3.1.Reection of sound by an interface 1.138J/2.062J/18.376J, WAVE PROPAGATION Fall, 2004 MIT Notes by C. C.

Mei

CHAPTER THREE

TWO DIMENSIONAL WAVES

Reection and tranmission of sound at an interface

Reference : Brekhovskikh and Godin .2.2. The governing equation for sound in a honmogeneous uid is given by (7.31) and (7.32) in Chapter One. In term of the the veloctiy potential dened by u = it is (1.1)

1 2 = 2 c2 t2

(1.2)

where c denotes the sound speed. Recall that the uid pressure p = /t also satises the same equation. (1.3)

1.1

Plane wave in Innite space

Let us rst consider a plane sinusoidal wave in three dimensional space (x, t) = o ei(kxt) = o ei(knxt) Here the phase function is (x, t) = k x t (1.5) (1.4)

3.1.Reection of sound by an interface

The equation of constant phase (x, t) = o describes a moving surface. The wave number vector k = k n is dened to be k = k n = (1.6)

hence is orthogonal to the surface of constant phase, and represens the direction of wave propagation. The frequency is dened to be = Is (2.40) a solution? Let us check (2.38). = , , x y z = ik t (1.7)

2 = = ik ik = k2 2 = 2 t2 Hence (2.38) is satised if = kc (1.8)

1.2

Two-dimensional reection from a plane interface

Consider two semi-innite uids separated by the plane interface along z = 0. The lower uid is distinguished from the upper uid by the subscript 1. The densities and sound speeds in the upper and lower uids are , c and 1 , c1 respectively. Let a plane incident wave arive from z > 0 at the incident angle of with respect to the z axis, the sound pressure and the velocity potential are pi = P0 exp[ik (x sin z cos )] The velocity potential is i = iP0 exp[ik (x sin z cos ] (1.10) (1.9)

The indient wave number vector is

i i ki = (kx , kz ) = k (sin , cos )

(1.11)

3.1.Reection of sound by an interface The motion is conned in the x, z plane. On the same (incidence) side of the interface we have the reected wave pr = R exp[ik (x sin + z cos )] where R denotes the reection coecient. The wavenumber vector is
r r , kz ) = k (sin , cos ) kr = (kx

(1.12)

(1.13)

The total pressure and potential are p = P0 {exp[ik (x sin z cos )] + R exp[ik (x sin + z cos )]} = iP0 {exp[ik (x sin z cos )] + R exp[ik (x sin + z cos )]} (1.14) (1.15)

In the lower medium z < 0 the transmitted wave has the pressure p1 = T P0 exp[ik1 (x sin 1 z cos 1 )] where T is the transmission coecient, and the potential 1 = iP0 T exp[ik1 (x sin 1 z cos 1 )] 1 (1.17) (1.16)

Along the interface z = 0 we require the continutiy of pressure and normal velocity, i.e., p = p1 , and w = w1 = 0, z = 0, Applying (2.54), we get P0 eikx sin + Reikx sin = T P0 eik1 x sin 1 , Clearly we must have k sin = k1 sin 1 or, sin 1 sin = c c1 (1.21) (1.20) < x < . (1.19) z=0 (1.18)

3.1.Reection of sound by an interface With (2.56), we must have 1+R=T Applying (2.55), we have iP0 iP0 k cos eik sin + Rk cos eik sin = k1 cos 1 T eik1 sin 1 1 which implies k1 cos 1 T 1 k cos Eqs (2.58) and (2.59) can be solved to give 1R = T = R= Alternatively, we have 21 c1 cos c cos 1 + 1 c1 cos 1 c1 cos c cos 1 R= 1 c1 cos + c cos 1 T = Let m= 21 k cos k1 cos 1 + 1 k cos 1 k cos k1 cos 1 1 k cos + k1 cos 1

(1.22)

(1.23)

(1.24) (1.25)

(1.26) (1.27)

c 1 , n= (1.28) c1 where the ratio of sound speeds n is called the index of refraction. We get after using Snells law that m cos n 1 m cos n cos 1 R= = m cos + n cos 1 m cos + n 1 The transmission coecient is T =1+R = We now examine the physics. 1. If n = c/c1 > 1, the incidence is from a faster to a slower medium, then R is always real. For normal incidence = 1 = 0, R= mn m+n (1.31) 2m cos m cos + n 1
sin2 n2 sin2 n2 sin2 n2

(1.29)

(1.30)

3.1.Reection of sound by an interface is real. If m > n, 0 < R < 1. If = /2, R= n = 1 n

(1.32)

Hence R lies on a segment of the real axis as shown in Figur 1.a. If m < n, then R < 0 for all as shown in gure 1.b. 2. If however n < 1 then 1 > . There is a critical incidence angle , called Brewsters angle and dened by sin = n (1.33)

When , 1 becomes /2. Below this critical angle ( < ), R is real. In particular, when = 0, (2.67) applies. At the critical angle R= m cos =1 m cos

, as shown in gure 2.c for m > n and in 2.d. for m < n. When > , the square roots above become imaginary. We must then take cos 1 = 1 sin2 =i n2 sin2 1 n2 (1.34)

This means that the reection coecient is now complex m cos in R= m cos + in
sin2 n2 sin2 n2

1 (1.35) 1

with |R| = 1, implying complete reection. As a check the transmitted wave is now given by pt = T exp k1 ix sin 1 + z sin2 /n2 1 (1.36)

so the amplitude attenuates exponentially in z as z . Thus the wave train cannot penetrate much below the interface. The dependence of R on various parameters is best displayed in the complex plane R = from (2.71 ) that R + i R. It is clear

R < 0 so that R falls on the half circle in the lower half of the

complex plane as shown in gure 2.c and 2.d.

3.1.Reection of sound by an interface

Figure 1: Complex reection coecient. From Brekhovskikh and Godin .2.2.

Reection and tranmission of sound at an interface

Reference : Brekhovskikh and Godin .2.2. The governing equation for sound in a honmogeneous uid is given by (7.31) and (7.32) in Chapter One. In term of the the veloctiy potential dened by u = it is 1 2 = 2 c2 t2 where c denotes the sound speed. Recall that the uid pressure p = /t also satises the same equation. (2.39) (2.38) (2.37)

3.1.Reection of sound by an interface

2.1

Plane wave in Innite space

Let us rst consider a plane sinusoidal wave in three dimensional space (x, t) = o ei(kxt) = o ei(knxt) Here the phase function is (x, t) = k x t (2.41) (2.40)

The equation of constant phase (x, t) = o describes a moving surface. The wave number vector k = k n is dened to be k = k n = (2.42)

hence is orthogonal to the surface of constant phase, and represens the direction of wave propagation. The frequency is dened to be = Is (2.40) a solution? Let us check (2.38). = , , x y z = ik t (2.43)

2 = = ik ik = k2 2 = 2 t2 Hence (2.38) is satised if = kc (2.44)

2.2

Two-dimensional reection from a plane interface

Consider two semi-innite uids separated by the plane interface along z = 0. The lower uid is distinguished from the upper uid by the subscript 1. The densities and sound speeds in the upper and lower uids are , c and 1 , c1 respectively. Let a plane incident wave arive from z > 0 at the incident angle of with respect to the z axis, the sound pressure and the velocity potential are pi = P0 exp[ik (x sin z cos )] (2.45)

3.1.Reection of sound by an interface The velocity potential is i = iP0 exp[ik (x sin z cos ]

(2.46)

The indient wave number vector is

i i ki = (kx , kz ) = k (sin , cos )

(2.47)

The motion is conned in the x, z plane. On the same (incidence) side of the interface we have the reected wave pr = R exp[ik (x sin + z cos )] where R denotes the reection coecient. The wavenumber vector is
r r kr = (kx , kz ) = k (sin , cos )

(2.48)

(2.49)

The total pressure and potential are p = P0 {exp[ik (x sin z cos )] + R exp[ik (x sin + z cos )]} iP0 {exp[ik (x sin z cos )] + R exp[ik (x sin + z cos )]} In the lower medium z < 0 the transmitted wave has the pressure = p1 = T P0 exp[ik1 (x sin 1 z cos 1 )] where T is the transmission coecient, and the potential 1 = iP0 T exp[ik1 (x sin 1 z cos 1 )] 1 (2.53) (2.50) (2.51)

(2.52)

Along the interface z = 0 we require the continutiy of pressure and normal velocity, i.e., p = p1 , and w = w1 = 0, z = 0, Applying (2.54), we get P0 eikx sin + Reikx sin = T P0 eik1 x sin 1 , < x < . (2.55) z=0 (2.54)

3.1.Reection of sound by an interface Clearly we must have k sin = k1 sin 1 or, sin 1 sin = c c1 With (2.56), we must have 1+R=T Applying (2.55), we have iP0 iP0 k cos eik sin + Rk cos eik sin = k1 cos 1 T eik1 sin 1 1 which implies k1 cos 1 T 1 k cos Eqs (2.58) and (2.59) can be solved to give 1R = T = R= Alternatively, we have 21 c1 cos c cos 1 + 1 c1 cos 1 c1 cos c cos 1 R= 1 c1 cos + c cos 1 T = Let m= 21 k cos k1 cos 1 + 1 k cos 1 k cos k1 cos 1 1 k cos + k1 cos 1

(2.56)

(2.57)

(2.58)

(2.59)

(2.60) (2.61)

(2.62) (2.63)

1 c , n= (2.64) c1 where the ratio of sound speeds n is called the index of refraction. We get after using Snells law that m cos n 1 m cos n cos 1 R= = m cos + n cos 1 m cos + n 1 The transmission coecient is T =1+R = We now examine the physics. 2m cos m cos + n 1
sin2 n2 sin2 n2 sin2 n2

(2.65)

(2.66)

3.1.Reection of sound by an interface

10

1. If n = c/c1 > 1, the incidence is from a faster to a slower medium, then R is always real. For normal incidence = 1 = 0, mn (2.67) R= m+n is real. If m > n, 0 < R < 1. If = /2, n (2.68) R = = 1 n Hence R lies on a segment of the real axis as shown in Figur 1.a. If m < n, then R < 0 for all as shown in gure 1.b. 2. If however n < 1 then 1 > . There is a critical incidence angle , called Brewsters angle and dened by sin = n (2.69)

When , 1 becomes /2. Below this critical angle ( < ), R is real. In particular, when = 0, (2.67) applies. At the critical angle m cos =1 R= m cos , as shown in gure 2.c for m > n and in 2.d. for m < n. When > , the square roots above become imaginary. We must then take sin2 sin2 = i 1 n2 n2 This means that the reection coecient is now complex cos 1 = 1 m cos in R= m cos + in
sin2 n2 sin2 n2

(2.70)

1 (2.71) 1

with |R| = 1, implying complete reection. As a check the transmitted wave is now given by pt = T exp k1 ix sin 1 + z sin2 /n2 1 (2.72)

so the amplitude attenuates exponentially in z as z . Thus the wave train cannot penetrate much below the interface. The dependence of R on various parameters is best displayed in the complex plane R = from (2.71 ) that R + i R. It is clear

R < 0 so that R falls on the half circle in the lower half of the

complex plane as shown in gure 2.c and 2.d.

3.2.Equations for Elastic Waves

11

Figure 2: Complex reection coecient. From Brekhovskikh and Godin .2.2.

Equations for elastic waves

Refs: Gra: Wave Motion in Elastic Solids Aki & Richards Quantitative Seismology, V. 1. Achenbach. Wave Propagation in Elastic Solids Let the displacement vector at a point xj and time t be denoted by ui (xj , t), then Newtons law applied to an material element of unit volume reads 2 ui ij = t2 xj (3.1)

where ij is the stress tensor. We have neglected body force such as gravity. For a homogeneous and isotropic elastic solid, we have the following relation between stress and strain ij = ekk ij + 2eij where and are Lam e constants and eij = 1 2 ui uj + xj xi (3.3) (3.2)

3.2.Equations for Elastic Waves is the strain tensor. Eq. (3.2) can be inverted to give eij = where E= is Youngs modulus and = Poissons ratio. Substituting (3.2) and (3.3) into (3.1) we get ij xj ekk ui uj ij + + xj xj xj xi 2 2 ui uj ekk + + = xi xj xj xi xj 2 ui = ( + ) + 2 ui xi xj = . 2( + ) (3 + ) + 1+ ij kk ij E E

12

(3.4)

(3.5)

(3.6)

In vector form (3.1) becomes 2u = ( + ) ( u ) + 2 u 2 t (3.7)

Taking the divergence of (3.1) and denoting the dilatation by ekk = u1 u2 u3 + + x1 x2 x3 (3.8)

we get the equation governing the dilatation alone or, 2 2 = c2 L 2 t where cL = + 2 (3.11) (3.10) 2 = ( + ) + 2 = ( + 2)2 2 t (3.9)

3.2.Equations for Elastic Waves

13

Thus the dilatation propagates as a wave at the speed cL . To be explained shortly, this is a longitudinal waves, hence the subscript L. On the other hand, taking the curl of (3.7) and denoting by the rotation vector: =u we then get the governing equation for the rotation alone 2 2 = c2 T t2 where cT = (3.14) (3.13) (3.12)

Thus the rotation propagates as a wave at the slower speed cT . The subscript T indicates that this is a transverse wave, to be shown later. The ratio of two wave speeds is cL = cT Since 1 = 1 2 it follows that the speed ratio depends only on Poissons ratio cL = cT 2 2 1 2 (3.17) (3.16) + > 1. (3.15)

There is a general theorem due to Helmholtz that any vector can be expressed as the sum of an irrotational vector and a solenoidal vector i.e., u = + H subject to the constraint that H =0 (3.19) (3.18)

The scalar and the vector H are called the displacement potentials. Substituting this into (3.7), we get 2 2 [ + H] = 2 [ + H] + ( + ) [ + H] t

3.3. Free waves in innite space Since = 2 , and H = 0 we get ( + 2)2 2 2H 2 + =0 H t2 t2

14

(3.20)

Clearly the above equation is satisied if ( + 2)2 and 2 H 2H =0 t2 (3.22) 2 =0 t2 (3.21)

Although the governing equations are simplied, the two potentials are usually coupled by boundary conditions, unless the physical domain is innite.

Free waves in innite space

The dilatational wave equation admits a plane sinusoidal wave solution: (x, t) = o eik(nxcL t) Here the phase function is (x, t) = k (n x cL t) (4.2) (4.1)

which describes a moving surface. The wave number vector k = k n is dened to be k = k n = (4.3)

hence is orthogonal to the surface of constant phase, and represents the direction of wave propagation. The frequency is = kcT = A general solution is = (n x cL t) (4.5) t (4.4)

Similarly the the following sinusoidal wave is a solution to the shear wave equation; H = Ho eik(nxcT t) (4.6)

3.4. Elastic waves in a plane A general solution is H = H(n x cT t) Note: We can also write (4.5) and (4.9) as = ( t and H = H( t where nx ) cT nx ) cL

15

(4.7)

(4.8)

(4.9)

n n , sT = (4.10) cL cT are called the slowness vectors of longitudinal and transverse waves respectively. sL = In a dilatational wave the displacement vector is parallel to the wave number vector: u L = = n (4.11)

from (3.5), where is the ordinary derivative of with repect to its argument. Hence the dilatational wave is a longitudinal (compression) wave. On the other hand in a rotational wave the displacement vector is perpendicular to the wave number vector, uT = H = ex = ex Hz Hy Hx Hz Hy Hx + ey + ez y z z x x y Hz ny Hy nz + ey (Hx nz Hz nx ) + ez Hy nx Hx ny (4.12)

= nH from (3.7). Hence a rotational wave is a transverse (shear) wave.

Elastic waves in a plane

Refs. Gra, Achenbach, Aki and Richards : Quantitative Seismology, v.1

3.4. Elastic waves in a plane

16

Let us examine waves propagating in the vertical plane of x, y . All physical quantities are assumed to be uniform in the direction of z , hence /z = 0, then ux = and Hx Hy + =0 x y where 2 2 1 2 + = , 2 x2 y 2 c2 L t 1 2 Hp 2 Hp 2 Hp + = , p = x, y, z 2 x2 y 2 c2 T t Note that uz is also governed by (4.16). Note that the in-plane displacements ux , uy depend only on and Hz , and not on Hx , Hy . Out-of-plane motion uz depends on Hx , Hy but not on Hz . Hence the inplane displacement components ux , uy are independent of the out-of-plane component uz . The in-plane displacements (ux , uy ) are associated with dilatation and in-plane shear, represented respectively by and Hz , which will be refered to as the P wave and the SV wave. The out-of-plane displacement uz is associated with Hx and Hy , and will be refered to as the SH wave. From Hookes law the stress components can be written xx = ux ux uy ux uy + + 2 = ( + 2) + x y x x y 2 2 2 2 Hz = ( + 2) + 2 2 2 x y y 2 yx 2 uy y (4.17) (4.15) (4.16) (4.14) Hz Hz Hx Hy + , uy = , uz = + x y y x y x (4.13)

yy =

uy ux uy ux uy + + 2 = ( + 2) + x y y x y 2 2 2 2 Hz = ( + 2) + 2 2 + 2 x y x2 xy zz =

ux x (4.18)

2 2 (xx + yy ) = (xx + yy ) = + 2 2( + ) x2 y uy ux + x y = 2 2 2 Hz 2 Hz + xy x2 y 2

(4.19) (4.20)

xy =

3.5. Reection of elastic waves from a plane boundary 2 Hx 2 Hy uz = + y y 2 yx

17

yz = xz =

(4.21)

2 Hx 2 Hy uz = + (4.22) x xy x2 Dierent physical situations arise for dierent boundary conditions. We shall consider rst the half plane problem bounded by the plane y = 0.

Reection of elastic waves from a plane boundary

Consider the half space y > 0, < x < . Several types of boundary conditions can be prescribed on the plane boundary : (i) dynamic: the stress components only (the traction condition); (ii) kinematic: the displacement components only, or (iii). a combination of stress components and displacement components. Most dicult are (iv) the mixed conditions in which stresses are given over part of the boundary and displacements over the other. We consider the simplest case where the plane y = 0 is completely free of external stresses, yy = xy = 0, and yz = 0 (5.24) (5.23)

It is clear that (5.23) aects the P and SV waves only, while (5.24) aects the SH wave only. Therefore we have two uncoupled problems each of which can be treated separately.

5.1

P and SV waves

Consider the case where only P and SV waves are present, then Hx = Hy = 0. Let all waves have wavenumber vectors inclined in the positve x direction: = f (y )eixit , It follows from (4.15) and (4.16) that d2 f + 2 f = 0, dy 2 d2 hz + 2 hz = 0, dy 2 (5.26) Hz = hz (y )eixit (5.25)

3.5. Reection of elastic waves from a plane boundary with = 2 2 = c2 L

2 kL 2,

18

2 2 = c2 T

2 kT 2

(5.27)

We rst take the square roots to be real; the general solution to (5.26) are sinusoids, hence, = AP ei(xyt) + BP ei(x+yt) , Hz = AS ei(xyt) + BS ei(x+yt) (5.28)

On the right-hand sides the rst terms are the incident waves and the second are the reected waves. If the incident amplitudes AP , AS and are given, what are the properties of the reected waves BP , BS ? The wave number components can be written in the polar form: (, ) = kL (sin L , cos L ), (, ) = kT (sin T , cos T ) (5.29)

where (kL, kT ) are the wavenumbers, the (L , T ) the directions of the P wave and SV wave, respectively. In terms of these we rewrite (5.28) = AP eikL (sin L xcos L yt) + BP eikL (sin L x+cos L yt) Hz = AS eikT (sin T xcos L yt) + BS eikT (sin T x+cos T yt) In order to satisfy (5.23) (yy = xy = 0) on y = 0 for all x, we must insist: kL sin L = kT sin T , This is in the form of Snells law: sin T sin L = cL cT implying cL sin L = = sin T cT kT + 2 = kL (5.34) (5.33) ( = ) (5.32) (5.30) (5.31)

When (5.23) are applied on y = 0 the exponential factors cancel, and we get two algebraic conditions for the two unknown amplitudes of the reected waves (BP , BS ) :
2 2 kL (2 sin2 L 2 )(AP + BP ) kT sin 2T (AS BS ) = 0 2 2 kL sin 2L (AP BP ) kT cos T (AS + BS ) = 0.

(5.35) (5.36)

3.5. Reection of elastic waves from a plane boundary Using (5.34), we get 2 sin2 L 2 = 2 (2 sin2 T 1) = 2 cos 2T The two equations can be solved and the solution expressed in matrix form: B SP P SSP AP P = BS SP S SSS AS where SP P SSP SP S SSS

19

(5.37)

S=

(5.38)

denotes the scattering matrrix. Thus SP S represents the reected S -wave due to incident P wave of unit amplitude, etc. It is straightforward to verify that SP P = SSP = SP S sin 2L sin 2T 2 cos2 2T sin 2L sin 2T + 2 cos2 2T (5.39)

22 sin 2T cos 2T sin 2L sin 2T + 2 cos2 2T 2 sin 2L cos 2T = sin 2L sin 2T + 2 cos2 2T sin 2L sin 2T 2 cos2 2T sin 2L sin 2T + 2 cos2 2T cL = cT 2 2 1 2

(5.40) (5.41) (5.42)

SSS = In view of (5.33) and

(5.43)

The scattering matrix is a function of Poissons ratio and the angle of incidence. (i) P- wave Incidence : In this case L is the incidence angle. Consider the special case when the only incident wave is a P wave. Then AP = 0 and AS = 0 and only SP P and SSP are relevant. . Note rst that L > T in general . For normal incidence, L = 0, hence T = 0. We nd SP P = 1, SP S = 0 (5.44)

there is no SV wave. The refelcted wave is a P wave. On the other hand if sin 2L sin 2T 2 cos2 2T = 0 (5.45)

3.5. Reection of elastic waves from a plane boundary

20

then SP P = 0, hence BP = 0 but BS = 0; only SV wave is reected. This is the case of mode conversion, whereby an incident P waves changes to a SV wave after reection. The amplitude of the reected SV wave is tan 2T BS = SP S = AP 2 (5.46)

(ii) SV wave Incidence : Let AP = 0 but AS = 0. In this case T is the incidence angle. Then only SSP and SSS are relevant. For normal incidence, L = T = 0, SSS = 1, and SSP = 0; no P wave is reected. Mode conversion (BP = 0, BS = 0) also happens when (5.45) is satised. Since L > T , there is a critical incidence angle T beyond which the P wave cannot be reected back into the solid and propagates only along the x axis. At the critical angle sin L = 1, (L = /2), or sin T = 1/ (5.47)

by Snells law. Thus for = 1/3, = 2 and the critical incidence angle is T = 30 . Beyond the critical angle of incidence, the P waves decay exponentially away from the free surface. The amplitude of the SV wave is linear in y which is unphysical, suggesting the limitation of unbounded space assumption.

5.2

SH wave
Hx Hy + =0 x y

Because of (5.2)

we can introduce a stream function so that Hx = where 2 = Clearly the out-of-plane dispacement is uz = 2 2 Hx Hy + = + 2 = 2 y x x2 y (5.50) 1 2 2 c2 T t (5.49) , Hy = y x (5.48)

3.5. Reection of elastic waves from a plane boundary

21

1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7

= 0.25 = 0.3 = 1/3

x AP L y L T AS BP

Amplitude Ratio

0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0

= 1/3

= 0.3

= 0.25

BP/AP Bs/AP 40 50 60 70 80 90

10

20

30

Incidence Angle (deg)

Amplitude ratios BP/AP, Bs/AP for incident P waves, for various Poisson's ratios, with a ray representation of the reflection also shown.
Adapted from Graft

Image by MIT OCW.

3.5. Reection of elastic waves from a plane boundary

22

Bs/As

0.2 0.1 0 -0.1 -0.2

x L As T y T BS BP

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

Bp/As

Amplitude Ratio

-0.3 -0.4 -0.5 -0.6 -0.7 -0.8 -0.9 -1.0 5 10

v = 1/3 v = 0.3 v = 0.25 v = 1/3 v = 0.3 v = 0.25

1.8 2.0 2.2 Bs/As Bp/As

Incidence Angle (deg)

15

20

25

30

35

Reflected wave amplitude ratios Bp/As, Bs/As for incident SV waves and various poisson's ratios, with the ray representation of the reflection also shown.
Adapted from Graft

Image by MIT OCW.

3.6. Scattering of SH waves by a circular cavity and 2 2 = 2 y cT y t2 The zero-stress boundary condition implies yz = =0 y

23

(5.51)

(5.52)

Thus the problem for is analogous to one for sound waves reected by a solid plane. Again for monochromatic incident waves, the solution is easily shown to be = Aeiy Aeiy eixit where
2 2 + 2 = kT

(5.53)

(5.54)

We remark that when the boundary is any cylindrical surface with axis parallel to the z axis, the the stress-free condition reads zn = 0, on B. (5.55)

where n is the unit outward normal to B . Since in the pure SH wave problem zn = Condition (5.55) implies = 0, on B. (5.56) n Thus the analogy to acoustic scattering by a hard object is true irrespective of the geomntry of the scatterer. 2 uz 2 = = 2 n n cT n t2

Scattering of monochromatic SH waves by a circular cavity

6.1

Solution in polar coordinates

We consider the scattering of two-dimensional SH waves of single frequency. The timedependent potential can be wirtten as (x, y, t) = (x, y )eit (6.1)

3.6. Scattering of SH waves by a circular cavity where the potential is governed by the Helmholtz equation 2 + k 2 = 2 2 2 + + k 2 = 0, 2 2 x y k= cT

24

(6.2)

To be specic consider the scatterer to be a nite cavity of some general geometry. On the stress-free boundary B the shear stress vanishes, zn = hence =0 n Let the incident waves be a plane wave I = Aeikx (6.5) (6.4) 2 c2 T it e n =0 (6.3)

and the angle of incidence is o with respect to the positive x axis. In polar coordinates we write k = k (cos o , sin o ), x = r(cos , sin ) (6.6) (6.7)

I = A exp [ikr (cos o cos + sin o sin )] = Aeikr cos(o )

It can be shown (see Appendix A) that the plane wave can be expanded in Fourier-Bessel series : e where
n ikr cos(o ) n

=
n=0

ni

Jn (kr) cos n( o )

(6.8)

is the Jacobi symbol:

0

= 0,

= 2, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

(6.9)

Each term in the series (6.8) is called a partial wave. Let the total wave be the sum of the incident and scattered waves = I + S (6.10)

then the scattered waves must satisfy the radiation condition at innity, i.e., it can only radiate energy outward from the scatterer. The boundary condition on the cavity surface is = 0, r r=a (6.11)

3.6. Scattering of SH waves by a circular cavity In polar coordinates the governing equation reads 1 r r r r + 1 2 + k2 = 0 r2 2

25

(6.12)

Since I satises the preceding equation, so does S . By the method of separation of variables, S (r, ) = R(r)() we nd r2 R + rR + (k 2 r2 n2 )R = 0, and + n2 = 0 where n = 0, 1, 2, . . . are eigenvalues in order that is periodic in with period 2 . For each eigenvalue n the possible solutions are n = (sin n, cos n),
(1) (2) Rn = Hn (kr), Hn (kr) ,

where Hn (kr), Hn (kr) are Hankel functions of the rst and second kind, related to the Bessel and Weber functions by
(1) (2) Hn (kr) = Jn (kr) + iYn (kr), Hn (kr) = Jn (kr) iYn (kr)

(1)

(2)

(6.13)

The most general solution to the Helmholtz equation is

S = A
n=0

(1) (2) (An sin n + Bn cos n) Cn Hn (kr) + Dn Hn (kr) ,

(6.14)

For large radius the asymptotic form of the Hankel functions are
(1) Hn

2 i(kr n ) 4 2 , e kr

(2) Hn (1)

2 i(kr n ) 4 2 e kr

(6.15)
(2)

In conjunction with the time factor exp(it), Hn gives an outgoing wave while Hn
(2) (1)

gives an incoming wave. To satisfy the radiation condition, we must discard all terms involving Hn . From here on we shall abbreviate Hn simply by Hn . The scattered wave is now S = A
n=0

(An sin n + Bn cos n) Hn (kr)

(6.16)

3.6. Scattering of SH waves by a circular cavity

26

The expansion coecients (An , Bn ) must be chosen to satisfy the boundary condition on the cavity surface1 Once they are determined, the wave is found everywhere. In particular in the far eld, we can use the asymptotic formula to get

S A
n=0

(An sin n + Bn cos n) ein/2

2 ikri/4 e kr

(6.17)

Let us dene the dimensionless directivity factor

A() =
n=0

(An sin n + Bn cos n) ein/2

(6.18)

which indicates the angular variation of the far-eld amplitude, then S AA() 2 ikri/4 e kr (6.19)

This expression exhibits clearly the asymptotic behaviour of S as an outgoing wave. By dierentiation, we readily see that
kr

lim

S S r

=0

(6.20)

which is one way of stating the radiation condition for two dimensional SH waves. At any radius r the total rate of energy outux by the scattered wave is r
2 uz = r d k 2 eit t r 0 0 k4 r k4 r 2 = d i = 2 r 2 0 2

drz

[ik2 eit ]
2

d
0

(6.21)

where overline indicates time averaging over a wave period 2/ . We remark that in the analogous case of plane acoustics where the sound pressure and radial uid velocity are respectively, p = o the energy scattering rate is

, t

and ur =

r r

(6.22)

r
0
1

dpur =

o r 2

d i
C

o r 2

d
C

(6.23)

In one of the numerical solution techniques, one divides the physical region by a circle enclosing the

cavity. Between the cavity and the circle, nite elements are used. Outside the circle, (6.16) is used. By constructing a suitable variational principle, nite element computation yields the nodal coecients as well as the expansion coecients. See (Chen & Mei , 1974).

3.6. Scattering of SH waves by a circular cavity

27

6.2

A general theorem on scattering

For the same scatterer and the same frequency , dierent angles of incidence j dene dierent scattering problems j . In particular at innty, we have j Aj eikr cos(j ) + Aj () 2 ikri/4 e kr (6.24)

Let us apply Greens formula to 1 and 2 over a closed area bounded by a closed contour C , 1 2 1 1 1 ds + 1 ds ds 2 n n n n S B C where n refers to the unit normal vector pointing out of S . The surface integral vanishes 2 2 1 1 2 2 dA = 2 on account of the Helmholtz equation, while the line integral along the cavity surface vanishes by virture of the boundary condition, hence 1 2 1 ds = 0 ds 2 n n C By similar reasioning, we get 2 ds = 0 ds 2 1 1 n n C where 1 denotes the complex conjugate of 1 . Let us choose 1 = 2 = in (6.26), and get ds = 2 =0 (6.27) ds n n n C C Physically, across any circle the net rate of energy ux vanishes, i.e., the scattered power ds must be balanced by the incident power. Making use of (6.24) we get
2

(6.25)

(6.26)

0=
0

rd eikr cos(o ) +

2 Ao ()eikri/4 kr 2 A ()eikr+i/4 kr o

ik cos( o )eikr cos(o ) ik

2

=
0

rd ik cos( o ) +

2 (ik )|Ao |2 kr

+eikr[cos o )1]+i/4 (ik )

2 A kr o 2 Ao kr

+ eikr[cos o )1]i/4 (ik ) cos( o )

3.6. Scattering of SH waves by a circular cavity

28

The rst term in the integrand gives no contribution to the integral above because of periodicity. Since 0= +
0

(if ) =
2

(if ), we get

|Ao ()|2 d
0 2

rd Ao (ik ) 2
2

2 [1 + cos( o )]ei/4 eikr(1cos(o )) kr

|Ao ()|2 d
0

ei/4 Ao (k )r

2 kr

d[1 + cos( o )]eikr(1cos(o ))

0

For large kr the remaining integral can be found approximately by the method of stationary phase (see Appendix B), with the result
2

d[1 + cos( o )]eikr(1cos(o ))

0

2 i/4 e kr

(6.28)

We get nally
2

|A|2 d = 2 A(o )
0

(6.29)

Thus the total scattered energy in all directions is related to the amplitude of the scattered wave in the forward direction. In atomic physics, where this theorem was originated (by Niels Bohr), measurement of the scattering amplitude in all directions is not easy. This theorem suggests an econmical alternative. Homework For the same scatterer, clonsider two scattering problems 1 and 2 . Show that A1 (2 ) = A2 (1 ) (6.30)

For general elastic waves, see Mei (1978) : Extensions of some identities in elastodynamics with rigid inclusions. J . Acoust. Soc. Am. 64(5), 1514-1522.

6.3

Scattering by a circular cavity continued

Without loss of generality we can take o = 0. On the surface of the cylindrical cavity r = a, we impose I S + = 0, r = a r r

3.6. Scattering of SH waves by a circular cavity It follows that An = 0 and

n n

29

i AJn (ka) + Bn kHn (ka) = 0,

n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . n

where primes denote dierentiation with respect to the argument. Hence Bn = A n in The sum of incident and scattered waves is

Jn (ka) Hn (ka)

=A
n=0

en in Jn (kr)

Jn (ka) Hn (kr) cos n Hn (ka) Jn (ka) Hn (kr) cos n Hn (ka)

(6.31)

and = Ae
it

en in Jn (kr)
n=0

(6.32)

The limit of long waves can be approximatedly analyzed by using the expansions for Bessel functions for small argument Jn ( x ) xn , 2n n! Y n ( x) 2 2n (n 1)! log x, Yn (x) xn (6.33)

Then the scattered wave has the potential J (ka) J (ka) S H0 (kr) 0 2iH1 (kr) 1 cos + O(ka)3 A H0 (ka) H1 (ka) i (ka)2 H0 (kr) H1 (kr) cos + O(ka)3 = 2 2

(6.34)

The term H0 (kr) coresponds to a oscillating source which sends istropic waves in all directions. The second term is a dipole sending scattered waves mostly in forward and backward directions. For large kr, the angular variation is a lot more complex. The far eld pattern for various ka is shown in g 4. On the cavity surface surface, the displacement is proportional to (a, ) or (a, ). The angular variation is plotted for several ka in gure 5.

3.6. Scattering of SH waves by a circular cavity

30

Angular Distribution of Scattered Energy in the Far Field in Cylindrical Scattering ka = 1

A()
2

ka = 5

A()

Polar Distribution of (, ) on a Circular Cylinder. A. ka = 0.5

= /2 1 = 2 1 0 2 = 1 = 3/2 1 = 3/2 0 =0 1 2

B. ka = 1

2 = /2

=0

C. ka = 3

= /2

D. ka = 5

= /2

1 = 2 1 0 =0 2 = 1

1 =0 0

= 3/2

= 3/2

Images by MIT OCW.

3.7. Diraction of SH waves by a long crack

31

Diraction of SH wave by a long crack

References Morse & Ingard, Theoretical Acoustics Series expansions. Born & Wolf, Principle of Optics Fourier Transform and the method of steepest descent. B. Noble. The Wiener-Hopf Technique. If the obstacle is large, there is always a shadow behind where the incident wave cannot penetrate deeply. The phenomenon of scattering by large obstacles is usually refered to as diraction. Diraction of plane incident SH waves by a long crack is identical to that of a hard screen in acoustics. The exact solution was due to A. Sommerfeld. We shall apply the boundary layer idea and give the approximate solution valid far away from the tip kr 1 by the parabolic approximation, due to V. Fock. Refering to gure () let us make a crude division of the entire eld into the illuminated zone I , dominated by the incident wave alone, the reection zone II dominated the sum of the incident and the reected wave, and the shadow zone III where there is no wave. The boundaries of these zones are the rays touching the crack tip. According to this crude picture the solution is I Ao exp(ik cos x + ik sin y ), = Ao [exp(ik cos x + ik sin y ) + exp(ik cos x ik sin y )], II 0, III

(7.1)

Clearly (7.1) is inadquate because the potential cannot be discontinuous across the boundaries. A remedy to provide smooth transitions is needed. Consider the shadow boundary Ox . Let us introduce a new cartesian coordinate system so that x axis is along, while the y axis is normal to, the shadow boundary. The relations between (x, y ) and (x , y ) are x = x cos + y sin , Thus the incident wave is simply I = Ao eikx (7.3) y = y cos x sin (7.2)

3.7. Diraction of SH waves by a long crack

32

Figure 7: Wave zones near a long crack Following the chain rule of dierentiation, y x sin = cos + = y x y x x x x y x + cos = sin + = y x y y x y y we can show straightforwardly that 2 2 2 2 + = + x 2 y 2 y 2 x2 so that the Helmholtz equation is unchanged in form in the x , y system. We try to t a boundary layer along the x axis and expect the potential to be almost like a plane wave (x, , y ) = A(x , y )eikx (7.4)

, but the amplitude is slowly modulated in both x and y directions. Substituting (7.4 into the Helmholtz equation, we get eikx 2A A 2A 2 + k2 A + A k ik 2 + y 2 x x 2 =0 (7.5)

Expecting that the characteristic scale Lx of A along x is much longer than a wavelength, kLx 1, we have 2ik A x 2A x 2

3.7. Diraction of SH waves by a long crack Hence we get as the rst approximation the Schr odinger equation2 2ik A 2 A + 0 x y 2

33

(7.7)

In this transition zone where the remaining terms are of comparable importance, hence the length scales must be related by 1 k 2, x y implying ky kx

Thus the transition zone is the interior of a parabola. Equation (7.7) is of the parabolic type. The boundary conditions are A(x, ) = 0 A(x, ) = Ao The initial condition is 0, y > 0, A(0, y ) = A0 , y < 0 1 means kx (7.8) (7.9)

(7.10)

he initial-boundary value for A has no intrinsic length scales except x , y themselves. Therefore the condition kLx 1 i.e., far away from the tip. This

problem is somwhat analogous to the problem of one-dimensional heat diusion across a boundary. A convenient way of solution is the method of similarity. Assume the solution A = Ao f ( ) where ky = (7.12) kx is the similarity variable. We nd upon subsitution that f satises the ordinary dierential equation f if = 0
2

(7.11)

(7.13)

In one-dimensional quantum mechanics the wave function in a potential-free eld is governed by 1 2 + =0 t 2M x2

the Schr odinger equation ih (7.6)

3.7. Diraction of SH waves by a long crack subject to the boundary conditions that f 0, ; Rewriting (7.13) as f = i f we get log f = i/2 + constant. One more integration gives

34

f 1, .

(7.14)

f =C

exp

iu2 2

du

Since
0

exp we get

iu2 2

ei/4 du = 2

ei/4 C= 2 and A ei/4 f= = Ao 2

exp

iu2 2

ei/4 du = 2

ei/4 + 2

exp
0

iu2 2

du

(7.15)

Dening the cosine and sine Fresnel integrals by

C ( ) =
0

cos

v 2 2

dv,

S ( ) =
0

sin

v 2 2

dv

(7.16)

we can then write ei/4 2 in gure (??). The wave intensity is given by |A|2 1 = 2 Ao 2 1 + C ( ) 2
2

1 1 + C ( ) + i + S ( ) 2 2

(7.17)

In the complex plane the plot of C ( ) + iS ( ) vs. is the famous Cornus spiral, shown

1 + S ( ) 2

(7.18)

Since C, S 0 as , the wave intensity diminshes to zero gradually into the shadow. However, C, S 1/2 as in an oscillatory manner. The wave

3.7. Diraction of SH waves by a long crack

T4

35

1.1 T3 0.1 1.4 T2 T1 1 1 1.025 1.050 1 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.7 8 2.3 0.6 0.3 0.0 0.3

1.7 2

2.3 Max

0.8 0.3 0.0

0.3

0.0

1.075 0.5 0.75

0.85

Amplitude Contours of Hz. From Born and Wolf Optics According to the Exact Theory.
350 300 0.1 240 195 180 185 190 190.5 192.5 200 60 0

360

5 7.5

10

7.5 5 30 170 160

185

180

175

120

195 340

3025 20 10 15

15 10

5 0

-5

350

-5

-60

-120 -180 -240 -300 -360

Phase Contours of Hz. From Born and Wolf Optics According to the Exact Theory.

Images by MIT OCW.

3.7. Diraction of SH waves by a long crack

36

Figure 10: Diraction of a normally incident E -polarized plane wave

Figure 11: Cornus spiral, a plot of the Fresnel integrals

3.7. Diraction of SH waves by a long crack

37

intensity oscillates while approaching to unity asymptotically. In optics this shows up as alternately light and dark diraction bands. In more complex propagation problems, the parabolic approximation can simplify the numerical task in that an elliptic boundary value problem involving an innite domain is reduced to an initial boundary value problem. One can use Crank-Nicholson scheme to march in time, i.e., x . Homework Find by the parabolic approximation the transition solution along the edge of the reection zone.

3.8. Rayleigh surface waves

38

Rayleigh surface waves

In a homogeneous elastic half plane, in addition to P, SV and SH waves, another

Refs. Gra, Achenbach, Fung

wave which is trapped along the surface of a half plane can also be present. Because most of the action is near the surface, this surface wave is of special importance to seismic eects on the ground surface. Let us start from the governing equations again 2 2 1 2 + = , 2 x2 y 2 c2 L t 1 2 Hz 2 Hz 2 Hz + = 2 x2 y 2 c2 T t We now seek waves propagating along the x direction = Then f (y ), h(y ) must satisfy d2 f 2 f = 0, + 2 /c2 L dy 2 To have surface waves we insist that = 2 2 /c2 L, = 2 2 /c2 T (8.5) d2 h 2 h = 0, + 2 /c2 T dy 2 (8.4) f (y )eixit , Hz = h(y )eixit (8.3) (8.1)

(8.2)

be real and postive. Keeping only the solutions which are bounded for y , we get = Aey ei(xt) , Hz = Bey ei(xt) . (8.6)

The expressions for the displacements and stresses can be found straightforwardly. ux = iAey Bey ei(xt) , (8.7) (8.8) (8.9) (8.10) (8.11)

uy = Aey + iBey ei(xt) , xx = yy = 2 22 Aey 2iBey ei(xt) , + 2 Aey + 2iBey ei(xt) ,

2 2 2

xy = 2iAey + 2 +

Bey ei(xt)

3.8. Rayleigh surface waves On the free surface the traction-free conditions yy = xy = 0 require that + 2 A + 2iB = 0, 2iA + + 2 B = 0. For nontrivial solutions of A, B the coecient determinant must vanish, + 2 or 2 2 2 cT
2 2 2 2 2 2

39

(8.12) (8.13)

4 2 = 0,

(8.14)

4 2

2 c2 L

2 =0 c2 T

(8.15)

which is the dispersion relation between frequency and wavenumber . From either (8.12) or (8.13) we get the amplitude ratio: 2i A + 2 = 2 , = B 2i + 2 In terms of the wave velocity c = / , (8.15) becomes c2 2 2 cT
2 2

(8.16)

c2 =4 1 2 cL

1 2

c2 1 2 cT

1 2

(8.17)

or, upon squaring both sides, nally c2 c2 T where k= cL = cT + 2 = 2 2 1 2 c cT

6

c cT

+ 24

16 2

c cT

16 1

1 2

= 0.

(8.18)

The rst solution c = = 0 is at best a static problem. In fact = = and A = iB , so that ux = uy 0 which is of no interest. We need only consider the cubic equation for c2 . Note that the roots of the cubic equation depend only on Poissons ratio, through 2 = 2(1 )/(1 2 ). There can be three real roots for c or , or one real root and two complex-conjugate roots. We rule out the latter because the complex roots imply either temporal damping or instability; neither of which is a propagating wave. When all three roots are real we must pick the one so that both and are real. We shall denote the speed of Rayleigh wave by cR .

3.8. Rayleigh surface waves

40

Figure 12: The velocity of Rayleigh surface waves cR . From Fung Foundations of Solid Mechanics. For c = 0, the factor in curley brackets is {.} = 16 1 c2 T c2 L <0

For c = cT the same factor is equal to unity and hence positive. There must be a solution for c such that 0 < c < cT . Furthermore, we cannot have roots in the range c/cT > 1. If so, c2 = 1 2 <0 cT which is not a surface wave. Thus the surface wave, if it exists, is slower than the shear
2 2

wave. Numerical studies for the entire range of Poissons ratio (0 < < 0.5) have shown that there are one real and two complex conjugate roots if > 0.263 . . . and three real roots if < 0.263 . . .. But there is only one real root that gives the surface wave velocity cR . A graph of cR for all values of Poissons ratio, due to Knopo , is shown in Fig. 8. A curve-tted expression for the Rayleigh wave velocity is cR /cT = (0 87 + 1 12 )/(1 + ). (8.19)

For rocks, = and = 1 , the roots are 4 (c/cT )2 = 4, 2 + 2/ 3, 2 2/ 3. (8.20)

3.9. Moving load on the ground surface The only acceptable root for Rayleigh wave speed cR is 1 (cR /cT )2 = (2 2/ 3) 2 = 0 9194 or cR = 0.9588cT .

41

(8.21)

(8.22)

The particle displacement of a particle on the free surface is, from (8.7) and (8.8) + 2 ux = iA 2 + 2 uy = A + 2 Note that + 2 a=A 2 + 2 b = A + 2 hence ux = a sin(t x), uy = b cos(t x) u2 u2 y x + =1 a2 b2 The particle trajectory is an ellipse. In complex form we have uy ux + i = exp {i (t x /2)} a b and
2 2 2 2

ei(xt)

(8.23)

ei(xt)

(8.24)

=A +

2 kT >0 2

=A

2 ( )2 + kL >0 2

(8.25)

(8.26)

Hence as t increases,a particle at (x, 0) traces the ellipse in the counter-clockwise direction. See gure (8).

Elastic waves due to a load traveling on the ground surface

Refs: Fung: Foundations of Solid Mechanics Cole and Huth: (1956, Elastic half space ; J Appl Mech25, 433-436.)

3.9. Moving load on the ground surface

42

Displacement of Particles on the Ground Surface in Rayleigh Surface Wave.

Direction Of Wave Propagation Instantaneous Particle Velocity Instantaneous Wave Surface Particle Path

Displacement Vectors

Adapted from Fung Foundations of Solid Mechanics.

Image by MIT OCW.

Mei, Si & Chen , (1985, Poro-elastic half space, Wave Motion, 7, 129-141.). In this section the y axis is positive if pointing upwards.

Let the traction on the ground surface be : yy = P (x + U t). xy = 0, on y = 0 (9.1)

Let us make a (Galilean ) transformation to a coodinate system moving to the left at the speed of U , so that the load appears stationary, Then, by the chain rule, derivatives are changed accorindg , , +U x x y y t t x In the moving coordinates, the wave equations are changed to 1 2 2 + = 2 2 2 x y cL 1 2H 2H + = 2 2 2 x y cT where we have abbreviated Hz simply by H . In the steady state limit they become U 2 2 2 2 + = 2 x2 y 2 c2 L x (9.5) +U t x +U t x
2

(9.2)

,
2

(9.3)

(9.4)

3.9. Moving load on the ground surface 2H 2H U 2 2H + = 2 x2 y 2 c2 T x Introducing the Mach numbers: M1 = then (9.5 ) amd (9.6) become
2 1 M1

43

(9.6)

U , cL

M2 =

U cT

(9.7)

2 2 + =0 x2 y 2

(9.8)

Because cL

2H 2H 1 + =0 (9.9) x2 y 2 > cT , we must have M2 > M1 . The stress components can be derived
2 M2

straigthtforwardly in terms of the potentials xx = ( + 2)2 2 2H 2 y 2 xy 2 2 U 2 2H 2 = ( + 2) 2 2 ( M 1) + 2 1 cL x2 x2 xy 2H 2 + 2 x2 xy

2 Using ther fact that + 2)/ = c2 L /cT , we further get

xx = Similarly we nd

2 2 M2 2M1 +2

(9.10)

2 2H 2 x2 xy 2 2H 2 xy = 2 + (M2 2) 2 xy x We now examine the special pressure distribution, as shown in gure (9): e1 x , x > 0, p(x, 0) = Po P (x) P0 e2 x , x < 0
2 yy = (M2 2)

(9.11) (9.12)

(9.13)

We jshall dene a length scale

L=

P (x)dx =

1 1 + 1 2

(9.14)

Thus the traction boundary condtions (9.3) on the ground surface become
2 (M2 2)

Po 2 2H = P (x), y = 0; 2 2 x xy

(9.15) (9.16)

2 2H 2 + (M2 2) 2 = 0, y = 0. xy x Three cases will be distinguished: 2

3.9. Moving load on the ground surface

44

Figure 14: A moving pressure distibution on an elastic half space. Shown in a moving coordinate system, the pressure appears stationary.

3.9. Moving load on the ground surface

45

9.1

Supersonic: M2 > M1 > 1

Let us apply the exponential Fourier transform dened by

f ( ) =

F (x)eix dx,

1 F ( x) = 2

f ()eix d.

(9.17)

From the governing wave equations we get d2 h 2 2 d2 2 2 + = 0 , + 2 h = 0; 1 y 2 y 2 where j = Mj2 1,

2

y < 0.

(9.18)

j = 1, 2.

(9.19)

The general solutions of the Fourier Transforms are = A()ei1 y + B ()ei1 y , h = C ()ei2 y + D ()ei2 y so that (x, y ) = H (x, y ) = 1 2 1 2

A()ei(x+1 y) + B ()ei(x1 y) d. C ()ei(x+2 y) + D ()ei(x2 y) d.

(9.20) (9.21)

In order that waves below the ground surface trail behind the surface load, we discard the second term in each integral. Thus = A()ei1 y , Now the boundary conditions require 2i and 2 2i 2 2 iPo dh = dy 1 1 i1 + i2 (9.24) d 2 h = 0 2 2 dy (9.23)

h = C ()ei2 y

(9.22)

3.9. Moving load on the ground surface Use has been made of the result
0

46

ix

P (x)dx =

e 1 i

ix 2 x

dx +
0

eix e1 x dx (9.25)

= It follows that

1 1 i1 + i2

1 A 2 2 C = 0 22 2 and iPo The last two equations can be solved to give

2 2 2 C = 2 A + 22

(9.26)

1 1 i1 + i2 2 2 4 2 2 ) 1 (2 + 4

(9.27)

A=

iPo

1 1 + i1 + i2

(9.28)

1 iPo 1 1 2 + 2 ) 4 + 4 1 i1 + i2 2 ( 2 The inverse transforms of and h are: k 1 1 = iP0 1 2 k2 i1 + i2 H 1 y d exp i x + 2 2 C == where k1 = k2 =

2 (M2 2) 2 (M1 2) + 4 1 2 2 1 2 (M2 2) + 4 1 2 2 2

(9.29)

(9.30)

, . (9.31)

Using (9.10), ( 9.11) and ( 9.12), we get the stress components. For example xy Po 1 k1 2 1 1 ei1 d 2i i1 + i2 2 1 2)k2 1 (M2 ei2 d 2i i1 + i2 = (9.32) (9.33)

where 1 = x + 1 y, 2 = x + 2 y (9.34)

3.9. Moving load on the ground surface In view of (9.25), the inverse transform is immediate, xy 1 k1 P (1 ) (M 2 2)k2 P (2 ) = 2 2 Po As a check, the shear stress on the ground surface y = 0 is xy 1 k1 (M 2 2)k2 P (x) = 0 = 2 2 Po in view of (9.31). It can be shown that xx = yy
0 xx 2 2 = M2 M1 + 2 k1 P (1 ) 2 2 k2 P (2 ) , P0 = (to be worked out)

47

(9.35)

(9.36)

(9.37)

Note that the disturbances in the half space indeed trail behind the surface pressure. The front of the P wave forms the rst Mach wedge, followed by the front of the SV wave. Disturbances are concentrated essentially along the chracteristics x + 1 |y | = constant and x + 2 |y | =constant. Homework: Verify the above results by the method of characteristics.

9.2

Subsonic case, 1 > M2 > M1

In this case (9.8) and (9.9) are elliptic. Let

2 2 2 1 = 1 M1 , 2 = 1 M2 , 2 M2 + 2 k3 = , 2 2 (M2 2) 41 2 21 . k4 = 2 2 (M2 2) 41 2

(9.38)

The formal solutions for and H are 1 1 i1 + i2 d e||1 y eix 2 , P0 k4 1 1 H = 2 i1 + i2 sgn e||2 y eix 2 d. = iP0 k3 2

(9.39)

3.9. Moving load on the ground surface

48

A
0 -0.5

Supersonic

- xx

B
0 -0.5
1.0 0.5 0

- yy

y/L -1.0
-1.5 -2.0 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

y/L -1.0
-1.5 -2.0 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

x/L

x/L

C
0 -0.5

- xy

D
0 -0.5

y/L -1.0
-1.5 -2.0 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

y/L -1.0
-1.5 -2.0 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

x/L

x/L

Stress Variations in the Ground Under Supersonic Load on the Surface. From Mei, Si & Chen, 1985. (In this Article, the Ground is Poroelastic, P Stands for the Pore Pressure.)

Image by MIT OCW.

3.9. Moving load on the ground surface

49

By using (9.10), (9.11) and (9.12), the stress components can be expressed as Fourier integrals, which can be evaluated in terms of the exponential integral dened by

E1 (z ) =
x

e d

= ln z
n=1

(1)n

zn . nn!

(9.40)

Let z1 = x + i1 y, and G(z ) = e1 z E1 (1 z ) e2 z E1 (2 z ) . Then the stress components are xx =

o xx 22 k4 k3 2 2 G (z1 ) G (z2 ) , = M2 2M1 +2 P0 o yy 22 k4 k3 2 G (z1 ) + G (z2 ) = M2 2 yy = P0 o xy 21 k3 [G (z2 ) G (z1 )] = xy = P0

z2 = x + i2 y

(9.41)

(9.42)

(9.43)

Note that

E ( |x|) if x < 0, 1 lim E ( z ) = 1 1 1 Ei(x) i if x > 0, y 0 Ei(|x|) + i if x < 0, lim E1 (z1 ) = E1 (x) y 0 if x > 0

(9.44)

where Ei(x) = PV
x

e d

(9.45)

with the integral being a principal value. From the denitions k3 and k4 become innite when their denominators vanish. This occurs when the external load travels at the speed of the Rayleigh surface wave and indicates resonance. This is possible because Rayleigh wave speed is less that both cL and cT . The unbounded resonance need not be a threat in practise because the model of steady two-dimensional line load is an idealization not usually realized.

3.9. Moving load on the ground surface

50

A
Supersonic
0 -0.5

B
- xx
0
-0.5
1.0 0.5 0

- yy

y/L -1.0
-1.5
-2.0

y/L -1.0
-1.5

-2.0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

x/L

x/L

C
- xy
0
-0.5

D
0
-0.5

y/L -1.0
-1.5
-2.0

y/L -1.0
-1.5
-2.0

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

x/L

x/L

Stress Variations in the Ground Under Subsonic Load on the Surface. From Mei, Si & Chen, 1985.

Image by MIT OCW.

3.9. Moving load on the ground surface

51

9.3

Transonic case, M2 > 1 > M1

The scalar potentials are P0 2 P0 H = 2 = where

2 A() = M2 2

d eix A() e||1 y ,

d eix B () ei 2 y

(9.46)

k5 +

B () = 2i1

| | k5 + ik6 k5 = k6 =

i | | 1 i 1 k6 2 i1 + i2 1 i 1 , 2 i1 + i2
2 2,

, (9.47)

2 (M2 2) 4

2 2 (M2 2) + 161 2

41 2
4

2 2 (M2 2) + 161 2

2.

In terms of z1 = x + i1 y and 2 = x + |y | all the integrals in (3.18) can again be evaluated. The results involve the following functions: H ( ) = e2 E1 (2 ) + e1 Ei (1 ) , H ( ) = e1 || E1 (1 | |) + e2 || Ei (2 | |) H ( | |) . The stresses are xx =
0 xx 2 2 2 = M2 2M1 + 2 M2 2 P0 41 2 k5 H (2 ) + k6 e1 2 , k5 H (2 ) + k6 e2 |2 | ,

(9.48)

{(k5 ik6 ) G (z1 )} (9.49)

2 > 0, 2 < 0,

yy =

0 yy 2 1 2 {(k5 ik6 ) G (z1 )} = M2 2 P0 2 > 0, 41 2 k5 H (2 ) + k6 e1 2 , + k5 H (2 ) + k6 e2 |2 | , 2 < 0

(9.50)

3.9. Moving load on the ground surface

A
- xx
0.0 -0.5 0.0 -0.5
1.0 0.5 0

52
B
- yy

y/L -1.0
-1.5 -2.0 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1

y/L

-1.0 -1.5 -2.0

x/L

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

x/L

C
0.0 -0.5

D
0.0 -0.5

y/L -1.0
-1.5 -2.0 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1

y/L -1.0
-1.5 -2.0

x/L

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

x/L

Stress Variations in the Ground Under Transonic Load on the Surface. From Mei, Si & Chen, 1985.

Image by MIT OCW.

xy =

0 xy 21 2 {(k5 ik6 ) G (z1 )} = M2 2 P0 2 > 0, 21 k5 H (2 ) + k6 e1 2 , 2 M2 2 k5 H (2 ) + k6 e2 |2 | , 2 < 0

(9.51)

Note Computations are for the following inputs: = 1/2, = 108 N/m2 , 1 = 0.005m, 2 = 0.1m, L = 210m

Partial wave expansion

A useful result in wave theory is the expansion of the plane wave in a Fourier series of the polar angle . In polar coordinates the spatial factor of a plane wave of unit

3.9. Moving load on the ground surface amplitude is eikx = eikr cos . Consider the following product of exponential functions

53

zt/2 z/2t

=
n=0

1 n!

zt 2

n=0

1 n!

z 2t

tn

(z/2)n+2 (z/2)n+4 (z/2)n+2r (z/2)n + + + (1)r + . n! 1!(n + 1)! 2!(n + 2)! r!(n + r)!

The coecient of tn is nothing but Jn (z ), hence z exp 2 Now we set t = iei The plane wave then becomes

1 t t

t n Jn ( z ) .

z = kr.

ikx

=
N =

ein(+/2 Jn (z ).

Using the fact that Jn = (1)n Jn , we nally get

e where

ikx

=e

ikr cos

=
n=0

ni

Jn (kr) cos n,

(A.1)

is the Jacobi symbol. The above result may be viewed as the Fourier expan-

sion of the plane wave with Bessel functions being the expansion coecients. In wave propagation theories, each term in the series represents a distinct angular variation and is called a partial wave. Using the orthogonality of cos n, we may evaluate the Fourier coecient Jn (kr) = 2 n ni

eikr cos cos nd,

0

(A.2)

which is one of a host of integral representations of Bessel functions.

3.9. Moving load on the ground surface

54

Approximate evaluation of an integral

Consider the integral

2

d[1 + cos( o )]eikr(1cos(o ))

0

For large kr the stationary phase points are found from [1 cos( o )] = sin( o ) = 0 or = o , o + within the range [0, 2 ]. Near the rst stationary point the integrand is dominated by 2A(o )eikt(o )
2 /2

When the limits are approximated by (, ), the inegral can be evaluated to give

A(o )

eikr

2 /2

d =

2 i/4 e A(o ) kr

Near the second stationary point the integral vanishes since 1+cos( o ) == 1 1 = 0. Hence the result (6.28) follows.