitude of dislike
commonly
as-
sumed
in
that par-
And
Such
another
certainly
the
frequent
arrangements imply for their complete adoption the permanence of stay seen in English
Expenses of Students
I of
may add
students.
great majority of
German
ing
the
vacations
(four
months),
[or
1250 and $500]; the average probably falls between 1200 and 1500 marks. A small number exceed this
greater
figure,
amount by considerable; a
money by
and the
tlie
student engag-
Tr.
CHANGE OF UNIVERSITY
like.
187
'(
The stipends
and existing
The
in-
come from
these,
owing
frequently quite
The public
when,
of a "time
owing
the small
who should be
trained for
the public service was looked upon as a necessary part of public policy and it was with this
;
the
sixteenth
were
established.
Since,
however,
of
wealth and
the
number
of
have largely
Change of University
The change from one university to another just alluded to is in Germany an old custom,
deeply rooted in the Germanic migratory spirit. The number of those who spend their entire
188
not
least
majority attending
at
a second, and
versity.
many
that
is
a third
or fourth
uni-
Although
this
too far
and
the case
when
it is fol-
lowed
to
away
his time in
yet
in gen-
advantage
is
low a
figure.
Above
of
great impor-
As Conrad
is less
North.
The gain
in learning
of course, not
There
is
no time
of life
when
man
is
and character
of the world;
his eyes
opened in foreign
his
own
country.
189
beneficial
is
most
In par-
come
at
home
in smaller universities,
and
to
To compensate
all subjects,
and besides
are
U' Societies,
Clubs, etc.
The
the
stud^ents' societies
form an important
universities, as
characteristic
of the
German
those
of
colleges
do for
England and
life
America.!
of
1
They play
the
It
individual;
of
England."
The
many American colleges and universities corresponds closely to that of the German Vereine, while the relation between
college
in
England
is
unknown
in
America.
Tk.
190
determine his
his views
and
habits.
It is not
within
my
German student
societies,
with
its
many
ramifications, but I
lines.
may
indicate the
main out-
Among
the great
number
of such assois
ciations a separate
formed by
these,
Of
again,
three
chief
kinds,
Corps,
BurscJienscTiaften,
ciations, of
sorts of sub-varieties.
The Corps
are mostly
Landsmannschaften,
as
indeed
and
tribes.
At
every
German
smaller
university
there
Corps,
exists
a greater or
number
of
and
all
which includes
the
is
German
universities.
charac-
them
to
191
aris-
aloofness
of the
students, besides
for
them-
of representing
it
^
on public occasions.
The
Burschenschaften
the time of the
War
were
soci-
not
intended
to
be exclusive
throw
ties
awake in
German
students a
new
con-
fill
for people
unity, power,
and freedom.
The
repressive
Persecuted and
at one
sup-
assumed temporarily,
the
time
and another,
1
form
of
secret
societies.
formal Student.
Tr.
192
make the conception of German unity a living force among the people. At the present
day the Burschensehaften, of which several are
often to be found at one and the same university,
are
exclusive societies
like
the
Corps,
from
virhich
many
of
them
old Burschen-
schaft.
}
we
find
as
a
of
many
While
If
in
Nor
this other
difference
unimportant, that, in
almost
exclusively
M fact,
!
their
members
are
An
;
ode of Klopstook's
in
is
" Hall of
Friend-
193
schaften
is
to be
make
been formed in many universities, with tendencies and an exclusiveness resembling those
of the Wingolf.
come
prominent,
particularly
at
the
larger
strict
universities.
associations,
art like
These
whether
and
some
singing
or fencing, or for
mutual im-
provement in
cultivate
scientific
training, or finally to
some particular idea or to follow They differ from the some practical purpose.
older societies chiefly in this, that their purpose
is
more
specific,
their
fellowship
societies as
at
less close
and exclusive.
Such
the
Corps
194
relations with
society
it.
and with
all
who have
fighting
ever
belonged to
society-
German students
as
in
general,
than in Germany
although
numerically
they
represent
but a
much
ties
as a twentieth.
At
medium
size, that
the significance
they are
all,
and
other
students.
And, in
fact,
not be underestimated.
The waste
and
I95
of study, a
narrowing
the proa certain
of sympathy
human to
is
all
such sociein
societies
whose membership
very small.
And
is
yet a
over-
general condemnation of
hasty.
them would be
plenty
we had
statistics of
such matters,
perhaps even a
to be expected in propor-
Some
though
ety's
it
may
reputation
among
outsiders.
Furtheris
often
no really
evil
The gain
is
chiefly
the society
is
a free
and self-governing
corporation,
196
We may
truly
strictly
They
learn no less
circle, for
and demeanour by
It
which
society
many
it;
old
members think
of
their
be grateful to
and
still less
comprehensible
are
surely
wont
to desire
and vanity,
idleness,
and a scarred
face.
To many
Mensur,
is
is
a particular stumbling-block.
There
no occasion to treat here of the duel in genbut a word concerning the students' Men-
eral,
197
not justify
may
I will
the custom,
much
less
which
it
quarrelsome
certainly not
of
make
its
owner beloved
God
or another's life
is,
beneath contempt.
to
There
however,
another side
the
question.
weapons would
ness,
and the
the
is
Corps, etc.,
would
lose a great
practise.
part of
discipline
which they
The Mensur
say,
of
to
own
circle an esteem independent of the size of J. M. Hart, in his book his bank account.
is
replete
with sound sense and close observation, says: "Duelling, it must be admitted, is an evil.
1 The Mensur is not strictly a duel, but rather a fencingmatch between representatives of different Corps or Bur-
schenschaften.
2
Tr.
The German
Universities,
New
York, 1874
198
But
and much
meaner "
and he
The German
sys-
tem has
at least the
and says."
The
is
the
and
to
knowledge.
This
the
is
by
not
German
The student
is
merely to
learn,
to
Of
is
material,
rest con-
German
first
However
diligently
'
PURSUIT OF STUDY
^99
which he should
of to say that he
finally pass with his treasures knowledge thus acquired, we should have
lacks something
nay,
more,
the
all,
independent research.
This pbint has been excellently emphasized by H. von Sybel. It is not demanded of one that
he learn the whole extent of science from the
ultimate sources, which would be impossible.
"
But
this is
important
and
of the processes
this is
necessary
at
processes
some
some
one
remotest results
to
now nobody
in
the
matter,
firmly
and
surely on his
to his
of
is
own feet and decides according own judgment. Such a consciousness independence gained with one's own powers!
a possession
of
inestimable value.
It
isl
is
200
it
is
enough that
down
his dependence
it
upon
never so small;
and the
re-
solution
strip-
ling, in the
Such
is
is
the ideal.
Not
all
reach
it,
and
it
For
a long time
stu-
The goal
is
jurisprudence.
just
committing to memory
most bur-
densome.
LERNFKEIHEIT
201
Lernfreiheit
Freedom
the latter
for
the
learner,
Lernfreiheit,
is
As
academic teacher
tor, so
an independent investigais
the former
thought.
freiheit
And,
in
German
universities
is
to-day as
selects for
good as unlimited.
The student
what
what exercises he
on his will;
there
so
is
no exertion
as advice
much
is
given him
and he
is
at
do no work.i
The
small
fact
that a portion
not
particularly
of the students
named
a certain
In some universities he must at least enter his minimum number of lectures per week.
name
for
Tr.
202
be not advisable to
closely;
somewhat more
of increasing devo-
Whoever understands youth, and knows the circumstances of German universities, will not
all
/doubt that
to
study by more or
semblance of
itself,
the
thing
can be forced;
and pupil,
Such a condition
is
to-day incon-
ceivable in the
historical
German
universities,
if
from their
development
for
no other reason.
of the age of in
It is also inconceivable
by reason
our students;
vain
the
LERNFREIHEIT
instructor
203
to
who could
rule
all obher
meas-
quite useless.
Leaving records of
how much
!
less
of ensuring really
I
work
We
the students to
some amount
memorizing
of
would
calls
Over against
In the
this
we
At present these
i attractive,
impairj
would necessarily
204
their
Who
circle of hearers to
all
whom
is
times
"
Whoever thinks he
under no compulsion
come
"
men;
would be detested by
but by those also
all
^not
who now follow her of their own inclination. He who is not convinced of this from his knowledge of human nature may learn it from
the experience of such measures gained every-
To
instructive to read
what one
who
is
now
exist
and reports
"
issued.
is
And what
is
the
result
The complaint
everywhere made
empty by the
vom
Jahre 1884
Leipsio, 1886
LERNFREIHEIT
middle of November.
increase of attendance
It is well
is to
205
enough
if
some
be noticed between
;
New
but then,
for the
examina-
there
is
no time at
all
remaining for
is
attendance at lectures."
An
important part
at
high
price,
and enjoy
official
recognition.
The
own
lectures,
his quesf.).
tions thereon
given in the
way
in
are conducted.
The
made
at
by
the
F.
Nicolai
one
hundred years
ago,
toms
may
be
read
in
his
Heisebesehreibung.^
He
the
dred students
room.
in
The
lecture
57
ff.
206
schoolboys.
"Some
some
like
conversed,
children,
some
about
them
some nodded.
so noisy as to
who
in a
was called
fiscus
and
sat
when
owed
to
may
J.
com-
parisons
drawn by
of the
tions of the
German
"
professor with
and those
students.
his
The
drawback to the
lot of a
and
Germany."
The
German
who
are willing
and able
to hear.
His relation to
gentleman speaking
another.
He
is
domestic repose
is
not
All these
German
Universities, p. 264
ff,
LERNFREIHEIT
things would certainly be found
207
among
us in
Germany
them
as well,
if
we should
introduce into
supervision.
sent, if
But even though these results should be ab we succeeded in turning all our stu
would neverthe
thei
ideal of th
trary,
destruction of
of
To
men
independence, of
own
responsibility
that
is
German
university, as
two centuries.
Only
to
how
is
commune with
True,
it is
oneself and
govern oneself.
but there
a dangerous school,
no
other.
many do
is
so; nay,
208
has
own
his
risk,
and found
efforts,
way by
own
has
great
importance.
He who
of it
;
by detours and
we
all
learn to
know
and
to observe all
landmarks in order to
the sciences.
So
it is in
Who-
ever has always kept to the highway of prescribed school exercises and of acknowledged
truth,
much
in the land of
And
is
whose
Again, he
is
better helper
and guide
to others that
knows
of his
to stray,
to seek
and to
Even voluntary
and
aberra-
profit to
him who regains the road by his own efforts. The man matures amid the battles in which his
will,
inclinations, gains
Rousseau's words
"
LEENFREIHEIT
are as true here as elsewhere
:
209
"
We
must
risk
t
/
boys
university
is
established.
it.
This, too,
is
the
man's debt to
It has
way.
But
it
become
self-reliant.
It
of
if
he may well
its
one or another of them has succeeded in throwing some light on his path
university with
tions,
but of
its
the whole
with
its traditions
and
band
of stuis
dents, all of
own
will again
who
says:
"We
In
the
school
authority
rules
entire
man, as
it
must
of necessity do;
and
210
later,
our
life.
man
soil
in his life
when
when
even nation,
state,
of him,
as the highest of
commandments, that he
As we
sity, the
German
univer-
words
Schleiermacher
says
is
not
awakening
of a
new
if
life in
this be
Now
this is not
produced by comin
pulsion;
the attempt
not
only in
general,
but
especially
it is
among
As
only through
and
of
love,
found sus-
ceptible
both,
men
can be brought
love, not
through
211
ward restraint,
when we
And
we Gerof
mans,
we who
are
infallible
way
them
how
we
way?
How
can
we
institutions
freedom in
all
its
parts?
Therefore
we
all
Facilities
for Study,
and
the
Use made of
Them
We
the
have
treated above
of
meaning
by the
the
university.
confronts
212.,
student will
now
opportunities.
of lectures, to the
in which he
to
is
to work.
Ancient cus-
tom suggests
he hears.
him
that he write
down what
it cer-
If this
be done intelligently,
It
new and
the
fact
conciser form of
the
^
important
Gneist
jurist
calls attention
that
the
finds
therein
for his
legal
an
excellent
duties
preliminary
of of
training
viva
future
following
voce
processes,
and
to
recall
to
regular order.
for
Simi-
with the
speech and
Thus
it is
if it
be
is
213
own.
It
review and study in private. In later semesters participation in the various exercises will be added to attendance at
lectures.
is
to learn the
method
of the
problems concerned.
may
be assumed
that nowadays, at least in the faculty of philosophy, all the more faithful and diligent stu-
way
or another, in the
whether
members
of public semi-
nars or in private
fact, the
societies
or
courses.
In
forms a necessary supplement to the more receptive mental processes concerned in hearing
lectures.
ods of
by these institutions.
By
them,
students
is
214
which shall
university
continue his
own work.
important adjunct
is
Another
instruction
to
he must
make
with
acquaintance, by his
at
own
careful study,
least
some
of
the
most
important
writers on the
ence.
main branches
from
When
is to
of the subject
book
be
recommended
working
it
up,
and
to
Larger works
of reference
may
most men in
cure.
It will
The
lectures,
menting
on
the
more purely
literary side,
of natural
215
But a study
of the
history of any
when
of,-,
some
own
accounts of others.
When
literary
monuments
to say in philological
and
historical science,
The theologian
which
work
He who knows
it,
subject-
of manuscripts
and
editions, of
and commentaries,
as far as
may
be
necessary or convenient.
To
especial
field *
must be added,
and inclination
may
216
human knowledge.
As
in
make good
claim to attention.
All in-
vestigation ends in those most general problems, the solution of which has from time out
of
as
the
task of phi-
losophy.
oft-
still
best
worth following.
of
By
jotting
down
the train
For
Reading
is
most
fruitful
definite
points of
the
whether historical
or
concerning
a very great
deal
German
217
for
which we have
libraries
to
be thankful.
The university
of the students
have|
by
establishing/1
of reference
the student.
sess
libraries,
equipped,
which
them
out.
It is to be
hoped that
this
abundant provision of
literary
increasing
of
still
further the
in the
traditional
economy
German students
working library
indispensable
of one's
possession
mon
either where
218
When
who
To
regard
or
interest,
facilitates
and
read.
deepens
our
understanding of what
tific
we
The "scien-
clubs "
which have
of
numbers are
for this
among
men of similar aims and promote acquaintance among them. In the better and more permanent of such clubs there may be
together
newcomer in
a friendly
and helpful
spirit,
leading
him
small pieces
of
research,
or
seminar.
EXAMINATIONS
219
Examinations
Everjrwhere
in
Germany
there
now
exist
two kinds of
state
examinations,
academical
and
examinations.
The former
The
state
are held
by
academic
degrees.
examinations
are conducted
by
official
appointed
year
generally
for
term
of
one
by
the
government,
and
controlled
The passing of
condition of
Germany
the
i
admission to the
practice of a profession.
nations have nowadays no practical value except for the professorial career, the possession
of the appropriate degree being requisite for
of
the faculties
as
Otherwise
these
degrees
are
The universal adoption of the system of state examinations is the work of the nineteenth
century.
220
in
official cer-
tificates
some prominent
was
first
an assistant.^
If
he showed him-
capable,
tional duties
For
positions
are of
examinations, having no
Beferendar.
Tk.
EXAMINATIONS
were not
century
221
in Prussia in 1810.
of this
system of
ment
cal connection.
The regeneration
was accomplished
man
state Avhich
in the early
France of
the
with
it
public service.
The
was adopted
new
among
the
by seniority.
The adoption
of
this
:
first, it
them
and secondly,
it
gives the
candidate
who
222
This
is
aminations.
Whoever
must
however
little of
may
be of a candidate's
may
Above
made
all,
the freedom of
suffer
study
is
to
is
thereby.
not conducted as
state examination
which aims
the candiof
by examiners to
whom
dates are
memIt
is
and
to
"cramming,"
assistance.
should concern
itself
may
be readily
EXAMINATIONS
223
portant matters.
scientific
The
real
mental results of
all in
Latham
in
an excellent book,
full
of
acute
observation. 1
the examination
by
representation on the
^
Examining Boards.
Considered as a
Means
of Selection.
CHAPTER VI
THE UNITY OP THE UNIVERSITY
It
is
to
and our
life.
is
this:
far superior in
felt in
No
much
about an
law or medicine.
On
the
by no means unknown
It is
in foreign countries.
which gives a
brilliant
name
to
The
226
Jena a scholar
is
known and
received every-
member
of
faculty.
the
word "university"
The circumstance
all
undoubtedly con-
or rather, existed,
universities.
made
of
schools into
homogeneous
Another consideration
of the subject
under discussion.
its
The
unified
university,
by
members the
unity of science.
By
continually impelling
it
mutual
influence.
The
professors
mee
22'6
daily within
The
ure
it
were,
them
by without notice; he
is
to bring religion
and science
inward reconciliation,
as it is in partic-
of every age.
Roman
This
lives
apart.
it, it is
power
by
of influencing
As
Protof.
affected
all
all.
branches
them
like
One need
insig-
men
Schleiermacher,
It is
by no means an
German
universities that
of
most
of
Protestant
227
sci-is
often found
German; the
former
is
irreligious,
religious movement.
pose directly.
We should
and
their
influence
reciprocal.
He
them
to bring
On
and strengthens
these
investigators
eight of
There are seventeen such faculties in Germany, and Roman Catholic theology (including Braunsberg)
and Tubingen
have
228
German
science
toward philosophy
with phi-
historian
and the
The friendship which united von Savigny and Jacob Grimm, the founder of the
and the founder
as a
of
symbol
and
historical in-
vestigation
exists
in
Germany.
Mention must
made
science
to
another;
indeed,
it
not rarely
overstepped.
The philosopher
229
Wundt
also
of
medicine
of
and physiol-
Mommsen was
originally
jurist
and professor of law before he was made professor of history; Zeller, the historian of phi-
losophy,
was
at first a theologian
and
for
many
all
faculty of philosophy.
And, what
is
more,
these
men began
to
The intimate
relations
the school;
it
is
Yet
it is
extremely
common
to
dis-
230
regarded.
them now
of their
own
faculty.
Above
general faculty.
constantly represented.
The
strongest contin-
gent
is
whom
and
perhaps most
of
nearly universal.
The students
those
medicine
yet even
among them
who
entirely ig-
The opposite
case
is
not
infrequent,
members
work and
and so
on.
It
is
students,
is
thereby facilitated.
the university
231
Nor
is
among
themselves in daily
and in the
There
"scientific
is
probably
less intimate
them students
and
of law
and
of
philology, of theology
of medicine,
become
acquainted, and
here begun.
tage.
many
is
This
no insignificant advan-
Whoever
member
of another profession
has assumed a
class,
and
its
representa-
nisi ignorantem.
The unity
it,
a feeling of unity
and
and
of
money.
232
demic world,
old, at
it
which en-
own
inner relations.
The
chief danger
ever-increasing
division
of
of to
and the
resulting
specialization
study.
The
faculty of
medicine seems
large
and
isola-
tion,
time of the beginner more decidedly and exclusively than any other.
ever, is at
phy.
This faculty
233
it
tion of the
of natu-
phenomena
of
life.
This
tween
the
faculty
of
philosophy
and
the
as separate techni-
cal
or professional
schools,
presupposed the
In
in proportion as
professional
it,
veloped within
this
in
just that
degree does
power
of serving such a
general purpose.
mathematical lectures have taken on the character of fachwissensehaftlich or special instruction for specialists, they are
no longer attended
by students
of
similar transformation
going on in the
lect-
The
234
Of course
depend
research.
no possibility of retro-
upon which
scientific
mighty
advances
upon,
of
We
are called
of
however,
to
"specialism," of
oversat-
longs to a university
to
In particular
home
phy.
appropriate
for
"public" lectures;^ to
of
hearers,
to the
learning,
in-
To
counteract the
as
toward
excessive
as
specialization,
well
among
HI
instructors
among
students.
1
surplus of professional
See above, p.
235
the
may endanger
is
thereby
promoted.
On
the
The
last point to
be touched
upon
is
the
Unity of
all
German-speaking Universities
among Themselves
The German
off
universities,
taken
altogether,
constant
as the
In
foreign
especially
the
English
type,
this
phenomeremain
non
unknown.
As
their students
own
uni-
favours
is
its
own
graduates.
In Germany this
may
rather speak
of the
the
236
force
^
university from
among
outsiders.
to itself
from
German
in order to increase
this the territorial
Germany has
contributed.
There
to
the
There can
is
preferable to
Though
the changes
to
share
in
the
common
life,
and
constantly supplied
No
account,
chiefly to
German
uni-
Tb.
'
CONCLUSION
237
defects
which
are not
wanting
as many-
any hnman
institution,
and such
if
men nowadays
idea
is,
love to contrast, as
ideal
they were
conception.
The
most impor-
tant part of
it, its
what
in
its
it is
that the
German people
the
pos-
universities.
we read
acter of
in his essay
On
we should name
tinction, a mirror
to be held
It is rather this: in
them
and
is
development,
its satisfaction,
of
by
which
made easy
238
a higher sense of
life
is
Of the
be
we may well
proud;
me
APPENDIX
UNIVERSITIES
First Period
Prague (Austrian), 1348. Vienna (Austrian), 1365.
Heidelberg, 1385.
Cologne, 1388-1794.
Erfurt, 1392-1816
Leipsic, 1409.
Kostock, 1419.
Second Period
Greifswald, 1456.
Mentz, 1477-1798.
Freiburg, 1457.
Tubingen, 1477.
Wittenberg, 1502-1817.
1472-1802.
Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1506
Treves, 1473-1798.
1811.
Third Period
Marburg, 1527.
Kdnigsberg, 1544. Dillingen, 1549-1803.
Jena, 1558.
Olmiitz
(Austrian),
1581-
1855.
Braunsberg, 1568
organized, 1818.
re-
Paderhorn, 1615-1818.
Strasburg,
Helmstadt, 1576-1809.
newly
239
240
Rinteln, 1621-1809.
APPENDIX
Bamberg, 1648-1803.
Duisburg, 1655-1818.
Kiel, 1665.
Altdorf, 1622-1807.
Osnabruck, 1630-1633.
Fourth Period
.Halle. 1694.
ilunich, 1826.
;
Breslau, 1702
1811.
Gottingen, 1737.
Erlangen, 1743.
^
V
'^
Munster, 1780.
Berlin^ S09^
Bonn, 1818.
man, partly
in French).
APPENDIX
VERSITIES
II
UNI-
Of the great number of such works, which are for the most part merely special pamphlets, or orations, only some of the more important are here given. [Titles in brackets have been added by the translator.]
1.
General Works
iiber
Universi-
Ranke's
Historisch-politische
Zeit-
schrift: 1832).
Grimm,
(in
J.,
Grimm's Kleinere
S.,
1849
Dbllinger, J.
und
1868.
was da
ist
Helmholtz, H., Ueler akademische Freiheit: 1877. (Inaugural address, University of Berlin.) Zeller, E., Ueber akademisches Lehren und Lernen: 1879.
241
242
APPENDIX
II
und als Werkstalte der loissenschaftlichen Forschung. In the Deutsche Rundschau, September, 1894, pp. 341367.]
auf den
Universitaten, Erlangen,
1844.]
[Dubois-Reymond,
Berlin, 1869.]
E.,
Ueber Universitdts-Einrichtungen,
Attention
tions of
is
Dahlmann, C. F., Politik, 2d ed., 1847. Mohl, R. von, Polizeiwissenschaft, Vol. I., 3d ed., 1866. Marquardsen, H., Article Universitaten, in Bluntschli und
Brater's Deutsches StaatsworterbucTi, Vol. X., p. 677
ff.
Among
VHart,
foreign publications
may
here be noticed
J. M.,
German
;
Universities.
Narrative of Personal
Experience
Brisac,
New
York, 1874.
L' Universite de
Edmond Dreyfus,
Bonn et I'enseigne-
[The translator has treated the subject at considerable length jn his article German Universities, in the International
Encycloposdia,
New
ed..
New
York, 1892,
2.
History
As yet there is no comprehensive historical account. The demands justly made upon such a work are not fulfilled by Meiners' Geschichte der Entstehung und Entwickelung der Jiohen Schulen unseres Erdteils ; 4 vols., 1802.
APPENDIX
Fragments
II
243
universities,
German
Middle Ages, will be found in Vol. IV. of Karl von Raumer's Geschichte der Padogogih. It is only since the necessary material has been made accessible by extensive publication of portions of the archives, and since the way has been prepared for a comprehensive
account by treating the various universities separately,
that a real history has become possible.
promised by
thus far
versities
Such a work is Kaufmann, but only the first volume has appeared, which treats of the non-German uniJ.
its title is
I.,
:
Universi-
tdten; Vol.
1888.
the history
Universitciten
:
1885.
2 vols., Stuttgart,
1883-4.
(Forms Parts
II.
and
III. of the
Second
In these is given mainly a conspectus of the history of governmental administration in the field of education, in the different countries of Europe.
Among
periods or subjects
Denifle, H.,
iers bis
may be mentioned
the following
Mittelal-
1885.
uni-
(First
versities.)
[Compayrd, G., Abelard and the Rise of the Universities, New York, 1893.] Kammel, Otto, Die Universitdten des Mittelalters, in Schmid's Geschichte der Erziehung von Anfang an
bis
auf unsere
1,
1891.
244
APPENDIX
II
Universitats-
und
Gelelirtenleben
im
Tholuck, A., Das akademische Leben des 17. Jahrhunderts mit besonderer Beziehung auf die protestantisch-theologischen Fakultdten Deutschlands, 2 vols., 1853-4.
Stintzing, R. von, Geschichte der deutschen Rechtswissenschaft: 1880-4.
of the
(Ad-
[Baumgart, M., Grundsdtze und Bedingungen der Ertlieilung der Doctorwurde bei alien Facultaten, etc., 4th ed.,
Berlin, 1892.]
Goldschmidt,
1887.
L.,
Rechtssludium
und
Priifungsordnung:
Puschmann, Th.,
1889.
ties
of particular universi-
Erfurt
in
Gottingen
tingen, 1855.
by
Saal-
feld
and Osterley).
4 vols., 1765-1838.
APPENDIX U
Greifswald
:
245
Kosegarten, Geschichte der Universitat Greifswald: 1857. Halle HoHbauer, J. C, Geschichte der Universitat zu Halle :
:
1805.
Heidelberg:
Hautz,
J.
F.,
Geschichte
der
Universitat
Heidelberg.
2 vols., 1862.
A. Thorbecke's Geschichte
I.,
1886) promises to
Universitat.
2 vols., 1746.
Munich:
stadt,
Prantl,
C,
Landshut, MUnchen.
:
2 vols., 1872.
Universitat Tubin-
Tubingen
gen.
1849.
Geschichte der Universitat
Vienna: Aschbach, J., Geschichte der Wiener Universitat im ersten Jahrhundert ihres Beslehens. 2 vols., 1865-7. K. Kint, Geschichte der Universitat Wien. 2 vols.
1854.
3.
Organization,
etc.
3 vols.,
Staates,
Schulen in Preussen
3d
ed., 1887.
Vol.
II.
Ascherson, F., Deutscher Universitdtskalender. Published since 1872 semi-annually, and containing announce-
ments of
lectures, etc.
Kukula, R., and Triibner, K., Minerva : Jdhrbuch der gelehrGives a Fourth annual issue, 1894-5. ten Welt.
conspectus of the organization, personnel, the universities of the world.
etc.,
of all
246
Conrad,
der
J.
J.,
APPENDIX
Das
II
letzten
50 Jahre: 1884.
:
English translation by
Universities for the Last
Hutchison
Sehelling, F.
Erdman,
Vorlesungen
1858.
iiber
Sludiums
[F.
his novel Greifenstein (New York, 1890), gives a very faithful picture of some phases of German student-life. Tb.]
Marion Crawford, in
Note. By an oversight the following title was omitted from Division 1, p. 242
:
APPEN
STATISTICS OF THE UNIVERSITIES
(Eeom Ascherson's Deutscher
Vniver-
DIX
III
Winter Tekm,
1894-95)
1894.
Theology.
INDEX
Abiturient, the German, xix,
178.
College
population
in
the
Academic
degrees and practice the professions, 108. Senate, 94. Albertus Magnus, 19.
in
Dean,
American college, the, different from English public fessors, 206, 207. school, French lyc^e, and German gymnasium, xiv Duns Scotus, 19. a factor in making for a broader intellectual life and Eichhorn, Minister
a higher type of citizenship, xvii transition between, and the university, xix. universities as teaching institutions, xxi; Prof, von Hoist on, xi, xii. Aquinas, Thomas," 19, 143. Aristotle's philosophy, 31, 147,
;
of
Edu-
many
of
them
1.
162.
219.
9, 68, 69,
227.
58.
of, 2.
Francke, A. H.,
and use
of
German common
schools, rise
histori-
development of, during Middle Ages, 1 dates of their foundation, 18-20, and Ap-
251
; ;
; ; ;
252
pendix
I.
;
INDEX
contrast between,
freedom of instructors,
97,
98; mode of appointing the professors, 98; the faculty's right of nomination, 99; emoluments, 101 relations between the universities and
;
manism, 41 denominational, 45 those founded in Catholic countries, 47, 48 Protestant, 48; strict theological teachfaculties of ing in, 50, 51 law, medicine, and philosophy, 52 decline in the character of, at the close of the 17th century, 55, 56 universities of the 18th century, 57 Halle, 57,61; Gottingen, 62; ;
; ; ; ;
the Church, 101 the Protestant Church, 102 the Roman Catholic Church, 103-105; relations to the community, 105 the professions, 100, 107 schools of technology, 107, 108 academic culture a passport- to society. 111; the teaching class and cost of livmg, 116; caste, 122; the professors, 126; the private docent, 127 sqq. ; the venia legendi, 130; the ordinarius,
; ;
133; lecturers
132,
64;
in,
German
64;
replaces Latin
rationalistic
rise of
philosophy, 64; universities of the 19th century, 65 Berlin, ib. ; Breslau, Bonn, Munich, 66 they cease to wear the sectarian garb of the State Church,' 66; increase in the professorships, 72;
; ; '
the teaching, 140 141-153; the function of the lecture, 145 form of the lecture, 153-156 seminars, 156-159; repetitoria and conversatoria, 159 Lehrfees, 136 lectures,
; ;
specialization work, 72; scientific study of medicine, 75 change in the faculty of philosophy, 77-81 the gymnasiums and their teachers, 82-84, 87 the universities in their relations to the State,
; ;
;
independent investigation of truth, 172 age of students and length of study, 177 sqq. ; the vacations and
167, 168;
;
89 under the control of the sovereign, 90; their legal status, 93; discipline maintained by the Rector and the Senate, 95 the Dean, 95, 96
; ;
183; for study, 184; expenses of students, 186 change of university, 187 societies and clubs, 189; significance and value of, 194-196 duelling, 196-198 the object of study, 198; Lernfreiheit, 201 sqq. ; facilities for study and the use made of them, 211; the stulife,
facilities
;;
INDEX
253
dent's private reading, 214; Lachmaun, 69. university libraries, Landesschulen, 120, 121. 217 seientiiic clubs, 217 exam- Latham on Examinations, 223. inations, 219; the civil ser- Law and medical schools, of vice, 221; unity of tlie uniuniversity rank in the United States, XXV, 8, 9. versity, 224 sqq. ; Protestant theology and science, 226; Law V. Politics as a profession, students' intercourse, 231 8,9. influence Lehrfreiheit, xxi, 161, 167. specialism, 234 of local feeling in favour of Lepsius, 70. Lernfreiheit, xxi, 201. universities, 236. Leibnitz, 55. Gesner, 64, 65. Lot, F., on L'enseignment Siip^Gneist, quoted, 212. rieur en France, 85. Goethe, quoted, 153. Grimm, the Brothers, J. and Lotze, 228.
; ' ' ;
W.,
70.
of, 61.
Luther, 41.
Mommsen,
229.
71.
Haupt,
Hegel,
69.
9, 68, 69, 98, 227.
Hugo, xxi.
Hermann,
Heyne,
9, 63.
Hofman, A. W.,
Niebuhr,
70.
Humanism and
the Reforma-
tion, 38, 41-43, 53; Humanism, the New, 63, 110. Humboldt, W. von, 8, 69.
Hussite disturbances, 19. Hutten, 41, 42. Hyde, President, quoted, xv.
xxi,
Johns
xxiii,
Hopkins
XXV, xxviii.
University,
Pestalozzi, 110. Philistine, definition of, 175. Philosophy, historic faculty of, the glory of a university,
xxviii, 10.
Kant,
Kastner,
Polytechnica, 107.
254
Protestant
INDEX
Church,
the,
ment
91,
of research,
180,
181,
199, 209.
Ranke, Leopold,
9, 70.
69, 147.
Reymond, Du
Bols, xxlx.
Roman
Its
Catholic Church, and control over doctrinal teaching, 164, 160. Rousseau, quoted, 208, 209.
Ruckert, F.,
Savlgny,
238.
70.
von,
9, 227.
74,
228,
237,
Schelllng,
Schiller, 9.
Vacations and work, the, 181. Virchow, Prof. R., his Lernen und Forschen, quoted, xxili.
Vereine (student clubs) Volksschulen, 110.
,
193.
Waltz,
9.
,
William IV
detests Hegelian rationalism, 68. Wlngolf, the (Studepts' Christian Associations), 192.
20, 43.
of,
work
in
American Wittenberg,
xxx,
universities,
Statistics
sities,
danger
of
German
III.
univer-
Appendix
Wohlfahrtsanstalt, the, 90. Wolff, Christian, 58, 59; his philosophy, 60, 61. F. A., 9, 65, 69, 157.
Wundt,
pursuit
of
229.
Zeller, 229.
Zeitgeist, 78.
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