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Feminist Legal Theory

Tourism: Good or Bad?

Word Count: 4996

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Tourism: Good or Bad? i. Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 3 ii. Introduction ..........................................................................................................................3 iii. Welcome to Jamaica ............................................................................................................4 iv. Tourism Policies and Activities in Jamaica .........................................................................5 v. Status of Jamaican Women ..................................................................................................7 vi. Underrepresentation .............................................................................................................7 vii. The Feminization of Poverty ...............................................................................................8 viii. Out of Many-One People: The Need for Intersectionality...................................................9 ix. The Impact of Mass Tourism .............................................................................................11 x. Hidden Costs Upon the Society of the Spectacle ..........................................................11 xi. Socio-Cultural Impact: No Problem Mon ..........................................................................11 xii. Economic Impact: Bringing in the Dollars ........................................................................12 xiii. Marketing Jamaica: The 20 Second Commercial ..............................................................13 xiv. Common Knowledge: Ways of Knowing Jamaica ............................................................13 i. Othering Jamaicans ................................................................................13 xv. The Tourist is Supreme: Between Us and Them .......................................................14 xvi. The Exoticisation of the Other Women ..........................................................................15 i. Visual Representation ................................................................................15 ii. Up Close and Personal...................................................................................... 16 iii. Gender, Race and Work ................................................................................... 16 iv. Otherness and Sex Tourism ......................................................................... 16 xvii. Self-Reflection and Cultural Commodification ...................................................................... 18 xviii. Embracing Community Based Tourism ................................................................................... 19 xix. The White Mans Burden for Jamaica: Colonialism Repackaged ........................................ 19 xx. A Cultural Playground ................................................................................................................ 21 xxi. Economic and Environment Opportunities to PovertyAlleviation ....................................21 xxii. Empowerment? .................................................................................................................23 xxiii. More Explicit Gender-Sensitive Policy .............................................................................24 xxiv. Implementing Community Based Tourism ........................................................................24 xxv. Bibliography ......................................................................................................................26

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Abstract
Conventionally tourism is a means of escape and repose for tourists to take a break and slow down from the pattern and repetition of daily life. Many tourists leave the ordinary world of their homes and enter into fantastical, tropical islands of the sun in the Caribbean. Tourism- as it currently stands- produces a globalized web of consequences upon the stance at which women in other countries are looked a,t Jamaican women in particular will be examined. Jamaica is renowned for its beaches, friendly people with a No -Problem Mon, Good Riddims attitude. In Jamaica, women play a significant role in tourism, and encompass a pivotal place within the well-being of their families and participators of their communities. Jamaica is among the most developed countries in the Caribbean. Although it is not amongst one of the most socially, politically or economically disadvantaged countries in the Caribbean, women, as a group are under-compensated for their work, under-represented in formal decision making bodies and endure gendered problems such as poverty and violence against women. The intersectionality of class, racial hierarchies further complicates the status of women in Jamaica. Jamaicas income derives from agriculture, fishing, animal husbandry, forestry, mining and manufacturing products such as chemicals, construction materials, textiles and apparel as secondary economic sectors. However, tourism is a principle component of Jamaicas economy yet there are hidden costs to the industry where wealth is unequally distributed. The Government of Jamaica recognizes the significant role tourism plays in the country, generating socio-economic repercussions; however, revenue derived from tourism are not equitably shared. A recent move towards community based tourism is hoped to be more socio-economically, environmentally advantageous for the Jamaican population and more specifically ameliorate the condition of Jamaican women.

Introduction A shift to community-based tourism is hoped to meet objectives of community involvement, reduction of feminized poverty, gender equality, increased empowerment of women and for the culture and natural heritage of Jamaica to be sought after by self-reflective tourists. Notwithstanding the tantamount significance of tourism and the potential of communitybased tourism and its potential for gender equality and womens empowerment, the industry can be susceptible to the disempowerment of women if implemented improperly and hastily. The general socio-economic and cultural ramifications of tourism in Jamaica will be explored. More specifically, this interdisciplinary feminist legal theory paper will examine ways in which present-day tourism in Jamaica affects the lives of women. Additionally, the move to community based tourism will be examined and analysed in order to forecast the implications community-based tourism policy will incur upon the lives of Jamaican women.

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Welcome to Jamaica Jamaica is an English-speaking Caribbean country of 2.8 million people with an area of 28,389.2km2.1 Most Jamaicans are of African descent while multiracial Jamaicans represent another predominant group. Scottish, English and Lebanese Jamaicans conduct economic business in the country while Irish, Chinese, Indian and Syrian Jamaicans further add to the countrys heterogeneity. Recent waves of immigrants from China, Haiti and Latin America have also continued the islands legacy of cultural diversity. Throughout history, immigrants have assimilated into Jamaican culture while various cultures melded to constitute Jamaican culture.2 The country originally belonged to Arawak Natives who were eradicated by enslavement and new diseases brought by the Spaniards. Some Arawaks survived and continue to add to the history of Jamaica. The arrival of the Spaniards began 450 years of European colonization therefore Christopher Columbus is not lauded as a hero in Jamaican history.3 The arrival of the British (1656-1838) saw the expulsion of the Spaniards from the country. As slavery upheld a hegemonic structure, Jamaica transformed into the most industrious West Indian British colony. A new class of mixed race persons emerged receiving special privileges, wealth and social standing and played important political roles. Skin colour thus became the determining factor of social identity. Maroons escaped slavery and instigated guerrilla warfare to counter the English as the sugar industry began to wane. Ex-slaves began producing other products. A tug of war between class and race began. The Morant Bay Rebellion was brought about in 1868. The economy was restructured and more diverse crops were cultivated.

1
2

Jamaica <https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/jm.html> Accessed January 2011. This is evident in the food, language, traditional medicine, architecture and cultural ideology. 3 Sherlock, Philip Manderson and Hazel Bennett. The Story of the Jamaican People. (JA:Markus Weiner Pub, 1994) at page 402.

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From1838 to 1938 an influx of indentured servants from China, India, Lebanon and Syria came to the island.1938 to 1962, the Independence era was marked by the political ideologies of Marcus Mosiah Garvey and led to a grand rebellion in 1938 and weakening of the colonial powers. Labour unions and the Peoples National Party (PNP) were created. 4 Right Honourable Norman Manley and Sir Alexander Bustamante and NWU were catalysts for universal adult suffrage and self-government in Jamaica in 1944. In 1962 Jamaica gained independence, adopting a Westminster style constitution. The agricultural sector, mining, tourism, and construction generated a successful economy. Jamaican food, housing, education and health were heavily subsidized. The flight of Jamaicans to North America and UK began due to increased crime, and financial difficulties. In 1992 Jamaica had its first black Prime Minister PJ Patterson. Under the PNP government (19922007) a variety of technological and social progress ensued. The country experienced economic blows by 1993 when the Jamaican dollar floundered. By 2004 Jamaica was rampant with violence and crime which cooled off in 2006. Portia Simpson Miller was Jamaicas first female Prime Minister. The aforementioned elements of history have influenced Jamaicas present-day politics and ideology, which have, in turn, informed the nations tourism policy. Tourist Activities and Policies The tourism industry shapes Jamaicas economy and is influenced by politics and social psyche of the day. Understanding the way in which tourism policy and politics are intertwined is crucial because of Jamaicas inherent dependence on the industry and the sheer impact of repercussions that political decisions make on the tourism sector. Tourism in Jamaica began in the late 19th century when people from England and North America came to escape winters to sunbathe on beaches. Tourism was reserved for an elite class
4

Bustamante Industrial Trades Union and the National Workers union which became Jamaica Labor Party (JLP)

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of the rich and the old. Following the First World War, tourism expanded with improved modes of transportation. Tourists in Jamaica were coming in by few thousand in early 1920s. 5 During the Socialist period (1972-1980) of Jamaica under Michael Manley, tourism was centered on the needs of the people as it became a generator of economic growth.6 Simultaneously, there was a salient backlash from Jamaicans at the policies which isolated welloff tourists from the rest of Jamaican society, reminiscent of socio-economic and racial hierarchies. The Beach Control Act of 1956 prohibited Jamaicans from setting foot on their countrys beautiful beaches to which they could only gain access by obtaining a licence. This prohibition created tension as the dialectic of Black obedience and White superiority resonated with Jamaicans. In 1955 the Tourist Board Act made the Jamaica Tourist Board responsible for promoting Jamaica. The Hotels (Incentives) Act of 1968 strove to kindle economic investment in hotel accommodation by giving tax incentives and duty concessions. The Resort Cottages (Incentives) Act of 1971 dealt with cottage style accommodation services. Recognizing the tense atmosphere between tourists and residents the government attempted to repeal its previous aims of a segregated image of the industry from the rest of the Jamaican society, from the rest of the economy and from the social aspirations of the people (Ministry Paper, No. 61, 16 December 1975). Hotels were shut down and the arrival of tourists plunged as increased crime rates drove Jamaica into a State of Emergency in June 1976. By 1985 the economy spiralled again due to gas price increases. 1980 to1989 was the period of capitalism under Edward Seaga (JLP), who was driven to bring economic revival to the country. The molestation of visitors was the main problem the government was trying to curb.
5

Gleaner.Tourism<http://www.discoverjamaica.com/gleaner/discover/geography/tourism.htm> Accessed February 2011. 6 Minister of Industry and Tourism, P.J. Patterson said that it was necessary to accept as an undisputed fact of life, that the tourist industry has a key role to play in revitalising our economy and stimulating the possibilities of development (Daily Gleaner, 17 August 1972) Accessed April 2011.

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Given the returned rise of tourism, illegal activities sprouted and the image of Jamaicans abroad was thus marred. Consequently guests were provided all-inclusive stays where they had no need to venture off outside, thus provoking local resentment and indifference towards tourists. Today, tourism plays a major role in Jamaicas economy as one million tourists visit Jamaica each half-year.7 Stores, restaurants, transportation and other activities that cater to tourists provide direct employment in the industry.8 The North coast has become a focal point, infamous for its beaches and weather,9 while Kingston is attractive for its commercial centres and political sites.10Politics in Jamaica and the blueprint of development of tourism are related.11 Status of Jamaican Women The predicament of Jamaican women is marked by several facts: (1) underrepresentation in politics (2) feminization of poverty, and (3) the intersectionality of class, race and gender. They have implications for women, their interactions, the way they view themselves and each other, and such factors further provoke the inequalities experienced by women. Underrepresentation Despite the advancement of women in Jamaican society, Jamaican women still remain under-represented in politics. Moreover, concerns of women have often come secondary to other priorities.12There has been some mobilization to respond to the needs of women. Jamaica made

Jamaica Records One Million at Half-Year July 27, 2008 <. http://jamaicagleaner.com/gleaner/20080727/business/business3.html> Accessed March 2011. 8 Jamaica 2011 <http://www.travisa.com/Jamaica/jamaicaportal.html> Accessed on February 2011. 9 Particularly Montego Bay, Ocho Rios, Port Antonio. 10 Jamaica Tourism Aspects 1992 <http://www1.american.edu/TED/jamtour.htm> Accessed March 2011; at paragraph 3. 11 Ibid 12 The Executive Director of the Bureau of Womens Affairs of Jamaica, Glenda Simms, said that despite the fact that some of the important positions held by women included the Speaker of the House and President of the Senate, equitable representation of women in politics continued to be a challenge ... in order to overcome existing stereotypes and harmonize national laws with international norms and standards, Jamaica had started reviewing its impressive legislation protecting the rights of women. She describe d her Governments programmes to address such problems as poverty, violence against women, prostitution and the spread of

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legislative changes to counter sexual abuse, domestic violence, rape, incest and marital rape of women. 13 The Bureau of Womens Affairs should also include tourism to complement goals of empowerment of women and rural Jamaican womens participation. Jamaican women have accomplished much yet fill few seats of power. Women are not encouraged to enter politics as it was founded and headed by men and women shy away from it because of its violent nature. 14 The Feminization of Poverty Poverty incurs negative repercussions upon Jamaican women which affect all areas of their life. Women still face barriers in securing jobs equivalent with their level of qualification despite the fact that most faculties of law and medicine, and the tertiary level of education in general are dominated by women. 15 Women are staying in school longer and dominate spaces in university. Frustration amongst men, backlash and subjugation of Jamaican women is correlative with the advancement of Jamaican women. The Government has admitted that domestic violence is a crime that has psychological and physical consequences which inhibit the independence of many women.16 Women face difficulties in gaining financial independence due to social stereotypes which discourage them from getting mortgage, limiting their access to land. The Married

HIV/AIDS, pointing out particular progress in the areas of education and health. However all those efforts were affected by overriding issues of structural adjustment, globalization and a growing burden of debt. 13 Womens Level of Participation in Jamaican Public Life January 2001 <http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2001/wom1257.doc.htm> Accessed February 2011 at paragraph 9.; ... Jamaica ratified the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in 1981. To promote the advancement of women, the National Policy Statement on Women was formulated by the Bureau of Women's Affairs in 1987. Now formally adopted by the Cabinet, the Statement stresses that all Government policies must reflect full recognition of the equal and complementary partnership of women and men and provide for equality of access to resources. 14 Ibid at paragraph 5. 15 Ibid at paragraph 18; although school enrolment levels for girls and boys are comparable at the primary level, more girls than boys are enrolled in secondary education. Enrolment at the University of the West Indies has been predominantly female since early 1980s. The same opportunities exist for men and women to access programmes of continuing education, including adult and functional literacy programmes. 16 UN (United Nations) (2006), In-depth Study on all Forms of Violence Against Women, Report of the SecretaryGeneral, UN General Assembly, 61st Session A/61/122/Add.1, UN, New York, NY.

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Womens Property Act (1887) included sexist clauses stating that fraudulent investments [made] by a wife of her husbands money without his consent. Currently, the Family Property (Rights of Spouses) Act, stipulates that men and women have an equal legal capacity to sign contracts and administer property. Bank loans can be inaccessible to women due to their poverty levels; however, access to small sums may be a more feasible route.17 The socio-economic situation of women intersects with racial categorization as they suffer a double oppression. Out of Many-One People: The Need for Intersectionality There are overlapping identities, necessitating understanding of the intersection of class and race when analysing the situation of Jamaican women. Intersections of race and gender dont dominate political-legal discourse where experiences of black women compete for rights. The cultural origins of a Jamaican woman, the shade of her skin, and her phenotypes are all determining factors of her socio-economic class and political leverage. Labor markets are segregated racially: White, multiracial and lighter-skinned Jamaicans gain easier access to political offices. Chinese, White and Arab Jamaicans are more likely to be in charge of businesses, as colour is a determinative factor of what kind of job and how much access to certain types of jobs an individual will get. Most rural women make a living from subsistence farming such women are mostly black, darker-skinned Jamaicans at the lowest socio-economic rank. Domestic workers are insufficiently compensated and make money cleaning and housekeeping. Black women have always had to work; thus, feminism in Jamaica is a marked departure from Western feminism dismantling generic conceptions of womanhood and motherhood.

17

Gender Equality and Social Institutions in Jamaica< http://genderindex.org/country/jamaica> Accessed March 2011

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Women in Jamaica suffer a double burden incurred by their female counterparts. Since there are different socio-economic classes of women in Jamaica, middle-class and rich Jamaican women need to be sensitive to the reality of poor Jamaican women, some of whom they employ at work or in their homes. Sufficient consideration of race and the multilayered diversity of oppression which complicates the lives of Jamaican women is needed. Jamaican women perpetuate racist ideas of beauty, measuring themselves and counterparts by it, leading to systemic discrimination. Institutions have been structured upon biased ideologies of what constitutes good hair and nice complexion-all of which can influence what job one gets and where. Jamaicans tend to view themselves through post colonialist lenses. Williams brings up a laudable observation which alludes to Jamaica whereby, whilst advocating for equity and democratic values, political-legal structures inherently reenforce discrimination.18 Epistemological workings of law have been reduced by a single all-encompassing thesis by which neo-colonialist perspectives forecast which types of knowledge are refuted as equally valid and who gets to speak the language of the law. The diverse experiences of Jamaican women of varying shades and phenotypes is a reminder that the experience of one may not be common -and cannot be extended to be representative- of the experiences of all Jamaican women. Intersectionality offers a nuanced explanation for the multilayered vulnerabilities shaping the lives of Jamaican women and can be employed in their emancipatory struggle.

18

Patricia Williams, The Alchemy of Race and Rights (Cambridge: Harvard Uni. Press, 1991) at page 413; Patricia Williams speaks of challenging universally accepted rules and presuppositions of the law. She argues that the so called governing narrative or meta-language, about the significance of rights is quite different for whites and blacks and for this reason, rights discourse is seen as contrary to anticipated social behaviour and legal discourse. Similarly, in Jamaica, the struggle against discrimi nation and hardship is voiced through the language of rights and it can be seen that the continuance of the other (usually dark-skinned black Jamaicans) in the structure are manoeuvred in order to maintain its authority and power. Rights discourse has worked in Jamaica as well to further the vision black Jamaican people aspire to as they realize that the system was not working in favour of them.

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Impacts of Mass Tourism Hegemonic powers within the industry of tourism encompass sexism, capitalism, social class and racism-all of which intersect in tourism.19 Gendered stereotypical norms, economic disparities and the variety of races of persons involved in the tourism industry persuade how Jamaican women and tourists perceive their communications. Hidden Costs upon the Society of the Spectacle Whereas tourists go elsewhere to be informed about history and heritage, tourists travelling to the Caribbean often go with an expectation of being served, entertained and catered to. Jamaica has become a leisure society for tourists to frolic in-a society of the spectacle, a hyper reality-to unthinkingly disregard the reality surrounding them. 20 o Socio-Cultural Impact: No Problem Mon Tourism has increased the appreciation of Jamaican arts and music by permitting the flow of tourists, with a fresh consciousness, appraisal and appreciation for Jamaican culture, arts, music as well as its historic sites. Conversely; tourism can be blamed for cultivating increased materialism in Jamaican culture and transforming people into commodities. The flow of material goods correlative with the increased amount of tourists arriving has created an unregulated market of goods, services and drugs. Products indigenous to the country are also fading. Jamaican residents for the tourist are seen as a source for emotional wealth whilst the Jamaican looks at the tourist as a walking ATM machine. Tourism has demarcated a divide between menial labour and management workers further strengthening economic class segregations. On both sides, people are dehumanized.

19

Antropologia del Turismo en Paises en Desarrollo : Analsis Critico de Las Culturas, Poderes e Identidades Generados por el Turismo. August 2006 <http://www.revistatabularasa.org/numero_cinco/salazar.pdf> Accessed November 2010. 20 Guy Debord. The Society of the Spectacle (Paris, 1967) at chapter 7.

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Tourism instigated fast-track changes in local authority and the use of land which affects the condition of the environment and availability of resources. In the name of tourism concerns of local Jamaican people are marginalized as the country sacrifices its beaches, land and resources to make way for tourist structures. Women are left at a greater disadvantage, particularly in rural areas where they are at the lowest ranks socio-economically. A great contradiction divides Jamaica where development of hotels and commercial buildings contrast with the intolerable conditions of living of local residents. o Economic Impact: Bringing in Dollars Tourism has constructed a more solid economic foundation than agriculture. Tourism produces: direct employment for around 85 000 people, 9% of the population, has been the major economic activity, the highest foreign exchange earning industry (over 50%) and continues to be a primary avenue of revenue providing an approximate 1/4 of all jobs in Jamaica.21 How much wealth is being spread around equitably is questionable. Most luxurious tourist hotels are owned by foreigners. 22 Money is not redistributed rather ends up in the pockets of a small elite few.23 Jamaica is heavily dependent on tourism, making the economy susceptible to the economic climate abroad.24 This dependency will likely increase to sustain, not only that industry, but its correlative industries. Advantages of mass tourism are outbalanced by undesirable effects.

21

World Bank The Road to Sustained Growth in Jamaica, (Washington D.C.: World Bank Country Studies, 2004)at page 193. 22 Supra note 10 at paragraph 23 Kunwar R. Anthropology of Tourism (USA: Adroit Publisher, 2002) at page174. 24 The Caribbean is four times more dependent on tourism than in any other place in the world.

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Marketing Jamaica Jamaica, land of sun and fun has become a particular flavour amongst the buffet of Caribbean islands to choose from. 25 Tourism ads have their own element of rhetoric.26 The impact of visual representations of Jamaican people run deep, extending far beyond what may have been in the minds of marketers, becoming persuasive socio-cultural remnants of Jamaica to the rest of the world.27 Common Ways of Knowing Jamaicans To see how tourism is a crucial area for the reproduction of multiple forms of power relations, the area of visual representations and the role of marketing racial knowledge that gullibly emphasize the knowledge sphere need to be analyzed. Racist perceptions come by a more innocent passage not directly offending public sensibilities. o Othering Jamaica Advertisements of touristic destinations are over-simplified, subservient representations of race, culture and the Other woman. The undignified semiotics of Jamaica undermines the wholesome status of Caribbean people as being equally human. 28 Visual representations are often stereotypical and set within a subservient framework recollecting a vein of the master-servant dialectic as seen in Jamaican tourism commercials.
29

Individuals are positioned in demeaning roles which perpetuate ill-informed knowledge of race

25

Albo, Reuben 2006 Caribbean: Gender Socialization and Sex Tourism in the Caribbean. Rastafari Speaks Interactive at paragraph 1. 26 Estereotipia y localizacin en el discurso touristic < http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/pdf/808/80811192004.pdf> p5 27 Ibid 26 at page 59 28 Arts, Entertainment and Tourism, Hughes, Howard.Oxford: Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd. 2000 at page 45. 29 <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pokFsD1VHew>; <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vuJUm90Mxk&feature=related> Accessed March 2010.

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and culture: Welcome to Jamaica where Jamaican people will shuck and jive before tourists and fill the pockets of the tourists emotional poverty.30 Essentialist representations of Jamaicans serve to disgrace their cultural integrity, human dignity and infer racial inferiority. Inferences are drawn from their physical and intellectual practices where gestures and actions attributed as being natural to culture are exaggerated. Images become cemented into minds forming part of epistemological knowledge which inadvertently influences interactions. Tourists as Supreme: Between Us and Them The representations offer a portrait of the guest and host of the destination where the preferred is the white, heterosexual male in contrast to the subservient yet amicable and willing to please Other. Ironically, the guest does not perceive themselves through these advertisements as being the Other nor do they reflect upon themselves.31 The creation of binaries of us and them further widens the gap of them and us and dissuades any formation of genuine human relationships.32 Jamaicans do not benefit as they are viewed as less human thus undermining possibility for intellectual debate and formation of complete human relationships. Visual representations photocopy binaries which distinguish the tourist from the Jamaican resident and are reflective of power relations.

30

Linn, Michael D. "Black Rhetorical Patterns and the Teaching of Composition". College Composition and Communication. Vol. 26, No. 2. (May 1975) at page 150 31 Ibid 31 at page 113. 32 Kamala Kempadoo. Sun, Sex and Gold: Tourism and Sex Work in the Caribbean. (Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. 1999) at page 52; Kempadoo, K. Sexing the Caribbean: Gender, Race and Sexual Labor. (New York: Routledge, 2004) at page 12.

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Exoticisation of Other Women Visual Representation Tourism produces a web of consequences upon which women in other countries are looked at.33 Jamaican women become anonymous faces; they are exoticised and sexually commodified through the tourism industry.34 Tourism repackages a post-colonialist gaze upon women in other countries.
35

There is a generic notion of Caribbean women as being sexual

loose, exotic and lewd. Historic perceptions of the wild, black woman and the exotic, spicy, sensualised mixed-race and Asian Jamaicans have penetrated into the 21st century.36Commercial tourism advertisements portray Caribbean as being infantile, subservient, hyper-sexualised, in a rank lower to their Caribbean male counterparts as their gender is sold and their femininity overly accentuated.37 Within the background of reggae music, a love-entangled genre of music, puerile Jezebel is shown smiling wearing a Carnival dress.38 The tourist is inferably directed to think along marketed images.
39

Representations
40

efface diversity of identities of Jamaican women as politicians, educators and mothers.

Representations are de-contextualized and de-historized.41 Nonetheless, the image of Jamaican

33 34

Supra note 26. Supra note 33. 35 La Lengua del Otro. December 2005 <http://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/psicologia/9-61056-2005-12-29.html> Accessed March 2011. 36 Deborah Gray. White, Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves In The Plantation South (New York: Norton, 1985/1999) at page 31. 37 Supra note 33 at page 9. 38 Supra note 37 at page 29; moreover, the speech of Sojourner Truth reminds the feminist that the experience of one woman cannot be emblemic of all women. 39 This has been shown in some commercials, one of which young Jamaican children and people of different shades and ethnic backgrounds are singing together and holding hands can be seen as positive yet whilst being reflective of the cultural diversity of Jamaica it also infantilizes and romantics diversity and portrays it as being out of the (albeit Western) norm. Dissemination of racial stereotypes of the Black poor and the happy-go-lucky people can be seen to parade on travel brochures. 40 Stands in strong contrast to the feminism often seen which deflects attention from black and Third World womens experiences. 41 Sinclair, M. Thea Gender, Work and Tourism (USA: Routledge, 2001), at page 21.

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women the public may have is a replica of what they see in ads which have been thoughtfully construed to resonate with the privileged guest.42 Gender Race and Work Women of colour in Jamaica who work in the tourism industry on lower level management are in positions which confirm stereotypical roles as they cater to tourists. Many do cleaning, cooking, waitressing- all of which are devalued jobs.43 Divisions are important for the functioning of tourism and are determinative of status and power relations of groups. Alongside the exchange of goods and services comes the exchange of cultural and ideological transactions; Jamaican women end up acting as cultural agents. Women who create handicrafts and artwork for tourists may win augmented authority and control over their households yet that power produced on an atomic level is not broadened to the wider society. Women end up filling domestic roles in the tourism sector, as tourism establishments are owned and run by foreigners.44 Gender dimensions of cultural commoditization reflect in tourism.45 o Otherness and Sex Tourism Sexual tourism in Jamaica has become a site for the reproduction of affirmation of White power and identity. Western men are safe from social stigma and can dodge the social meanings attached to their age and body type.46 It reinforces ambiguities of slavery, altogether

42

Advertisements are very tourist-centred to the point that the idea that Jamaican residents can say no but rather must make all efforts to ensure the comfort of the tourist at all pains is staunchly bulwarked. The Jamaican Ministry of Tourism and its tourism policies aimed at ensuring that the needs, wants and desires of the tourist were satisfied. 43 Supra note 42 at page 3. 44 Supra note 42 at page 2: Work in tourism sectors of destination areas is concentrated particularly in retailing, accommodation and catering, selling, entertainment and transportation provision. 45 Albo, Reuben Caribbean: Gender Socialization and Sex Tourism in the Caribbean. Rastafari Speaks Interactive 2006 at paragraph 13. 46 Supra note 33 at page 52

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arranging a safe haven for domination, and freedom in the framework of oppressive racialised economic arrangements.47 Dominance over Jamaican women is enabled whereby Western men can recreate traditional masculine roles which assure themselves of their agency and control over others.48 Caribbean masculinity and femininity becomes the tableaux upon which a reconceptualising of Western identity happens.49 Western men are provided space to completely reassure themselves of their masculinity via control of Jamaican women premised on racialized and cultural economic power.50 Sexual representations amplify historical notions of blacks and mixed-raced persons. Jamaica has no control over the production of sex tourism advertisements.51 Caribbean and black women are commonly conveyed as having an insatiable appetite for sex and are sexually on hand.52 Standing on a lower socio-economic and legal rank, where the former was a slave of the fields and the latter a servant in the house, both were seen as lewd and legally, could not be raped.53 Western sex tourists claim sex is more natural in developing countries, prostitution is not really prostitution but a way of life, that They are at it all the time. 54 Historical notions of sexuality attributed to races have moulded the thought that the Other woman is inherently degraded and thus appropriate for degrading sex55-reminiscent of the concept of non-Western peoples as being primitive and wild-like as in The White Mans Burden.

47 48

Ibid at page 27 Ibid at page26 49 Ibid at page 34 50 Ibid at page 27 51 Ibid at page 43 52 Ibid at page 47 53 Ibid at page 45 54 Supra note 33 at page 43 55 Shrage, Laurie. Moral Dilemmas of Feminism. (London: Routledge, 1994) at page 158.

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Self-Reflection and Cultural Commodification Tourism advertisements56 retain the status of being official while bifurcating discussion and evidence is omitted. They are not a site for self-reflection; rather, they are simply accepted as being representative of actuality. Tourism advertisements construes Jamaican identity and culture to tailor the expectations of the tourist. The tourist manoeuvres which elements of Jamaican culture should be staged thereby producing an artificial adaptation of Jamaican culture. Categorizations and the employment of accepted commonsensical ways of knowing Jamaica have construed the foundation of entire Jamaican communities. Jamaicans putting forth such advertisements begs the need for careful self-criticism. Remember, the Jamaica Tourist Board, - which is Jamaicas National Tourism Organisation, is responsible for the marketing and progress of tourism in the country. In 2008, Jamaica invested $3 million for tourism advertisement campaigns.57 Whereby Jamaica is head of tourism advertisements can be reflective of the ways in which Jamaican people see themselves through neo-colonialist lens. Meanings in visual representations have been embedded by socio-cultural powers; making Jamaicans and other people view them through narrow binoculars. The masterslave narrative replicated in the community is normalized - culminating in a brand of national solidarity, pride, and repackaged servant-hood. To debunk post-colonialist perceptions, Jamaicans need to investigate the employment of neo-colonialist-inspired advertisements which perpetuate an inferior version of themselves. Jamaicans may be unwittingly promulgating such representations or willingly sacrificing in order to reap profit. Marketers need to carefully examine the ramifications of covert meanings as they
56 57

Here we are not talking about sex tourism ads but only commercial ads seen on televisions, billboards etc. Jamaica invests $3million ad Campaign Nov 2008 < http://www.eturbonews.com/6435/jamaica-launches-3million-tourism-ad-campaign> Accessed March 2011

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carry a luggage of socio-cultural hegemonic creations, reinstalling inequalities. Mass tourism has incurred negative effects upon Jamaica when it is monolithically used as the sole mean for development without including local participation.58 Embracing Community-Based Tourism Jamaica has been experiencing the flip side of mass tourism. Nonetheless, communitybased tourism has potential to countermand some undesirable effects of mass tourism when planned with the input of the community and womens at hand. 59 Community based tourism in Jamaica has many dimensions: (1) this type of tourism has the potential to broaden the terrain for the victimization and neo-colonialist mission of saving Jamaican women or the alleviation of their situation (2) in attempting to provide ground for cultural appreciation there is risk of creating more space for Jamaica to become a cultural playground for tourists, as well as, the continual stereotyping of Jamaican women, in the absence of a changed mentality on both sides; (3) taking regard for economic, environmental and legal factors, Jamaica runs the risk of further complicating the lives of women and (4) communitybased tourism as a source of empowerment for Jamaican women is debatable. (1) White Mans Burden for Jamaica: Colonialism Re-Packaged Community-based tourism may manhandle the sensibilities of tourists. As Morgan Heritage asks Is there anything to smile about when tourists grasp the reality of women living in Jamaica? 60

58
59

Hawkers and Peddlers Act; Beach Control Act. Community based tourism is an alternative tourism product that has been and is being developed in Jamaica and to ... meet the varying needs of the local and overseas vacationer seeking a natural experience. Traditional There is ...a growing market for an alternative tourism product that is heritage-cultural or nature-based in a rural setting (Rural Enterprise Development Initiative-Tourism Sector at page 2). 60 The quotation comes from a song by Jamaican conscious-reggae singer, Morgan Heritage singer called Smile About in which he outlines the societal problems of Jamaica as he provides a tourist from the Netherlands a tour of the country and as an answer to the tourists question of Why Jamaica has so much screwface (people that look

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A latent consequence is a saving mission on the part of foreigners. Sardack contends there is a deeply held belief in the need to and the right to dominate others for their own good, other who are expected to be grateful and individuals then come to define themselves within these scripts.61 Sardack speaks of the White Mans Burden which eludes the position of Jamaicans by positing how the moral universe of imperialism is a universe of those who must be saved and those who must do the saving.62 When colonialist knowledge is seldom challenged Jamaicans have come to know themselves in an intimate way through the colour line.63 As Patricia Williams alludes, Jamaican people tend to view White people as coming in with authority and power whereas a figure of their own community might be regarded as being less legitimate. The foreigner is the big teacha professa with a big job ah foreign whose word carries much more weight than Jamaican voices64. The tourist runs the risk of victimizing Jamaican women and not recognizing their agency and institutions to deal with societal issues.65 Foreigners can cooperatively and in a servantleader mannerism, humbly educate themselves rather than implementing a saving agenda without contextualizing the situation.

sad) he asks him if the tourist understands now and seeing and knowing what he has just shown him asks him if there is anything to smile about. 61 Sherene Razack. Savage Wars of Peace and Acting Morally in the New World Order: Lessons from Peacekeeping in Dark Threats and White Knights: The Somalia Affair, Peacekeeping and the New Imperialism (Toronto: university of Toronto press, 2004): Razack thoroughly challenges the race-based nature of peace-keeping violence and illustrates the grave emergency in the lives of racialized peoples by scrutinizing the image of the white peacekeeper and humanitarian (Razack 154). Razack provides a global view of the role of racism by explaining and naming the aims, use of national mythology and fantasies of racial superiority in identifying peace-keepers 62 Ibid at page156 63 Supra note 61 at page 9. 64 The darker skinned Jamaican needs the affirmation of a lighter skinned mixed or White Jamaican or foreigner. White statements, as Williams discusses (413) have statistical authority which lawmakers can listen to and politicians hear whilst the former continually needs to convince the individual that they are of equal repute and value. If black, the person is viewed as less legitimate and needing the confirmation or support of the white or lightskinned Jamaican or foreigner for their words to ring through the oxymoronic message of One Love which Jamaica purports. 65 Baudrillard, Kritik. The Catastrophe Fix(Switzerland: European Graduate School, 1994); Baudrillard considers this moral and sentimental exploitation of poverty where the las t phase of colonialism where Other peoples destitution becomes our adventure playground at page 67.

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(2) Cultural Playground If the mentality of people on both sides do not change Jamaica could become a cultural playground resulting in the deterioration of cultural integrity and dehumanization. Conversely, should post-slavery images and master-slave narrative be painted over, the result could be deconstruction of stereotypes and re-education of who Jamaican people are. Coined as The Tourist Gaze, power structures enable Western tourists to construct their preconceptions of the Other upon destination populations.66 For tourists, the Third World becomes the playground of their imagination and a target to conquer and consume.67 Jamaican women play the game of acting out roles of the indigenous Jamaican to please tourists. Women end up fulfilling tourists expectations of what they are; solidifying stereotypes. (3) Economic and Environment Opportunities to Poverty Alleviation The Land Acquisition and Resettlement Policys proposals for credit, infrastructure changes, micro-financing and the inclusion of rural persons in developing tourism can reverse effects of poverty.68 The Policy states that inclusion of young people and women will be encouraged, and an estimated 15 percent of all direct beneficiaries are expected to be youth (under 30 years old) and 35 percent women.69 Women living in rural Jamaica are most vulnerable and suffer from unequal access to resources and benefits flowing from policies within the agricultural sector. Inclusion of Jamaican women has potential to provide Jamaican women with the transformation of the stance at which their job is looked-recognized for having worth to the community.

66 67

Maoz, Darya (2005) The Mutual Gaze, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol.33, no.1 at page 222. Ibid at page 233. 68 The Policy here refers to the Land Acquisition and Resettlement Policy (JSIF) at page 1. 69 Ibid

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The Rural Enterprise Development Initiative calls for aesthetic changes and cutting of trees to be minimal; however, provides no quantitative measure of what would be considered excessive and the resultant consequences of violating such a regulation. The conservation of resources is of outmost importance as increasing number of tourists, with extremely high consumption habits, places a disproportionate strain on the local infrastructure.... the average tourist in Jamaica ingests ten times as much water, producing three times as much solid waste as the average resident.70 A keen strategy as how to make certain that the needs of local residents are being met and not sidelined for the comfort of tourists must be prioritized. Jamaican women are especially disadvantaged in obtaining land ownership and land use. Local residents may be displaced, if the male is head of the household he has claims71; thereby, the Policy ensures barriers to feminized poverty particularly in urban slum areas to be affected by compensating affected women. Already there is serious damage caused by tourism.72 The gender-blind Natural Resources Conservation Act mentions that local residents will collaborate with using land, environmental conservation and training yet omits how women will have increased access and licence to use land. Cultivating local control and ownership of land and handle of the agricultural sector on a micro-level requisites the cooperation of the local, national and regional levels.73The medium for attaining environmental conservation is interagency partnership and keen planning and forecasting of possible deleterious consequences.

70 71

Supra note 10 at paragraph 17. Supra note 72 at page 6. 72 (a) inadequate sewage treatment and disposal facilities is causing deteriorating water quality and reef damage;(b) storm water discharge is transporting silt andpollutant into coastal waters;(c) shore line construction, dredging and reef damage have caused beach erosion;(d) deforestation due to inland agriculture and timber cutting is aggravating flood damage and siltation; and (e) coastal development is contributing to the destruction of wetlands, important as fish nurseries and wildlife habitat and as buffers against water pollution and coastal erosion. 73 Adopting an Integrative Approach. 2010<http://www.mona.uwi.edu/jct/aboutct/approach.htm> Accessed February 2011 at paragraph at paragraph 7: For examples, vertical linkages can be created between the tourism sector, farmers and the agri-processing industry. Similar links can be made with entertainment, sports and light

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(4) Empowerment? The Government supports the need for the participation of women in tourism; yet the question of how to countermand sex tourism, and sexual exploitation of Jamaican girls remains unanswered. A potential rise of prostitution and sexual tourism, sexual exploitation of young Jamaican girls can ensue community-based tourism; amplifying rates of sexual violence and criminal activities related to the activity. Correspondingly, the health of women may be compromised as access to healthcare and medical services is already difficult for rural Jamaicans.74 Therefore, it has potential to act as an independent black market which cannot be easily scrutinized under the law. Participation of men could bridge gaps of disconnect. Jamaican men should not be sidelined as it may result in resentment towards women. The potential for socio-economic empowerment of women and the relation with the rise of domestic violence could have been mentioned in the policy. Include implications of women gaining socio-economic power and provide solutions to redress harmful consequences. Upper socio-economic movement of women could result in them not being viewed as having agency and independence.

manufacturing. Historically, tourism has a 6-7 year cycle. By creating viable industries outside of tourism but which also serves tourism the impacts from economic crises as a result of the inevitable cyclical down turns can be minimized. Careful planning at the national level is required. 74 Supra note 13 at paragraph 19: A study conducted in 1994 revealed that some family planning methods were not readily available at affordable prices to rural consumers... indicated that long-term and permanent methods were concentrated in urban areas and offered primarily by private physicians. On the basis of the study, the National Family Planning Board is making efforts to strengthen the capability of the private sector to offer family-planning services.Additionally, the rise of HIV/AIDS in the country is correlated to the rise of tourism as most cases which arise are concentrated in touristic areas.

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More Explicit Gender-Sensitive Policy Whether the shift towards community-based tourism will prove to favour women needs to be analyzed. Is there a need for gender-sensitive policy? Yes- there is- macro-tourism has demonstrated the consequences of a broad framework exclusionary of womens cause.75 Criticisms of tourism in Jamaica are that it has been, for the most part, largely unplanned.76 To avoid the mistake of mass tourism in Jamaica, community-based tourism needs to be structured in a way which is accountable for its explicit or implicit gendered policies. Improved equity77 is one goal of community-based tourism, yet an operationalization of the word is needed to clarify what it would entail and how it would affect women. Doing so will make way for the promotion and training of female labourers and help rectify historical imbalances in tourism work and work related to tourists. Next, there should be more ground for discourse in tourism policy groups concerning the empowerment of women and gender equality. Resultantly, tourism policy would distance from thin-tapered economic, market-based notions of how things function to a more inventive way of obtaining economic health for Jamaican women. Lastly, feminist constructions of the activity of tourism and its progress require more attention from policy-makers. Implementing Community-Based Tourism Viewing community-based tourism through the post-colonialist feminist lens, it has potential to outweigh the advantages it claims to deliver. A genuine desire to know Jamaican people, outside a simulated cultural framework can empower women as they will determine how
75

The Government of Jamaica needs to look at the qualitative data of its women. Not doing so speaks loud about who the law is formed by and for whom and for which group of people in mind; allowing all of Jamaica and the world to see who tourism policy prioritizes and which groups of people saliently acquiesce. 76 Supra note 72 77 RURAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT INTIATIVE (REDI) PROJECT Investing for Community Development

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tourism develops in their communities and make ensure women will be principal beneficiaries. Opposingly, there is risk for a new version of colonialism to disturb the agency of Jamaica as a sovereign nation. Community-based tourism can be a viable industry when properly planned with qualitative feminist analysis; when espoused with a self-reflective tourist, as fake cultural constructions are discarded.

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Bibliography 1. Angela P. Harris, Race and Essentialism in Feminist Legal Theory, Coursepack, 121 2. Boaventura de Sousa Santos, Law: A Map of Misreading. Toward a post-modern conception of law (1987) 15 Journal of Law and Society 279-302 3. Crenshaw, Kimberle Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics, Coursepack 4. Dunn, L.L. and Dunn, H. (1994) Report on Visitor Harassment and Attitudes to Tourism & 5. Tourists in Negril. 6. Huggan, Graham. The Postcolonial Exotic: Marketing the Margins. 7. Jamaica Tourist Board (1997) Annual Travel Statistics. 8. Johannes, Maerk. Turismo en el Caribe. Mexico: Plaza y Valdes, 2000. 9. Kamala Kempadoo. Sun, Sex and Gold: Tourism and Sex Work in the Caribbean. (Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. 1999) 10. Mariana Valverde, Laws Dream of a Common Knowledge (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003) 11. Organization of American States (1994) Economic Analysis of Tourism in Jamaica. 12. Patricia Williams, The Alchemy of Race and Rights (Cambridge: Harvard Uni. Press, 1991) 13. Nell Irvin Painter, The History of White People W. W. Norton & Company; 1st Edition edition (March 15, 2010) 14. Razack, Sherene Savage Wars of Peace and Acting Morally in the New World Order: Lessons from Peacekeeping in Dark Threats and White Knights: The Somalia Affair, Peacekeeping and the New Imperialism (Toronto: university of Toronto press, 2004) 15. Rudyard Kipling, The White Mans Burden in McClures Magazine (February 1899) Legislation 1. Advertisements Regulations Act 2. Hotels (Incentives) Act, 1968. 3. Natural Resources Conservation Authority Act, 1992. 4. Resort Cottages (Incentives) Act, 1971. 5. Tourism Master Plan Full 6. Tourist Enhancement Act 7. Tourist Board Act, 1995 8. Chairmans draft of the report of the Task Force for Tourism, 31 March 1995. 9. Environmental Assessment and Environmental Management Framework (JSIF) 10. JSIF REDI Community Tourism Report (JSIF) 11. JSIF REDI Communications and Visibility Strategy (JSIF) 12. Land Acquisition and Resettlement Policy JSIF) 13. Micro Finance Manual (JSIF) 14. National Community Development Programme (NCDP) Project Appraisal Document (JSIF) 15. RURAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT INTIATIVE (REDI) PROJECT