AN ANALYSIS OF LANDSCAPE PROCESSES AND THE EFFECT OF ECOLOGICAL FORCES ON LANDSCAPE DESIGN

Submitted by: Theresa C. Rivera 2005-14302 MTLA

L Arch 19 MBCD Prof. Jose Dan Villajuan

The earth displays many forms of landscape forms and patterns. In every corner of the world, one will be able to find a natural formation such as a mountain, a stream, a cliff or waterfall, a river bend or flood plain. According to John Motloch, these landscape formations evolve over time in response to the interaction of ecological forces that form the ecosystem. There are three categories of landscape-changing ecological forces that Motloch specifically identifies: geologic processes, soil-forming processes, and biologic processes. Geologic processes involve tectonic, hydrologic, glacial, wind, and weathering processes that greatly change the form and pattern of a landscape over time. These processes affect how rocks are formed, differentiated, eroded, and deposited and reformed into newer rocks. There are two geologic forms that arise from these geologic processes positive (mass-generated) forms, caused by tectonic forces and powered by radioactive decay within the earth, uplift the land and build new forms; and negative (space-generated) forms caused by erosional forces that are affected by wind, rain, and ice flows, soften the uplifted landform and create new erosional landforms that usually create depressions in the land. Due to the movement of the earth, tectonic activities occur when the geologic plates of the earth move. When tectonic forces occur without the mitigating influences of erosion and weathering, young tectonic forms are created which are more ragged and angular as they are formed upward. When erosion occurs, these forms gradually soften and are less angular, transforming these young tectonic forms into old tectonic forms. Hydrology also affects landscape design as they usually create negative forms. These landforms are modified by groundwater and surface water. Groundwater changes landforms by dissolving the geologic base. Sinkholes and karstic pools are examples of collapse-type landscapes that are formed when ground 1

water dissolves the geologic materials underneath (the substrate) and the surface collapses. Landforms are also modified by surface runoff, particularly when water collects into rivulets that are eventually connected to streams. The landscape form is made when the runoff gains enough velocity to erode small particles from the topsoil downward, headward, and laterally. The zone of erosion creates relatively steep slows along the rivulets and streams that create dendritic patterns. As the water begins to slow down when it reaches a flatter landscape, deposition occurs, particularly around the bends, until it loses its velocity to an almost stagnant condition, and a braided channel develops towards the end before connecting to a channel. The patterns of a stream, however, depend also on geologic conditions such as having a folded substrate, or having highly resistive strata. Glacial forces form negative landforms. When parts of the glacier collapse, massive amounts of the bedrock and dislodged and push boulders to their front and sides as they flow. They create striated, scoured landforms such as the characteristic U-shaped channel cross sections; moraines alongside and at the end of valleys, hanging valleys, and associated waterfalls, and drumloidal shapes. Wind, although less powerful than water, can still also cause negative landforms when they erode, transport, and deposit sediments. Wind, however, has little erosive ability on its own, and erosion caused by wind is more significant when aided by an adequately sustained velocity of the wind and a dry climate that allows particles to be easily freed from the surface and remain suspended in the air. Erosion caused by wind also depends on the kind of surface that the air comes into friction with. Clay, for example, is very compact and heavy and highly resistive to wind erosion. Sand particles, although too heavy to actually be carried by the wind, can bounce and knock other more numerous particles into the air stream. Slit-sized particles, since they are less heavy than sand, can be transported over great heights 2

and distances by the wind. Dunes, for example, are landscape forms that are soft, and undulating, often articulated with sharp-crestlines organized in a rhythmic pattern. Finally, weathering is the last geologic force that modifies a landscape. It is also the primary mechanism of erosion. Mechanical weathering includes erosional activities caused by water, wind, and glaciers. It is, however, more importantly caused by temperature- and plant-induced breakages. Changes in temperature from hot to cold often result in stress that leads to breakages of the rocks. When water enters through the crevices in the rocks, the water expands upon freezing and crumbles layers of ricks. These plant roots then penetrate through the soil-filled fissures and force the cracks to further expand and the rocks to break. Mechanical weathering tends to occur more in dry climates characterized by temperature extremes. Chemical weathering also affects landscapes. Under intense heat and pressure underground, the earths surface chemically decompose at a rate depending on the climate, tectonics, rock composition and time. Urban environments, because of the difference in the chemicals in the air, have faster rates of chemical decay. Landscapes are also modified by soil-forming processes. Mechanical and chemical weathering, coupled by abiotic and biotic activities, forms soil. The increased presence of lichens in crumbled rocks accumulates the organic matter essential for soil to sustain life. Pioneering plants then increase the rate of mechanical weathering through root action and chemical decay. As the layer of powedered rock grows and the amount of living and dead organic matter increases, soil becomes biologically active and productive. Biologic processes affect the way land is formed when biological systems are negentropic increasing order, organization, complexity, and amount of 3

energy stored for later use. For example, through photosynthesis, chemical bonds are formed to create highly organized complex forms called plant proteins. When abiotic and biotic components interact to form an ecosystem, the ecosystem evolves over time toward greater order, diversity, complexity and stability, and toward a more efficient utilization of the energy resource. Early successional ecosystems, characterized by a minimum diversity of components, are generally tolerant of a relatively wide range of habitats. They adjust gradually through their ecological survival strategies but are relatively short-lived when they are unable to compete effectively over long periods of time. Late successional ecosystems are ecosystems that have evolved by responding and adjusting to environmental variables in the long-term to create a high degree of organization and diversity. The design of a landscape, therefore, is affected by how a landscape planner or architect decides to resolve the challenges that have arisen from these ecological forces, from the type of material of the place, and the natural form of the landscape that has occurred and is expected to occur within a given time frame. Landscape planners and designers introduce structural and infrastructural systems to promote health, safety, welfare, and quality of life to serve the needs of people in industrial and post-industrial societies by augmenting the ability of natural and ecological systems into these systems.

__________ Reference: Motloch, J. L. (2000). Introduction to landscape design. New York: Wiley.