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CELLULAR WIRELESS NETWORKS

Cellular technology is the foundation of mobile wireless communications and supports users in locations that are not easily served by wired networks. Cellular technology is the underlying technology for mobile telephones, personal communications systems, wireless Internet and wireless Web applications, and much more. Cellular networks are conveniently grouped into three generations. o The first generation is analog based o The second generation is digital o Finally, third-generation high-speed digital systems

Cellular Systems (or) Cellular Network Organization

Cellular network is the use of multiple low-power transmitters, on the order of 100W or less. Because the range of such a transmitter is small, an area can be divided into cells, each one served by its own antenna. Each cell is allocated a band of frequencies and is served by a base station, consisting of transmitter, receiver, and control unit. Adjacent cells are assigned different frequencies to avoid interference or crosstalk. The first design decision to make is the shape of cells to cover an area. A matrix of square cells would be the simplest layout to define the below figure. If the width of a square cell is d, then a cell has four neighbors at a distance d and four neighbors at a distance d. As a mobile user within a cell moves toward the cell's boundaries, it is best if all of the adjacent antennas are A hexagonal pattern provides for equidistant antennas as shown in the below figure. The radius of a hexagon is defined to be the radius of the circle that circumscribes it. For a cell radius R, the distance between the cell center and each adjacent cell center is d = R.

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Operation of Cellular Systems:

The below figure shows the principal elements of a cellular system. In the approximate center of each cell is a base station (BS). The BS includes an antenna, a controller, and a number of transceivers, for communicating on the channels. The controller is used to handle the call process between the mobile unit and the rest of the network. At any time, a number of mobile units may be active and moving about within a cell, communicating with the BS. Each BS is connected to a mobile telecommunications switching office (MTSO), with one MTSO serving multiple BSs.

Normally, the link between an MTSO and a BS is by a wire line, although a wireless link is also possible. The MTSO connects calls between mobile units. The MTSO is also connected to the public telephone or telecommunications network and can make a connection between a fixed subscriber to the public network and a mobile subscriber to the cellular network. The MTSO assigns the voice channel to each call, performs handoffs, and monitors the call for billing information. Two types of channels are available between the mobile unit and the base station (BS): o Control channels and traffic channels. Control channels are used to exchange information having to do with setting up and maintaining calls and with establishing a relationship between a mobile unit and the nearest BS. Traffic channels carry a voice or data connection between users. The steps in a typical call between two mobile users within an area controlled by a single MTSO: Mobile unit initialization: When the mobile unit is turned on, it scans and selects the strongest setup control channel used for this. Cells with different frequency bands repetitively broadcast on different setup channels.
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The receiver selects the strongest setup channel and monitors that channel. The effect of this procedure is that the mobile unit has automatically selected the BS antenna of the cell within which it will operate.

Mobile-originated call: A mobile unit originates a call by sending the number of the called unit on the preselected setup channel. The receiver at the mobile unit first checks that the setup channel is idle by examining information in the forward (from the BS) channel. When an idle is detected, the mobile unit may transmit on the corresponding reverse (to BS) channel. The BS sends the request to the MTSO.

Paging: The MTSO then attempts to complete the connection to the called unit. The MTSO sends a paging message to certain BSs depending on the called mobile unit number (as shown in the below figure). Each BS transmits the paging signal on its own assigned setup channel.

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Call accepted: The called mobile unit recognizes its number on the setup channel being monitored and responds to that BS, which sends the response to the MTSO.

Ongoing call: While the connection is maintained, the two mobile units exchange voice or data signals, going through their respective BSs and the MTSO.

Handoff: If a mobile unit moves out of range of one cell and into the range of another during a connection, the traffic channel has to change to one assigned to the BS in the new cell The system makes this change without either interrupting the call or alerting the user.

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Other functions performed by the system include the following: Call blocking: During the mobile-initiated call stage, if all the traffic channels assigned to the nearest BS are busy, then the mobile unit makes a preconfigured number of repeated attempts. After a certain number of failed tries, a busy tone is returned to the user. Call termination: When one of the two users hangs up, the MTSO is informed and the traffic channels at the two BSs are released. Call drop: During a connection, because of interference or weak signal spots in certain areas, if the BS cannot maintain the minimum required signal strength for a certain period of time, the traffic channel to the user is dropped and the MTSO is informed.

FREQUENCY MANAGEMENT
Introduction: The frequency management in a cellular system divides the entire channels available into the subsets that can be assigned to each cell in two modes. It may be either fixed or dynamic. A fixed channel that contains subsets is allocated to a cell site in a long term basis. But when a call is on progress a particular channel is allocated to a mobile unit in a short term basis. It is handled by MTSO. The terms frequency management and assignment are different. o Frequency management includes operations such as Select set-up channels and the voice channels. Numbering the channels. Grouping voice channels into the subsets etc. o Channel assignment does the allocation of specific channel to the cell sites and mobile units. Numbering the Radio Channels: In the year 1988 the total number of radio channels was 832. But many of the cellular mobile systems operate on 666 channels. A Channel would consist of two frequency channel bandwidths BW1 and BW2. The frequency for mobile transmit is 825.03 MHz and for cell-site (base station) transmit is 870.03 MHz under channel. Under channel 666 the frequency of mobile transmit is 844.98 MHz and frequency of cell-site (base station) transmit is 889.98 MHz. In frequency chart the 666 channels are divided into two groups such as block A system and block B system.

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Example of frequency management chart

From above chart, o 42 set up channels / control channels: Block A Channels 313 333 Block B Channels 334 - 354 o Voice channels: Block A Channels 1 to 312 Block B Channels 355 to 666 Set-up Channels: The set-up channels are also called as control channels. They are designated to set-up calls in the system. But even without set-up a system could work where all the 333 channels in either group A or group B will be used as voice channels. Then the mobile has to scan all 333 channels. In such a way an idle unoccupied one is found out. If frequency reuse technique is applied to cellular system the set-up channels acts as control channels. In a N = 7 frequency reuse pattern with three 1200 sectors in a cell. 21 set-up channels are present. The set-up channels are classified with respect to their application. They are o Access Channels It is used for the mobile originating calls. o Paging Channels It is used for the land originating calls. If the system is having low traffic the access and paging channels are one and the same. Thus set-up channels depend upon the situation. Access channels: When the mobile set scans all the 21 set-up channels (in block A) two conditions are considered. o If there is no set-up channels are operational in block A then the mobile unit switches automatically to block B. o If there is a strong set-up channel with no message detected within, the second set-up will be selected by the scanner.

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Paging Channels: Every cell or site is assigned with its own control / set-up channels. FOCC The forward set-up channel in every cell site is mainly used to page the mobile unit with control message of same mobile station. o The same message is transmitted by different set-up channels and there is no simulcast interference. o A better algorithm used is to page from all the cell sites.

CHANNEL ASSIGNMENT
The process of allocation of specific radio channels to mobile units and cell sites is known as channel assignment. Channel Assignment to cell sites: The channel assignment to the cell sites is considered with respect to fixed channel assignment. Here the concept of fixed channel assignment is that channels are assigned to cell sites for a long period. The two different types of channels assigned are: o Voice Channels o Set-up channels i) Voice Channels: The assignment of voice channels in every cell site is with idea of reducing the adjacent channel interference (ACI) and co-channel interference (CCI). As discussed earlier the voice channels are expressed as two groups named as A and B in the frequency management topic. ii) Set-up Channels: In each cell in the system is allocated with 21 set-up channels. The corresponding cluster sites are N = 4, N = 7, or N = 12, reuse pattern. In case the antenna used is omnidirectional then one set-up channel is enough. It may lead to many unused set-up channels. But it is better not to use the set-up channel of neighbourhood of the block (from A to B or from B to A). So that it will avoid interference in the system. Channel assignment to the mobile units in moving status: The channel assignment process to roaming mobile unit is high during peak hours, of morning and evening. But it is opposite during the night hours when traffic intensity reduces. In case the traffic is uniform in the system, there will be larger backward energy observed from the mobile unit also; the antenna pattern will not affected the system.
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But the case is reverse if the traffic is non-uniform. To have smooth call handling even for the cell sites away from city the transmit power should be low for voice and set-up channels for few cell-sites. For controlling the call acceptances and handoff calls three different methodologies are applied. a) Frequency assignment b) Tilted assignment c) Underlay overlay cell arrangement. Frequency assignment: The frequency assigned to a cell is a part of one set or more than that of the total available 21 set-up channels. If necessary borrowing of channels is also permitted. In a sectored cell we can also assign required frequencies with no interferences with neighbouring sectors of the cell. Tilted antennas: The tilted directional antenna set is capable of eliminating interferences. It is a good design practice to till an antenna instead of reducing antenna height, particularly to handle foliage areas. Underlay-overlay In the cellular arrangements shown below the inner circle represents underlay and the outer circle represents overlay structures. In these two areas the voice powers transmitted are slightly adjusted. To each area a unique voice frequency is assigned.

DROPPED CALL
It is after the call is established but before it is smoothly terminated That is a completely established call by set-up channel is dropped out before the smooth termination. When there is no voice channel availability, a call cannot progress. Such a condition is known as blocked call since it has not received a free channel. But dropped call is different from blocked call. Occurance of dropped call is an undesirable cellular situation which we do not want in a system. If the number of dropped calls grows the cellular system will become less efficient.

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HANDOFFS
Handoff is the procedure for changing the assignment of a mobile unit from one BS to another as the mobile unit moves from one cell to another. Handoff may be network initiated, in which the decision is made solely by the network measurements of received signals from the mobile unit. Alternatively, mobile unit assisted handoff schemes enable the mobile unit to participate in the handoff decision

Handoff Involves:
Cell blocking probability: The probability of a new call being blocked, due to heavy load on the BS traffic capacity. Call dropping probability: The probability that, due to a handoff, a call is terminated. Call completion probability: The probability that an admitted call is not dropped before it terminates. Probability of unsuccessful handoff: The probability that a handoff is executed while the reception conditions are inadequate. Handoff blocking probability: The probability that a handoff cannot be successfully completed. Rate of handoff: The number of handoffs per unit time. Handoff delay: The distance the mobile unit moves from the point at which the handoff should occur to the point at which it does occur. TYPES OF HANDOFFS Handoffs are broadly classified into two categories Hard handoffs Soft handoffs. The hard handoff can be further divided into two different types intra cell handoffs inter cell handoffs. The soft handoff can also be divided into two different types Multiway soft handoffs softer handoffs Hard handoffs A hard handoff is a break before make connection. MS is linked to no more than one BS at any given time. Hard handoff is primarily used in FDMA and TDMA.

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Soft handoffs It isn't a break before make transition. The call can be carried on both cells simultaneously. Soft handoff is used in CDMA. Handoff Initiation A hard handoff occurs when the old connection is broken before a new connection is activated. The below figure shows a MS moving from one BS (BS1) to another (BS2).

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The mean signal strength of BS1 decreases as the MS moves away from it. Similarly, the mean signal strength of BS2 increases as the MS approaches it. This figure is used to explain various approaches described in the following subsection. 1. Relative Signal Strength This method selects the strongest received BS at all times. The decision is based on a mean measurement of the received signal. In the above figure, the handoff would occur at position A. 2. Relative Signal Strength with Threshold This method allows a MS to hand off only if the current signal is sufficiently weak (less than threshold) and the other is the stronger of the two. If the threshold is higher than this value, say T1 in Figure, this scheme performs exactly like the relative signal strength scheme, so the handoff occurs at position A. If the threshold is lower than this value, say T2 in Figure, the MS would delay handoff until the current signal level crosses the threshold at position B. In the case of T3, the delay may be so long that the MS drifts too far into the new cell. This reduces the quality of the communication link from BS1 and may result in a dropped call. 3. Relative Signal Strength with Hysteresis This scheme allows a user to hand off only if the new BS is sufficiently stronger (by a hysteresis margin, h in the above Figure) than the current one. In this case, the handoff would occur at point C. This technique prevents the so-called ping-pong effect, the repeated handoff between two BSs caused by rapid fluctuations in the received signal strengths from both BSs. The first handoff, however, may be unnecessary if the serving BS is sufficiently strong. 4. Relative Signal Strength with Hysteresis and Threshold This scheme hands a MS over to a new BS only if the current signal level drops below a threshold and the target BS is stronger than the current one by a given hysteresis margin. In the above Figure, the handoff would occur at point D if the threshold is T3. 5. Prediction Techniques Prediction techniques base the handoff decision on the expected future value of the received signal strength. A technique has been proposed and simulated to indicate better results.

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MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL

Medium access control (MAC) algorithms which are specifically adapted to the wireless domain. Medium access control comprises all mechanisms that regulate user access to a medium using SDM, TDM, FDM, or CDM. The fact that several vehicles use the same street crossing in TDM, for example, requires rules to avoid collisions; one mechanism to enforce these rules is traffic lights. The data link control layer (DLC) is subdivided into the logical link control (LLC) and the MAC. The task of DLC is to establish a reliable point to point or point to multi-point connection between different devices over a wired or wireless medium. Motivation for a specialized MAC (or) Why do you need medium access control ? In wireless medium, accessing the medium is different than that of wired medium. In case of wired medium, CSMA / CD are practiced under IEEE 802.3. In this, sender senses the medium to see if the medium is busy, waits until it is free. If the medium is free, the sender starts transmitting data and continues to listen to the medium. If it detects a collision while sending, it stops at once and sends jamming signal. This method does not work in wireless medium, because, in this, collision at receiver is important rather than at the sender. Where as in case of wireless medium, the strength of the signal decreases with the distance which is proportional to 1/d2. If collision takes place in the medium, the signal reduces further and as the spread signal travels in the reverse direction towards the sender. Hence the sender will not find that the medium is busy. Also, wireless medium is faces the hidden and exposed terminal problem and near and far terminal problem as described below. Hidden Terminal: Consider the following diagram:

A sends to B. and C cannot receive A. C wants to send to B. As As transmission is not received at C, it does not sense presence of any signal. That is carrier sense fails.

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When C transmits to B, the signal from A and C arrive at B and collide causing loss of both of signals at B. This has happened as A is hidden from C and vice versa. Exposed Terminal: B wants to send message to A. C wants to send another message to D which is not shown in the diagram. When B sends to A, its carrier is sensed by C and it stops transmitting till B completes transmission and the medium is carrier free. However, A is outside the range of C and even if C transmits, it is not received by A and hence no interference can take place. But as the Bs transmission is received by C, it stops transmission. This happens as C is exposed. Near and Far Terminal: Consider the following diagram:

Consider A and B are transmitting. A is the transmitter and C is the corresponding receiver. Where as B is the transmitter and the receiver is D which is not seen. For similar transmitted power of A and B, the signal of A at C will be drowned by the Signal of B at C. This is because; B is very close to C. B will interfere with As signal at C. This is called near and far field effects.

SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access)

Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) is used for allocating a separated space to users in wireless networks. A classic application involves assigning an optimal base station to a mobile phone user. The mobile phone may receive several base stations with different quality. A MAC algorithm could now decide which base station is best, taking into account which frequencies (FDM), time slots (TDM) or code (CDM). The basis for the SDMA algorithm is formed by cells. A new application of SDMA comes up together with beam-forming antenna arrays. Single users are separated in space by individual beams. This can improve the overall capacity of a cell.
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1. What type of medium access mechanism is used in present mobile communication systems? Ans. In case of 2nd generation GSM mobile systems, FDM A and TDMA are used together. (Write FDMA, TDMA and CDMA)

FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

Frequency division multiple access (FDMA) comprises all algorithms allocating frequencies to transmission channels. Allocation can either be fixed or dynamic. Channels can be assigned to the same frequency at all times, i.e., FDMA combined with TDMA. The latter example is the common practice for many wireless systems to circumvent narrowband interference at certain frequencies, known as frequency hopping. Sender and receiver have to agree on a hopping pattern, otherwise the receiver could not tune to the right frequency. FDM is often used for simultaneous access to the medium by base station and mobile station in cellular networks. Here the two partners typically establish a duplex channel, i.e., a channel that allows for simultaneous transmission in both directions. The two directions, mobile station to base station and vice versa are now separated using different frequencies. This scheme is then called frequency division duplex (FDD). The two frequencies are also known as uplink, i.e., from mobile station to base station or from ground control to satellite, and as downlink, i.e., from base station to mobile station or from satellite to ground control. All uplinks use the band between 890.2 and 915 MHz, all downlinks use 935.2 to 960 MHz. According to FDMA, the base station, shown on the right side, allocates a certain frequency for up- and downlink to establish a duplex channel with a mobile phone.

f
960 MHz
124

935.2 MHz 915 MHz

1 20 MHz 124

200 kHz

890.2 MHz

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TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

In TDMA, certain time slots are allocated for communication. In this case, the transmitter and the receiver use the same frequency but at specific time slot. The receiver can always tune in to a single frequency but listen only during the corresponding time slot. Wired network such as Ethernet, token ring etc work on this principle. In this case, the transmitter and receiver are to be coordinated. In case of FDMA / TDMA both techniques are combined where in one set of frequencies are shared by more than one user.

f5 f4
f3 f2 f1

t1

t2

t3

t4

t5

In the above mentioned diagram, it can be seen that the frequency f1 is shared by more than one user from at different time slot in round robin fashion. Fixed TDM: The simplest algorithm for using TDM is allocating time slots for channels in a fixed pattern. MAC is quite simple, accessing the reserved time slot at the right moment. In this each mobile station knows its turn (circle) and no interference will happen. The fixed pattern can be assigned by the base station. The below Figure shows how these fixed TDM patterns are used to implement multiple access and a duplex channel between a base station and mobile station.

417 s 1 2 3 downlink 11 12 1 2 3 uplink 1 1 1 2

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Assigning different slots for uplink and downlink using the same frequency is called time division duplex (TDD). The base station uses one out of 12 slots for the downlink, whereas the mobile station uses one out of 12 different slots for the uplink. Uplink and downlink are separated in time. Up to 12 different mobile stations can use the same frequency without interference using this scheme. Classical Aloha: In the above, TDMA comprises (include) all mechanisms controlling medium access according to TDM. But, if TDM is applied without controlling access? This is exactly what the classical Aloha scheme does. Aloha neither coordinates medium access nor does it resolve conflict on the MAC layer. Instead, each station can access the medium at any time as shown in the below figure.

If two or more stations access the medium at the same time, a collision occurs and the transmitted data is destroyed. Slotted Aloha: The first alteration of the classical Aloha scheme is provided by the introduction of time slots (slotted Aloha). In this, all senders have to be synchronized, (coordination) transmission can only start at the beginning of a time slot as shown in the figure.

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Carrier Sense Multiple Access: The basic Aloha is sensing the carrier before accessing the medium. This is what carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) schemes generally do. Sensing the carrier and accessing the medium only if the carrier is idle decreases the probability of a collision. But, hidden terminals cannot be detected, so, if a hidden terminal transmits at the same time as another sender, a collision might occur at the receiver. Several versions of CSMA exist. o Non-persistent CSMA, stations sense the carrier and start sending immediately if the medium is idle. If the medium is busy, the station pauses a random amount of time before sensing the medium again and repeating this pattern. o p-persistent CSMA systems nodes also sense the medium, but only transmit with a probability of p. o 1-persistent CSMA systems, all stations wishing to transmit access the medium at the same time, as soon as it becomes idle. Demand Assigned Multiple Access: The reservation period, stations can reserve future slots in the transmission period. The transmission period can be split into periods with and without collision. Demand assigned multiple access (DAMA) also called reservation Aloha. Multiple Accesses with Collision Avoidance: MACA presents a simple scheme that solves the hidden terminal problem, does not need a base station. We know, A and C both want to send to B. A has already started the transmission, but is hidden for C, C also starts with its transmission, thereby causing a collision at B.

In MACA, A does not start its transmission at once, but sends a request to send (RTS) first. B receives the RTS that contains the name of sender and receiver, as well as the length of the future transmission. This RTS is not heard by C, but triggers an acknowledgement from B, called clear to send (CTS). The CTS again contains the names of sender (A) and receiver (B) of the user data, and the length of the future

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transmission. This CTS is now heard by C and the medium for future use by A is now reserved for the duration of the transmission. After receiving a CTS, C is not allowed to send anything for the duration indicated in the CTS toward B. A collision cannot occur at B during data transmission, and the hidden terminal problem is solved. In MACA also help to solve the exposed terminal problem. In MACA, B has to transmit an RTS first (as shown in Figure) containing the name of the receiver (A) and the sender (B). C does not react to this message as it is not the receiver, but A acknowledges using a CTS which identifies B as the sender and A as the receiver of the following data transmission. C does not receive this CTS and concludes that A is outside the detection range. C can start its transmission assuming it will not cause a collision at A

Polling: One station is to be heard by all others, polling schemes can be applied. Polling is a strictly centralized scheme with one master station and several slave stations. The master can poll the slaves according to many schemes. Inhibit Sense Multiple Access: This scheme, which is used for the packet data transmission service Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) in the AMPS mobile phone system, is also known as digital sense multiple access (DSMA).

CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

In this, all terminals transmit on the same frequency probably at the same time and can use the whole bandwidth of the transmission channel. Each sender has a unique random number, the sender XORs the signal with this random number. The receiver can tune into this signal Advantages: All terminals can use the same frequency, no planning needed. Huge code space compared to frequency space. Interferences (e.g. white noise) are not coded. Forward error correction and encryption can be easily integrated

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Disadvantages: Higher complexity of a receiver (receiver cannot just listen into the medium and start receiving if there is a signal). All signals should have the same strength at a receiver. How does CDMA provide connectivity? (10) In this, all terminals transmit on the same frequency probably at the same time and can use the whole bandwidth of the transmission channel. Each sender has a unique random number, the sender XORs the signal with this random number. The receiver can tune into this signal Sender A sends data bit Ad = 1, key Ak = 010011 (assign: 0= -1 & 1= +1) sending signal As = Ad * Ak = (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1); Sender B sends Bd = 0, key Bk = 110101 (assign: 0= -1, 1= +1) sending signal Bs = Bd * Bk = (-1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1); Both signals overlay in space Interference neglected (noise etc.) As + Bs = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) The receiver C receives both these signals as noise. The receiver C wants to receive the signal from A. In this case, key Ak is multiplied bit wise as shown below. apply key Ak bitwise (inner product) Ae = (As + Bs)*Ak = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) * (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1) =2+0+0+2+2+0=6 When autocorrelation is used , this result in output greater than 0, therefore, original bit was 1 When C wants s to receive the signal from B, it makes use of the Bs key Bk as shown below. This results in receiving the B value which is 0 here. Be = (As + Bs)*Bk = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) * (-1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1) = -2 + 0 + 0 - 2 - 2 + 0 = -6, i.e. 0 This method provides a means of medium access for each user without interfering with others. This method is made use of in CDMA based mobile phone technology. How CDMA technique provides immense channel capacity? What is the limiting factor for reception in CDMA technology?(6) In case of CDMA, users access the medium based on their unique identification code. This code directly controls the chipping sequence. ie Chipping (Simple Multiplication or XOR function)
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Larger the size of the code, larger is the capacity of the system. However, adjacent codes are to be orthogonal to each other. When the codes are orthogonal, the vector product of the adjacent codes will result in either 0 or near zero values. Let us consider the chip sequence C1=(1 0 1 1 0 0 01) and C2 = (0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0). The product of C1 * C2 = 0; these codes are said to be orthogonal. Following example describes how connectivity is provided to the user based his unique identification number. In the following picture, the user A wants to transmit the bits 101. His key is 010100100010110011. . The key has a number of bits (may be 100 or more) of which only a part is shown. In this example, the binary 0 is assigned a positive signal value, the binary 1 a negative signal value. After spreading, i.e., XORing Ad and Ak, the resulting signal is As. The varies between +1 to 1.

Similarly, user B wants to transmit the bit 100 with key 000110101000010111 The result of spreading with the code is the signal Bs. As and Bs now superimpose during transmission (again without noise and both signals having the same strength). The resulting signal is simply the sum As + Bs as shown in the below Figure.

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The combined signal will vary between +2 0 - -2. That is when signals of A and B are added, it follows simple addition process. That is 1+1 = 2; +1 -1 =0; -1-1= -2 and hence the values of As + Bs vary in the range of -2 to +2.

Let C be the receiver which wants to listen to As transmission. He will make use of the As key for decoding and realizing the data. The received signal and feeds the result into an integrator. The integrator adds the products (i.e., calculates the inner product), a comparator then has to decide if the result is a 0 or a 1. This is shown in the diagram shown below.

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After synchronization, the combined signal is vector multiplied with the Ak the key of sender A. Here the key is shown to swing between -1 to + 1. When multiplied with the combined signal, following results are obtained. (+2) *(+1)= +2; (0)*(+1)=0; (-2)*(+1)= -2 ; similarly, (+2)*(-1)=-2; (0)*(-1)=0; ( -2)* (-1)= +2 The integrator output is taken. Similarly user C wants to receive the transmission of B, it makes use of the key sequence of B to receive the message as shown below: The received signal and feeds the result into an integrator. The integrator adds the products (i.e., calculates the inner product), a comparator then has to decide if the result is a 0 or a 1 as This is shown in the diagram shown below.

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Compare SDMA/TDMA/FDMA/CDMA.

Approach Idea

SDMA
segment space into cells/sectors

TDMA
segment sending time into disjoint time-slots, demand driven or fixed patterns all terminals are active for short periods of time on the same frequency synchronization in the time domain established, fully digital, flexible guard space needed (multipath propagation), synchronization difficult standard in fixed networks, together with FDMA/SDMA used in many mobile networks

FDMA
segment the frequency band into disjoint sub-bands every terminal has its own frequency, uninterrupted filtering in the frequency domain simple, established, robust inflexible, frequencies are a scarce resource

CDMA
spread the spectrum using orthogonal codes

Terminals

Signal separation

only one terminal can be active in one cell/one sector cell structure, directed antennas

all terminals can be active at the same place at the same moment, uninterrupted code plus special receivers

Advantages very simple, Disadvantages

increases capacity per km inflexible, antennas typically fixed

flexible, less frequency planning needed, soft handover complex receivers, needs more complicated power control for senders

Comment

only in combination with TDMA, FDMA or CDMA useful

typically combined with TDMA (frequency hopping patterns) and SDMA (frequency reuse)

still faces some problems, higher complexity, lowered expectations; will be integrated with TDMA/FDMA

IT2402 Mobile Communication

Year-IV

Semester-VII

UNIT 1(Wireless Communication)