Antennas definition

An antenna is defined by Webster's Dictionary as A useful metallic device (as a rod or wire) for radiating or receiving radio waves The IEEE standard definitions of terms for antennas defines the antenna or aerial as A means for radiating or receiving radio waves In other words antenna is a transitional structure between free-space and a guiding device

Antenna
From system point of view, an antenna is a transducer that changes energy from one form to another As a receiver it changes the energy from electromagnetic to electric or magnetic energy As a transmitter it changes the energy from electric or magnetic to electromagnetic energy

EM energy
From electromagnetic theory: The electromagnetic energy consists of two packets of energy: the magnetic and electric (one does not exist with out the other) Half of the energy is in the electric-field and half of the energy is in the magnetic-field. One gives rise to other.

Transmission medium
The wave guiding device being an interface between source and the antenna is called the transmission medium and it can appear in the form of A Coaxial cable OR a Waveguide (hollow pipe) For transmitting antenna the transmission medium transports energy from transmitter to the antenna.

While for a Receiving antenna the transmission medium transport the energy from receiver to the source.

Radiation resistance
From circuit point of view, the antennas appear to the transmission line as a resistance, R rad, called Radiation resistance. Radiation resistance is used to represent the radiation by the antenna. The radiation resistance is caused by the power radiated from the antenna P rad. 2 Prad = I Rrad

Radiation resistance
In effect, the radiation resistance represents the power lost by radiation from the antenna (similar to heat lost) The greater the radiation resistance, the more the energy is radiated. Radiation resistance is not related to any resistance in antenna itself, but a Virtual resistance (does not exist physically) that represents the radiation by the antenna.

Transmission line Thevenin Equivalent

The antenna in a transmitting mode can be expressed as a Thevenin equivalent circuit. Where Vg = voltage source generator (transmitter) Zg = impedance of generator (transmitter) Rrad = radiation resistance (related to the radiation power as Prad = IA2 Rrad ) RL = Load resistance (represent the conduction and dielectric losses) jXA = antenna reactance Antenna impedance: ZA = (Rrad + RL) + jXA

Optimization of the antenna system

The antenna is said to be optimized when the energy generated by the transmitter is totally transferred to the antenna. In ideal case, the energy generated should be totally transferred to the Rrad. However, in practical system, due to lossy nature of transmission lines and antennas, losses occurs such as;

Conduction loss, dielectric loss and losses due to reflections (mismatch) at the interface between the transmission line and the antenna. Hence, energy generated is not totally transferred.

Impedance Matching
Practically, it can be said that the system is optimized (Maximum power is delivered to the antenna) under impedance (conjugate) matching. Conjugate matching condition: RL+ Rr = Rc and XA = -Xc

Standing waves
The EM waves (incident waves) while passing through the transmission line are reflected back due to mismatch. Consequently, the reflected waves create constructive and destructive interference patterns referred to as standing wave, inside a transmission line. This standing wave represent pockets of energy concentrations and storage. The losses due to the transmission line, antenna, and standing waves are undesirable.

Reduction of losses
How can we reduce the losses? Losses of Lines. .1 Loss in Antenna. .2 Standing waves. .3 By utilizing low-loss lines. By the reduction of Loss resistance represented by RL Through matching the impedance of antenna to the characteristic impedance of the line. (Smith Chart)

Radiation Mechanism (single wire)

Conducting wires are material whose prominent characteristic is the motion of electric charges and the creation of current flow. Let us assume that an electric volume charge density, represented by qv (columbs/m3), is distributed uniformly in a circular wire of cross section area A and volume V.

Radiation through single wire

The total charge Q within volume V is moving in z direction with a uniform velocity of vz (meters/sec). It can be shown that the current density JZ (amperes/m2) over the cross section of the wire is given by Jz = qv vz If the wire is made of an ideal electric conductor, the current density Js (amperes/m) over the surface of the wire is given by Js = qs vz where qs (coulombs/m2 ) is the surface charge density. If the wire is very thin (ideally zero radius), then the current in the wire can be represented by Iz = ql vz where ql (coulombs/m) is the charge per unit length If the current is time varying, then the derivative of the current Iz can be written as dIz = ql d (vz) = ql az dt dt where d vz/dt = az (meter/sec2) is the acceleration. If the wire is of length l, then l dIz = l ql d (vz) = l ql az dt dt l dIz = l ql d (vz) = l ql az dt dt This is the basic relation between current and charge, and it also serves as the fundamental relation of electromagnetic radiation. According to this equation: To create radiation, there must be a time varying current OR an acceleration (or deceleration) of charge. To create charge acceleration (or deceleration) the wire must be curved, bent, discontinuous, or terminated.

Periodic charge acceleration (or deceleration) or time varying current is also created when charge is oscillating in time harmonic motion.

Conditions for radiation

If a charge is not moving, current is not created and there is no radiation. If the charge is moving with a uniform velocity: There is no radiation if the wire is straight, and infinite is extent. .1 There is radiation if the wire is bent, curved, discontinuous or truncated. .2 If charge is oscillating in a time-motion, it radiates even if the wire is straight.

Wire configurations for radiation

Example:

By energizing the source, charges are accelerated in the source-end of the wire. At the other end of the wire deceleration of charges occur due to reflection. Due to accelerated and decelerated charges radiated fields are produced at each end and along the remaining part of the wire Shorter or more compact duration pulses produces stronger radiation with a broad frequency spectrum. while continuous time-harmonic oscillating charge produces, ideally, radiation of

. Radiation mechanism (two-wires)

single frequency

The guided wave traveling along a transmission line which opens out tends to be radiated and tends to launch a free space wave as the separation approaches the order of wavelength or more The guided wave is planer while free-space wave is spherically expanding.

Dipole (t=T/4)
The figure displays the lines of force created between the arms of a small center-fed dipole. These lines are created in first quarter of the period, and the lines have traveled outwardly a radial distance l/4.

Dipole (t=T/2)
For this example assume that the number of lines formed are three. During the next quarter of the period, the original three lines travel an additional l/4 (a total of l/2 from initial point)

Current distribution on a thin wire Antenna

Consider a lossless two wire transmission line as shown in figure: The movement of charges creates a traveling wave current, of magnitude Io/2 along each of the wire. When the current arrives at the end of each of the wires, it undergoes a complete reflection (equal in magnitude but with 180o phase shift) The reflected traveling wave, when combined with the incident traveling wave, forms in each wire a pure standing wave of sinusoidal form.

The current in each wire undergoes 180o phase reversal between adjoining half-cycles. For a balanced two wire transmission line: The current in a half cycle of one wire is of the same magnitude but 180o out of phase from that in the corresponding half cycle of the other wire. If in addition, the spacing between the wires is very small (s<<l), the fields radiated by the current of each wire are essentially cancelled by those of the other. The net result is an almost ideal (and desired) non-radiating transmission line.

Current distribution on Flared transmission line

As the transmission line begin to flare as shown in figure:

It can be assumed that the current distribution in unaltered in form in each of the wires. As the distance between the two wires of flared section not close to each other, the fields radiated by one do not cancel that of the other. Therefore, ideally there is a net radiation by the transmission line system.

Current distribution on linear dipole

Ultimately, the flared section of the transmission line can adopt the form shown in figure;

This figure is showing the geometry of widely used dipole antenna. Also classified as Standing wave antenna. (due to standing wave current pattern)

The current distribution pattern depends on the length of each arm of the dipole.

Because of the current cyclical spatial variations, the current standing wave pattern of a dipole longer than l undergoes 180o phase reversals between adjoining half cycles as shown in figure. Therefore it can be said that the phase of current in all parts of the dipole is not same. In turns, the fields radiated by some parts of the dipole will not reinforce those of the others. As a result, significant interference and canceling effects will be noted in the formation of the total radiation pattern.
This effect can be seen in the radiation pattern for l/2 dipole and 1.25l dipole. Pattern for 1.25l is shown in figure below;

The radiation pattern for l/2 dipole is shown in the figure below;

For a time harmonic varying system of radian frequency w = 2 p f, the current standing wave patterns of the figure below shows the maximum current excitation for any time.

The current variations, as a function of time can be obtained by multiplying current standing wave pattern of previous figure by cos (wt). The current variations as a function of time on a l/2 center fed dipole are shown in the figure below for (0 t T/2) where T is the time period.