Running head: ETEC 500 FINAL ASSIGNMENT

ETEC 500 Final Assignment: A Literature Review and Research Proposal on Gender Issues in Technology Alexis Mauricio #92717974 ETEC 500 Section 65C University of British Columbia

ETEC 500 FINAL ASSIGNMENT ETEC 500 Final Assignment: A Literature Review and Research Proposal on Gender Issues in Technology Introduction: Literature Review This review will explore the extent to which gender differences in attitudes and uses of technology for middle school students exist, and if so, how and to what degree they vary in different cultures. The first two articles examine studies of childrens perceptions and values towards technology in the United States, followed by a short summary of middle school

childrens thinking and attitudes towards technology education from an international perspective. I then analyze articles involving Greek elementary students and a culture comparison of US and Chinese students. Each article is summarized and critiqued and is followed by a synthesis of the common themes. Gender differences in attitudes and uses of technology: United States Miller, Schweingruber, and Brandenburg (2001) and Bain and Rice (2006) conducted causal-comparative studies in the US on gender differences in attitudes and uses of technology in light of its astounding growth and increased accessibility of the Internet. 512 students, aged 1115 years, representing various levels of socio-economic status (SES), participated in Miller et al.s (2001) qualitative study. Participants completed a questionnaire containing 68 closed and open-ended items. 59 sixth grade students, aged 11-12 years, from mainly affluent backgrounds, took part in Bain and Rices (2006) study. Quantitative data was gathered through The Computer Survey (TCS) results and student computer logs. These researchers also achieved triangulation by collecting multiple forms of qualitative data through interviews, classroom observations, field notes, and student work to ensure a balanced viewpoint (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2009).

ETEC 500 FINAL ASSIGNMENT Miller et al. (2001) found no significant gender differences in areas such as skill acquisition, general purposes for and patterns in using technology, and accessibility. However, males rated themselves higher as Internet experts and used the computer more often than females. Males also reported using computers for simulation purposes, while females used them more for homework and email tasks. Bain and Rice (2006) did not find any significant gender differences in attitudes, perceptions, and uses of computers. Presentation and design flaws are evident in both studies. Both Miller et al. (2001) and Bain and Rice (2006) do not fully explain their sampling techniques. Miller et al.s (2001) study did not control the effects of a participant variable, the range of ages (11-15 years). I know that

from working with students aged 11 to 13 years, there are already differences in motivation, selfperception of computer skills, and patterns in technology use because of development and maturity levels. In both studies, the length of the questionnaires (68 items and 54 items) was too long. Ambiguous terms in Miller et al.s (2001) questionnaire such as mess around should have been clearly defined. Although items were clear in the TCS, Bain and Rice (2006) do not mention how the TCS was administered or its duration. In addition, these researchers draw much attention to their finding about females spending an ...average of 64% more time on the computer than males... (Bain & Rice, 2006, p. 128); this contradicts a previous finding by Miller et al. (2001). Yet, Bain and Rices (2006) claim must be disputed because they admit that not all of the participants submitted their computer use documentation record; only 29 females and 18 males handed in their logs. They also stated that ...some students kept accurate records, while others did not, and several students misplaced the logs... (Bain & Rice, 2006, p. 123). This data is not reliable given the fact that few males reported on this, and data was only collected from a one week period.

ETEC 500 FINAL ASSIGNMENT Gender issues: a brief summary of an international study Sherman, Sanders, Kwon, and Pembridge (2009) briefly summarized gender issues in middle school childrens thinking and attitudes in technology education which were consistent with previous findings. They also identified contextual issues which may influence childrens decisions to further pursue technology education: gender stereotyping in the classroom and the dynamics of interactions between males and females. Volk and Ming (1999), as referenced in

Sherman et al. (2009), investigated student attitudes towards technology education in Hong Kong using an adapted version of the Pupils Attitude Toward Technology (PATT) scale. Volk and Ming (1999) reported a gender similarity where males and females were more likely to be interested in technology and pursue careers in that field if they had numerous experiences and exposures to technology. However, Sherman et al. (2009) did mention deficiencies in this study: the use of multiple t-tests and the omission of power statistics. Gender issues in technology use: different cultures and comparisons Vekiri and Chronaki (2008) aimed to prove that gender differences in computer value and self-efficacy beliefs were related to the different socialization experiences of boys and girls. 340 Grade 5 and 6 Greek students participated in the quantitative study and completed a 23 item Likert-type questionnaire. Gender differences were found, as boys had more positive beliefs about computer value and received more support from their parents and peers while using computers. Furthermore, boys used computers more often on a regular basis, had more positive self-efficacy and value beliefs compared to girls, and were more likely to be involved in hardcore computer activities such as programming. Overall, girls had positive self-efficacy beliefs, but used computers less often than boys. Gender differences in beliefs about competency and

ETEC 500 FINAL ASSIGNMENT value with computer learning co-occurred with gender differences in students socialization, as girls are exposed to different social expectations when they begin to use computers. Some aspects of this study are questionable. Similar to previously mentioned studies, information about student recruitment was not provided. The researchers also did not explain

how questionnaire items were formed or compiled. Furthermore, no description of questionnaire validation procedures or pilot testing was provided. Some of the Likert-type items were vague, as terms such as enough were not defined. In addition, the researchers should have provided information about Greek traditional culture and values, as an important conclusion was related to different socialization experiences between boys and girls. Jackson et al. (2008) examined cultural differences in technology between Chinese and US students and whether gender moderates the influence of culture in technology use. 600 students from mainland China and 600 students from the US (mean age: 12 years) participated in this quantitative study. Participants completed The Children Survey, containing Likert-type items, which assessed their computer and Internet use. The researchers found that the most popular computer activity for Chinese and US children was playing games. US children indicated that they used the computer and Internet longer and more frequently than Chinese children. A culture by gender interaction was found as Chinese males used the computer and Internet for a longer period of time and more frequently than Chinese females. US children (specifically US females) were more likely to state communication as one of their main computer activities, but Chinese children were more likely to say information search was their main activity. Overall, males enjoyed using a computer more than females did, but a culture by gender interaction found that Chinese females rated themselves the lowest on computer skills and enjoyment compared to all of the other groups.

ETEC 500 FINAL ASSIGNMENT Several elements of the design and procedure are problematic. The sample selection method was not clearly described. The surveys were not administered in the same manner; Chinese children completed the surveys in the classroom in the presence of a researcher and a homeroom teacher, whereas surveys were distributed by mail to US children. This is a major oversight in the control procedures, and the reasons behind this inconsistency are not explained.

Furthermore, the Children Survey was initially developed in the US, but there was no input from Chinese educators or educational researchers into the nature or appropriateness of the questions. Similar to Miller et al. (2001) and Vekiri and Chronaki (2008), there was no mention of questionnaire validation procedures or a pilot being tested. Thus, these factors may affect the validity of the responses. Synthesis One common theme emerging is that in some cultures, the gender gap in technology is narrowing. Miller et al. (2001) did not uncover any gender differences in skill acquisition, purposes for and patterns in using technology, and accessibility. Bain and Rice (2006) did not find any significant differences in attitudes, perceptions, and uses of computers amongst genders. Vekiri and Chronaki (2008) found that both genders engaged in the same variety of daily tasks (e.g. game playing, internet searching), and that boys and girls overall had positive self-efficacy and value beliefs about technology. Jackson et al. (2008) concluded that US males and females had similar ratings in computer skills and enjoyment. Interestingly, game playing was the most popular computer activity reported for both genders in all of the studies. Males and females also demonstrated similar patterns in technology use across some cultures. Males reported spending most of their time on the computer playing games (Bain & Rice, 2006; Jackson et al., 2008; Miller et al., 2001; Vekiri & Chronaki, 2008) followed by other

ETEC 500 FINAL ASSIGNMENT activities such as Internet searching, completing homework assignments (Jackson et al., 2008; Miller et al., 2001; Vekiri & Chronaki, 2008) and instant messaging (Bain & Rice, 2006). Although females also spend time playing games, most of their computer time is devoted

towards completing homework assignments, instant messaging, or e-mailing (Bain & Rice, 2006; Jackson et al., 2008, Miller et al., 2001; Vekiri & Chronaki, 2008). One assumption is that females participate and are more attracted to the socialization aspect of technology. Volk and Ming (1999) purported that if children had more exposure with technology, a more positive attitude towards technology would result. This correlation was found in Bain and Rice (2006), where the estimated number of hours spent on computers per week was similar for females (3.55) and males (3.5), and both genders reported having positive attitudes towards computers. Miller et al. (2001) stated that ...Internet experience was significantly correlated with liking to use the computer... (Miller et al., 2001, p. 130). Vekiri and Chronaki (2008) stated that both genders had positive self-efficacy and value beliefs about technology; in this study, 90% of students accessed computers outside school. However, in Jackson et al. (2008), Chinese females were the least exposed to technology and in turn, they were rated the lowest in computer enjoyment. Conclusion This review looked at gender issues in technology use for middle school students through different lenses. However, there were methodological errors in the analyzed studies, and each will need to be re-examined before future research is carried out. For example, the amount of questions used in surveys in Miller et al. (2001) and Bain and Rice (2006) would have to be reduced, and terms would have to be clarified. A more accurate method of recording computer

ETEC 500 FINAL ASSIGNMENT log time must be used in Bain and Rices (2006) study. If these errors were fixed and certain elements were revised, what would happen to the results if these studies were replicated in other cultures? What would be the factors in causing differences or similarities in results crossculturally?

Jackson et al. (2008) found that Chinese females rated themselves the lowest in regards to engagement with technology, technology skills, and exposure to technology. Yet, they do not explore the underlying cultural reasons as to why Chinese females are marginalized when it comes to exposure and experience with technology. This is an important area for future study and action as Chinese females may be inadvertently disadvantaged especially because of the importance of technology skills in the 21st century (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009). But, given the recent influx of mobile technologies, will this predicament improve? Vekiri and Chronaki (2008) do not fully explain the extent to which girls are socialized differently in Greek culture; this is another area of investigation as differences in beliefs about competency and value with computer learning co-occurred with gender differences in students socialization. How do gender stereotypes communicated by parents, peers, and the school community affect technology attitudes and practices in various cultures? There is a need for more in-depth research in gender differences in technology across cultures based on contextual factors or characteristics such as socialization, dynamics in the classroom environment, and motivation. Considering technologys constantly changing landscape, this area of study will continue to be important.

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Introduction: Research Proposal As a middle school teacher who regularly integrates technology in the classroom, I often wonder if the gap in confidence, skill, and attitude levels of male and female students in technology use is truly shrinking. In the past decade, the prevalence of the Internet prompted numerous studies about gender and technology use and attitudes. Now, with the ubiquitous nature of mobile technologies such as smartphones, MP3 players, and tablet computers, more individuals are constantly connected. This serves as an impetus for new investigations into gender differences in technology. Given the proliferation of these devices, is the gender gap in

ETEC 500 FINAL ASSIGNMENT technology decreasing across cultures as a result of increased accessibility? The ability to effectively apply technology in order to ...access, manage, integrate, evaluate, and create information to successfully function in a knowledge economy... is a key to success in the 21st century workforce (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009, p.6). My other questions revolve around the role of parents, peers, and teachers in communicating gendered expectations in technology for boys and girls across cultures. As a teacher, I am conscious of how gendered expectations in technology are communicated to students. What is the nature of various cultural stereotypes in gender and technology, how are

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they communicated, and how does this affect student attitudes and practices? Gender stereotypes communicated by parents, peers, and teachers may work against efforts to provide equal opportunities for males and females. As an educator, I am invested in this area to help all students achieve success in the 21st century.

Literature Review Given the staggering growth and accessibility of the Internet, Miller, Schweingruber, and Brandenburg (2001) and Bain and Rice (2006) examined gender differences in US middle school students technology uses and practices. Although there were noticeable errors in their methodology, these researchers concluded that the gender gap in technology is narrowing in certain areas in some cultures. For example, Miller et al. (2001) found similar results for both genders in skill acquisition, purposes for and patterns in using technology, and accessibility. Bain

ETEC 500 FINAL ASSIGNMENT and Rice (2006) did not find any gender differences in attitudes, perceptions, and uses of computers.

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However, gender differences in technology still exist in other areas. In their comparison study of US and Chinese childrens gender issues in technology use, Jackson et al. (2008) discovered that Chinese males ...used computers and the Internet more intensely... (Jackson et al., 2008, p. 2826) than Chinese females. It was also reported that Chinese females rated themselves the lowest on computer skills and enjoyment, compared to Chinese males and US children. Why does this gender difference exist? Is this a matter of accessibility, or does this have to do with socialization differences or gendered expectations? Furthermore, Vekiri and Chronaki (2008) found that differences in childrens beliefs in technological abilities and values co-occurred with differences in socialization experiences for boys and girls in Greek culture. What is the nature of the differences in socialization to cause this discrepancy in abilities and values? Volk and Ming (1999) claimed that if individuals had more experiences with technology to build their skills, they would have more positive attitudes towards technology. Given that mobile devices are an omnipresent technology, perhaps females will have more exposure and more opportunities to build their skills, and have more favourable attitudes toward technology. It has been documented that females engage more in computer activities such as instant messaging or e-mailing (Bain & Rice, 2006; Jackson et al., 2008; Miller et al., 2001; Vekiri & Chronaki, 2008). An assumption can be made that females are more attracted to the communication element of technology. Therefore, a prediction emerges: if females are attracted to the socialization aspect of technology, then they are more likely to frequently use mobile devices for communication purposes, and thus build their technology skills to help them be better prepared

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for the 21st century workforce. According to the New Media Consortium's 2010 Horizon Report, mobile devices are likely to have the largest impact on teaching and learning over the next three years, and several experts believe that these devices will replace computers due to their personalization and mobility features. Research Questions The questions I will explore in this study are as follows: Has the increased use of mobile technology helped to further decrease the previously documented gender gap in technology? To what degree is this seen/not seen in other cultures? What is the nature of cultural stereotypes in gender and technology, and how are they communicated? How do cultural stereotypes affect student attitudes and practices in technology? What is the effect of culture (school, parents, peers) in communicating gendered expectations for young boys and girls?

What is the role of socialization in the gender gap in technology? How does this differ across cultures? Design and Methodology This study will use a qualitative approach in answering the research questions. The

qualitative data collected will include questionnaires, field notes, video segments, and interviews. As a measure to ensure the validity of the data, triangulation will be practiced as

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multiple data sources and collection strategies will be used to obtain an in-depth picture of what is being studied (Gay et al., 2009). Since cultural gender differences in technology and socialization are being explored, the researchers will use an ethnographic approach to examine cultural patterns in gender stereotyping in a classroom context. The aim is to observe the effect of gender stereotyping on the participants, particularly on their attitudes and uses of technology, as they ...take part in naturally occurring activities within the setting... (Gay et al., 2009, p. 13). Criterion sampling will be used to recruit subjects for this study. In order to qualify for participation, the subjects will need to meet the following criteria:

At the beginning of the study, subjects must be 11 or 12 years old. (Subjects may be turning 11 during the beginning year of the study).

Subjects must be attending design technology classes at their grade level at a participant school.

Since class time will be missed for the questionnaire and interview portions, subjects will require approval from their course instructors before participating.

Subjects must be able to adequately speak, read, and write in English as a language of instruction.

Informed consent must be obtained from a parent or legal guardian.

The investigation will focus on middle school students because this stage of development propels students to begin building advanced and sophisticated problem solving skills and to contemplate further studies in technology education (Sherman et al., 2009). Furthermore, selection will be limited to schools authorized as International Baccalaureate (IB) World Schools. The major aim

ETEC 500 FINAL ASSIGNMENT of the IB is to develop ...inquiring, knowledgeable, and caring young people... while

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promoting intercultural understanding and respect as a 21st century learner (IBO, 2012, Mission and Strategy, para.4). As the primary researcher in this study, I am familiar with the philosophy and structure of the IBO, and from my experience, the organization maintains consistency in its expectations and program delivery with all of its member schools. Partnership with other IB schools around the world is easily attained through conferences and the online curriculum centre. The IB Middle Years Programme (MYP), for students aged 11-16, has a technology design course (IBO, 2012), and since the curriculum expectations are the same for member schools, the setting for classroom observations can be consistent in this area. Subjects will be recruited from three IB World Schools: Southridge School in Canada, The American School of Belo Horizonte in Brazil, and Western Academy of Beijing in China. (Southridge School is the institution where the primary researcher is employed). All schools are private schools; therefore, students will come from similar SES backgrounds. All offer the IB MYP programme, and the primary language of instruction at these schools is English. Given that this is a qualitative study representing multiple contexts, a total sample size of 72 participants will be obtained (Gay et al., 2009). From each school, 24 participants (12 boys and 12 girls) will be examined. Since there is significant distance amongst the three schools, and the number of researchers involved (2-3) will be limited, the estimated duration of this study would be 2 to 2 years. The same 2-3 researchers would collect data at all three schools; the estimated time spent at each school would be the length of one semester, approximately 6-8 weeks. As mentioned earlier, types and methods of qualitative data collection will be broad. A questionnaire with 10-12 closed (Likert-type) and open-ended items will be administered by one researcher and teacher in a classroom setting at the beginning of the study. The questions will

ETEC 500 FINAL ASSIGNMENT revolve around participants degree of access and use of mobile technologies, types of mobile devices used, what mobile technologies are used for, what technology skills they possess, their attitudes towards technology, what cultural values are important, gender stereotyping, who communicates gender stereotypes, and if they feel if gender stereotypes affect their use and attitudes towards technology. The questionnaire will be pilot tested beforehand, to give a sense of duration and to clarify ambiguous terms (Gay et al., 2009). Detailed field notes will be

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recorded by one of the researchers during technology classes. Researchers will also videotape a different cooperative group each week to record observations of behaviour, specifically how students interact with each other and with technology while working on projects. Follow-up interviews will be conducted once the researchers have established a rapport with the students. Participants responses from the questionnaire will be a basis for the interview, and researchers will ask clarification on their answers as needed. Afterwards, the interviews will be unstructured so that researchers can informally attempt to find out participants perspectives (without the presence of a teacher) on in-depth topics such as cultural values, the nature of gender stereotyping, and gender technology issues. An expert in intercultural studies, along with educational psychologists from Canada, Brazil, and China will have collaborative input into the design and methodology of this study, especially with devising items on the questionnaire and suggested questions during the interview process.

Conclusion: Final thoughts and implications I recognize that my proposed study has limitations, as the selected sample will not be diverse, since students will come from similar SES backgrounds. However, in a qualitative study, the goal is to describe gender issues in technology in depth, not to generalize to another

ETEC 500 FINAL ASSIGNMENT context or population (Gay et al., 2009). I anticipate that valuable data will be collected, particularly from the unstructured interviews. The reality is that children attending private schools are privileged, and they will most likely lead lives of privilege and influence. Their perspectives on the effects of cultural values and gendered expectations on technology use and

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attitudes may give insight as to what is happening in the rest of society. If it is found that cultural stereotypes are a problem and have a negative effect on female and male technology use and attitudes, then this must be communicated to school administrators and appropriate measures need to be taken. More education for parents, teachers, and students would be required in this area. Perhaps a technology skill mentorship program needs to be in place to support individuals in skill development along with helping them build positive self-efficacy and value beliefs about technology. Furthermore, if mobile devices are encouraging more students to use technology because of familiarity and ease of use, then schools should consider implementing mobile learning ,...the exploitation of handheld devices, together with wireless and mobile networks...to facilitate, enhance, and extend the reach of e-learnings anytime, anywhere teaching and learning... (Tribal Education Limited, 2009, para. 5). The need for students to develop 21st century skills, especially in the area of technology, has become more important. Mobile learning enables the development of these skills, which include communication, collaboration, and information and media literacy (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009). Perhaps mobile learning will help to provide equal opportunities for all students to effectively apply technology to be successful as a learner and thrive in the 21st century workforce.

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References Bain, C.D., & Rice, M.L. (2008). The influence of gender on attitudes, perceptions, and uses of technology. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 39(2), 119-132. Retrieved from: http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/EJ768873.pdf Gay, L.R., Mills, G.E., & Airasian, P.W. (2009). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and application (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. International Baccalaureate Organization. (2012). IB Middle Years Programme curriculum. Retrieved from: http://www.ibo.org/myp/curriculum/index.cfm International Baccalaureate Organization. (2012). IB mission and strategy. Retrieved from: http://www.ibo.org/mission/

ETEC 500 FINAL ASSIGNMENT Jackson, L.A., Zhao, Y., Qiu, W., Kolenic, A., Fitzgerald, H.E., Harold, R., & Von Eye, A.

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(2008). Culture, gender, and information technology use: A comparison of Chinese and US children. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(6), 2817-2829. Retrieved from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S074756320800085X Miller, L.M., Schweingruber, H, & Bradenburg, C.L. (2001). Middle school students' technology practices and preferences: Re-examining gender differences. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 10(2), 125-140. New Media Consortium. (2010, January 14). The 2010 Horizon Report. Retrieved from: http://wp.nmc.org/horizon2010/chapters/mobile-computing/ Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2009, December). P21 Framework Definitions. Retrieved from: http://www.p21.org/storage/documents/P21_Framework_Definitions.pdf Sherman, T.M., Sanders, M., Kwon, H., & Pembridge, J. (2008). Middle school childrens thinking in technology education: A review of literature. Journal of Technology Education, 21(1), 60-71. Retrieved from: http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JTE/v21n1/sherman.html Tribal Education Limited. (2009). What is M-Learning? Retrieved from: http://www.mlearning.org/knowledge-centre/whatismlearning Vekiri, I., & Chronaki, A. (2008). Gender issues in technology use: Perceived social support, computer self-efficacy and value beliefs, and computer use beyond school. Computers & Education, 51, 1392-1404. Retrieved from: http://ltme.ece.uth.gr/sandbox/pdf/30full.pdf

ETEC 500 FINAL ASSIGNMENT Volk, K.S., & Ming, Y.W. (1999). Gender and technology in Hong Kong: A study of pupils

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attitudes toward technology. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 9, 57-71. Retrieved from: http://course.zjnu.cn/kcjx/uploadfile/20081127214520367.pdf