Culture According To Fons Trompenaars Towards globalisation, developing international managers is becoming more and more important.

. Organisations are fostering their own process of becoming international in outlook and practice. One essential point to consider is respect for, and awareness of cultural diversity. Trompenaars defines culture as a series of rules and methods that a society has evolved to deal with the recurring problems it faces. According to him, culture is the way in which people resolve dilemmas emerging from universal problems. We will notice that nations may differ significantly in the ways they approach different issues. Trompenaars has identified 7 main dimensions of culture: 1. The Universal Truth Versus The Particular Instance (The way a society deals with rules) Universalist approach what is good and right can be applied everywhere Whereas particularist gives greater attention to obligations of relationships, commitment to friendship, family obligations, unique circumstances - Rather than one right way of doing things - Little attention is paid to abstract societal codes E.g. given by Trompenaars car hitting pedestrian drivers friend asked to testify that he was within speed limits (but not true) Universalist law very important, therefore go by the law Particularist trustworthy relationships more important, therefore they would rather lie to protect their friend and keep good relationship 2. Individualism Versus Collectivism Trompenaars defines individualism as a prime orientation to the self and collectivism as a prime orientation to common goals and objectives. In collectivist societies, individuals are strongly connected to the community, which they expect would protect them in return. - There is no individual initiative, everything is collective responsibility - There is continuous and intense social contact - Harmony with the social environment and loyalty to the group is of paramount importance On the other hand, individualist cultures will be based on the extent to which society expects the individuals to take care of themselves - Ties between individuals are usually loose - Confrontation is encourages and a clash of opinion is believed to result in higher truth We would see that in individual societies, individual freedom will be highly encouraged whereas in collectivist societies individuals are encouraged to work towards the benefit of the group. 3. Affective Versus Neutral Relationships In affective cultures, individuals are encouraged to openly divulge their feelings in relationships demonstrate their feelings However in neutral cultures, individuals are more detached and objective in relationships Affective cultures are characterized by open and free physical contact with demonstrative vocal communication and strong body language Neutral cultures, involve subtle communication processes hard to distinguish physical contact is mainly reserved for family and intimate friends

4. Specific Versus Diffuse Cultures In specific societies, work and private life are sharply separated relationship is based on work contract, is direct and confrontation is encouraged In diffuse societies where loyalty is given great importance, relationship tends to be close and indirect there is high avoidance of confrontation E.g. Boss asks subordinate help him paint his house Specific cultures subordinate will most probably refuse (not in his work duties) Diffuse cultures even if doesnt want do it, subordinate will accept so as to maintain a good relationship with his boss It is important to recognize that privacy is necessary, but that complete separation of private life may also lead to alienation. It is true that business is business, but stable and deep relationships may eventually mean strong affiliations 5. Achieving Versus Ascribed Status Achievement is related to the personal performance of an individual, that is what you as a person is worth of. Ascription is conferred upon an individual on basis of kinship, connections, age, gender, that is who you are. In an ascribed culture ones relations and connections are more important than his/her personal achievements. E.g. promotion within an organization Achieving: the one who has demonstrated his skills, capabilities and performance will be promoted. Ascribed: you will be promoted according to your relations, age or gender. 6. Time Past, Present And Future Orientation Or Long-Term/Short-Term Orientation We will see that different cultures will have different perceptions and will accord a different degree of importance to time. While some cultures believe the past, present and future are all inter related and connected in other cultures the past and present may be related but the future will be considered separately as we cannot predict the future. In short-term oriented cultures, values are posited towards the past and present. Whereas in long-term oriented cultures, values are more directed towards the future such as savings and persistence. 7. Nature / Environment Orientation This is about whether nature controls ones action (the case of those believing in fate) or is it one who controls ones action. Motivation and values are usually innate, whereas some people believe the individual is bigger than the world, others on the contrary believe the world is big and to be feared. Finally, it will be about whether one allows the environment to control him or instead does he try to control and change the environment. The successful international manager will therefore need to reconcile a number of key dilemmas, which are common to all cultures. The international manager needs to go beyond awareness of cultural differences. He/she will need to respect these differences and take advantage of diversity through reconciling cross-cultural dilemmas.