3.6 Impacts of Science and Technology on the Arts I.

The Impact of Science and Technology on Aesthetics by Jean Ladriere AESTHETICS - is a subsystem of the cultural system which deals with forms of expression.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Art and symbol are the close bonds linking this subsystem. ART - covers all the modalities of know-how which involve a specialized skill and the use of material activities that utilized technological systems and aesthetics activities SYMBOL - is regarded as an expression. It makes tangible that which representations suggest in a type of discourage which remains always abstract.

provides methods of analysis and suggests formal conception or even themes; affects the development of expressive forms indirectly; contributes to the internal logic of the development of works; and contributes to the way the expressive activity fits into the field of culture, and on a wider scale, into society as a whole.

As far as the works are concerned, materials are distinguished from processes from the forms proper, as well as form from the themes. A work may be analyzed from a formal point of view: considering the way in which it succeeds in bringing into being an autonomous, equilibrated configuration, or, more accurately, the way in which achieves within itself a reconciliation between a principle of differentiation and a principle of uniform. DIFFERENTIATION - is the principle which emphasizes diversities and separations. UNIFORM - is the principle which allows the differences to persist but holds them together a single, interrelated whole.

The characteristic of aesthetic object is precisely the singular and indissoluble way in which it unites a particular configuration, incorporated in a material with an individual essence, i.e. a distinctive mode of appearance which gives the object its unity and obliges it to take the visible form it does as opposed to what happens when an object is produced by chance or serves a purely functional purpose. ABSTRACTION is justified to the extent that expressive forms have a specific quality, which reveals them as aesthetic objects or confers aesthetic value on them.

In analyzing the development of works of art, we are led to consider the nature of the materials before their embodiment in the unity of the work, and correlatively, the nature of the formal principles of composition before their utilization in the act of creation itself. The main problem of aesthetics is no doubt to match the development of the material to the development of the forms in such a way to ensure that they are able to fit together as effectively as possible in the actual works, in other words to imbue the material with form, so as to raise it from the raw modality o its existence in isolation, and make the form concrete, so as to give it the stability and opacity inseparable from material phenomena and objects. A work may also be analyzed from the point of view of its content. It is very natural to ask what a poem or novel means; we can easily connect the theme of a literary work or imagination with a certain conscious or unconscious view of society, discover in it the working of ideological factors and, in certain cases, see in it the direct reflection of the tensions and contradictions peculiar to an era and its type of social structure. THEME - is the guiding thread of the construction or the inspiration. INFLUENCE OF S&T 1st Level: MATERIALS being used 2nd Level: PROCEDURES applied in making the works of art 3rd Level: Recourse to COMPUTERS PHENOMENON OF RUPTURE works of art are becoming more and more detached from their external meanings, so that their value resides solely in their internal characteristics which cause them to exist

To examine the impact of science and technology on expressive forms, we must inquire how it affects the dynamics of their development, for this is where it can be most clearly seen. In the development of a given field of expression, we are able to distinguish two categories of evaluative factors: purely internal and the external. INTERNAL FACTOR - corresponds to the development of an attitude to forms which once it has been accepted, imposes its own logic on the creative artists and somehow compels them to continue their efforts in a specific direction. EXTERNAL FACTOR - correspond to disturbances from other systems which may affect field of expression, for example from the system o representations, from the economic system, or from the political system.

The way in which aesthetic forms actually evolve is the outcome of the interactions which develop between the two types of factors: arts were cut off from social evolution as a whole in purely internal explanation while it would seem that art would no more than a reflection of what happens in the sphere of productive relations, ideologies and political decisions in external explanation.

INTERVENTIONS OF S&T

as objects valid in their own right. S & T isolates the aesthetic object and take away its transcendent meanings. The object becomes less important. There is a growing tendency for contemporary art to lose all its representational character and develop along non-figurative, formal lines. The work of art is expected to represent the very dynamics of society, its striving to project itself into the future, its struggles and its victories its historical destiny. The development of the various types of aesthetic activity is rousing them to an increasingly critical self-awareness. As aesthetic activity moves away from representation, it produces and that, through a series of works, it somehow tends to return to its own essence, which is, moreover, always inaccessible

COMPUTER-ASSISTED DESIGN (CAD) is a program that allows complex shapes to be created in perspective, rotated so that hidden surfaces are revealed, and colored and shaded to create the effect of 3D objects illuminated from a single light source. RAY-TRACING PROGAM - allows precise control of light.

Computer images can already change. Motion becomes explicit in computer art. Computer art has an affinity with kinesis. The ability of computer programs to generate a series of complex drawings makes computer ideal for animation. TRON - a Walt Disney movie which was the first feature film to contain an extended sequence of computer animation. The sequence lasted 15 minutes. The images have a high-tech look which is perfect for the high-tech theme of the film. Many of the adventures in Tron recall video arcade games. LINK TRAINER - is the original of all high-tech reality simulation which was used to train pilots in instrument flying. SHOOT or NO SHOOT - is used to train police officers to make quick decisions about possible lifethreatening situations. DxTr is another popular training system with the same emphasis on split-second decision making to train emergency room physicians. FLIGHT SIMULATOR - is one of the more popular games for pc which provides a color-graphic display of the instrument panel of a single-engine airplane, an image of the scenery being traversed and the airport being approached. RESPONSIVE ENVIRONMENT - is a kind of environment created by Krueger which is an artificial reality. The first of this was Glowflow. It was an empty rectangular room containing 4 tubes, through which water containing phosphorent particles was pumped. As people entered, they activated the floor pressure pads, which in turn switched on the lights at various points on the wall.

The artist is no longer very important in all this. The work of art is no longer conceived as the expression of an individuals personality, and his life, but as a self -sufficient reality, which has value in its own right, in its aesthetic abstraction.
II. Computers and Art by O.B. Hardison, Jr. Computer art began as a game. After WWII, large computers became sufficiently common to allow programmers to play with them.Visual plotters had been developed to graph complex math functions; these graphs had complex curves, 3D surfaces and intricate patterns which gave them aesthetic appeal. On August 2 to October 20, 1968, an exhibition was held at the Nash House in London. CYBERNETIC SERENDIPITY - is the exhibit which was the closest thing to a formal proclamation of the coming of age of computer art.

The proudest boast of the Nash House Exhibit was that the audience was never sure whether they were admiring something made by a human being or by a computer. 3 Techniques in Computer Art 1. REPETITION the ability of a computer to repeat itself mindlessly until told to stop. It is usually called as recursion or iteration. 2. TRANSFORMATION - occurs when the rules governing a pattern are changed each time the pattern is repeated. 3. RANDOMNESS - is used to change one or more of the rules governing transformations and it can also be used to determine when the changes are to occur.

Computer art arouses little of the hostility that greets computer music and poetry. The computer becomes indispensable because it does calculations beyond the capacity of the human artist.
III. Computer Music by O.B. Hardison, Jr. According to J.R Pierce, computer can become the universal musical instrument. SYNTHESIZER - is used to make the musical sound connected to a computer through a standard interface called Midi.

From 1968 1980s, enormous improvements in computer (memory, programming languages, high-resolution color graphics, high-fidelity stereo sound, laser printers, intuitively transparent interfaces and a variety of hardware devices) took place.

ROBERT MOOG is known as the father of the synthesizer. He created the first commercial model in 1970.

1. 2.

Even as science delights in freedom, it wants predictability. The state of musical performance as seen from the scientific viewpoint is disturbed: 1. Each instrument is different from every other instrument of the same kind. 2. The method of playing each instrument must be learned laboriously. 3. Each performer or musician plays differently. 4. A performer or musician can commit a mistake. RECORDING - is considered as a solution to the aforementioned problems.

BOTTOM LINE: The Computer redefined the Literary Landscape by: Making writing faster and easier (goodbye ink stains); and Integrating WORDS and VISUALS WORDS and VISUALS are the 2 key players in the computer literature field

But, it also has limitations: 1. It can fail to communicate the vitality of the original performance. 2. It is static. 3. It is often spliced-together bits of several performances rather than a single performance. 4. It sound is produced by vibration, thus, listener only hears imitations, not the instrument itself. An alternative to recording is an instrument that: 1. makes sound that always sound the way it is supposed to; and 2. is played by a musician who always plays exactly the way he or she is supposed to play (style). SWITCHED-ON BACH is an example of this alternative. It is the first electronically performed classical piece to become popular. 2 Uses of Technology to Computer Music: 1. CLASSIC - refers to technology being used to do more easily, efficiently and better what is already being done without it. 2. EXPRESSIVE - refers to the capacity of technology to do previously impossible things.

These 2 key components of Computer Literature, WORDS and VISUALS indicate the 2 primary functions of computer literature: 1. CLASSICAL FUNCTION - refers to the traditional old-style usage of words and words alone. 2. EXPRESSIVE FUNCTION - refers to the usage and manipulation of a whole range of visuals which makes literature more visually communicative/expressive/suggestive to the reader. EFFECTS and IMPLICATIONS of WORDVISUAL INTEGRATION With the marriage of these two components, literature was never quite the same. Here, the implications: 1. Redefinition of Literature - Old style literature evokes images of volumes upon volumes of books, thick encyclopedias and manuscripts painstakingly inked by hand. With the coming of the computer, literature is radically visually transformed. Redefinition of the Writer/Dual Role of the Writer The writer becomes as much as a wordsmith as a visual composer. He now has the role of balancing words and visuals, carefully complementing the two in the literary body. Simplification of Language As the saying goes, A picture is worth a thousand words. What once had to be conveyed in a thousand words can now be conveyed in just a simple illustration.

2.

3.

A truly new technology refuses to stay classic. Even if it was created for a classic function, it eventually becomes expressive and reshapes the function.
IV. Computer and Literary Arts by O.B. Hardison, Jr. Computers are probably used more generally in writing, thus, they have an obvious and powerful classical function. HOW DOES THE COMPUTER CHANGE LITERATURE? Through the following COMPUTER LITERARY TOOLS: 1. Keyboard makes the actual writing process a breeze, the ultimate time-saving writing machine 2. Scanners and Imaging Devices Thanks to these scanners, literary content is enhanced via the usage and manipulation of pictures, images, charts, etc.

The consensus seems to be that a lot has changed: 1. Format kilobytes instead of page 2. Form computer offers opportunity for endless revisions 3. Process communal process of writing; no ownership; public domain subject to modification and augmentation 4. Content visual, more colloquial , more user-friendly Furthermore, the computers profound effect on literature is evident in THE EVOLUTION of LITERATURE through the AGES:

1. AGE OF LITERARY CLASSICS (18th Century) During this period, the literary motto was: ENJOY the book. Books were viewed as a form of recreation, a hobby to while away the time. Hence, enjoy the book.

2. AGE OF LITERARY STUDY (19th Century) Enter the 19th century. This period saw the glory of literary study as intellectual knowledge was made available through inventions and worldly discoveries. It valued intellectual analysis of literature. It viewed literature as a knowledge source and as a body to be analyzed. Hence, from ENJOY the book, the literary motto became: UNDERSTAND the book. 3. AGE OF THE COMPUTER (21st Century) Enter Charles Babbage and the Computer. With computer and its unbelievable capabilities, literature is not only meant to be enjoyed and not only meant to be understood. In the Computer Age, the literary motto is: EXPLORE THE BOOK AND BEYOND. HYPERTEXT is a database program. It is the computers version of the ordinary books bibliography and footnotes and appendix all in one. It is a computerized literary comprehension and analytical tool. ADVENTURE is one of the earliest interactive novels The POWER of INTERACTIVE LITERATURE 1. Literature has become more self-referential. 2. You are the author of the story. 3. There is a dialogue between you and the computer. 4. Youre not just reading the novel to enjoy it, understand it or explore it. YOU ARE IN IT!

The computer has demystified literature.

3.7 Impacts of Science and Technology on the War I. Science, Technology and Military Policy by Harvey M. Sapolsky

For more than three decades, the search for new and more powerful weapons has been the goal of many scientists and engineers all over the world. Military research and development accounts for about one third of the world's research and development expenditures. The prime cause of this preoccupation with weapons is obvious. The world's superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, have been since World II in a continuous competition for military supremacy that has been manifested mainly in the development of technologically sophisticated weapons. As the leading nations in terms of scientific and technological capabilities, their research priorities, heavily skewed toward the instruments of war, greatly influence world R&D statistics. SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND WAR Until recently, the technology of weapons changed only gradually, often with centuries passing between major shifts. And more frequently than not it was the artisan or the inventor instead of the scientist or the military engineer who first perceived the opportunities for change. Scientists and engineers, though mobilized for the conflict, contributed little to its outcome.

THE NATURE OF MODERN WEAPONS The atomic bomb used against Hiroshima can be said to have been both the first modern weapon and the last of the old. The bomb was new in the sense that it demonstrated in a single, horrible moment the devastating and destructive power of sophisticated technology. The bomb was less than modern, however, in the sense that ancillary equipment upon which its effectiveness depended was developed independently. Characteristics of Modern Weapons: 1. Increasingly developed as integrated systems. If weapon designs are to be optimal in terms of their military purpose, the definition of a weapon and its development has to include the weapon's delivery mechanism, its logistic support, its crew training facilities and its deployment tactics. 2. They are designed to meet a variety of potential and real threats. For example, the Armored Personnel Carrier (APC) was initially conceived as a lightly armored troop transported which would provide tanks with an infantry screen in order to protect the tanks from enemy infantry infiltration and attack. However, because the APC was expected to operate in the same battlefield environment as the tank, it soon acquired a large caliber gun to protect itself from enemy tanks, an antiaircraft gun, extra armor, protective equipment for nuclear and chemical warfare, and elaborate target acquisition and communications equipment. It now looks much like a tank and is thought to be vulnerable to infantry infiltration and attack. 3. They are designed to operate in or to have effects upon environments not previously thought to be part of warfare. Nuclear submarines patrol under the polar icecap. Submarine detection devices are implanted in the ocean's floor. Satellites provide global surveillance, navigation and communications capabilities. Chemical herbicides have been used to destroy the vegetation of large tracts of land, and weather modification techniques, such as those that would increase rainfall in designated areas, have been tested. Weapons Acquisition Process -development of new weapons -a quasi-scientific undertaking involving the weighing at fixed points in a weapon systems development of such factors as the technological opportunities, expected costs, projected enemy capabilities, and strategic doctrine. THE ORGANIZATION OF MILITARY R & D EFFORTS Nations utilize a variety of structural arrangements to develop weapons: In the US, the private sector is a significant participant in the weapon acquisition process. In Europe, governments rely more upon their own facilities for the management of weapon projects and in part because a number of the major armament firms have been nationalized their armament industries through merger and nationalization and to establish a multinational consortium.

In Soviet Union, interorganizational coordination is said to be a continuing problem in the management of the economy.

Fears about weapon research: That the competition in arms, because of the interaction that occurs between weapon development decisions of the competitors, is slipping into a destabilizing arms race. The uncertainty about intentions and capabilities, it is said, leads to a cycle of apparently prudent steps that leaves everyone worse off than they were before the cycle began. That the weapon acquisitions process has become so oriented to serving its own internal needs that it weakens security by generating weapons which are too costly to produce in quantities sufficient for an adequate defense. THE EFFECT ON THE MILITARY: SCIENCE AND WARFARE 1. Increased dependence of the military on the society 2. Science has become permanently mobilized. 3. Increase of the destructive capabilities of the forces employed 4. Advanced nations have a diminishing ability to field mass armies ARMS CONTROL Individually and collectively, scientists and engineers have been among the strongest advocates for the control of arms: o Norbert Weiner - founder of cybernetics, who publicly stated that he would not aid the military agencies in the United States in utilizing his work. o Andrei Sakharov - father of the Soviet hydrogen bomb, who has at great personal risk spoken out against the continuous accumulation of weapons. o Pugwash Conferences - provided a forum at which scientists and engineers from around the world have discussed the opportunities for limiting weapons and for the peaceful application of scientific and technological resources. II. From First Wave War To Second Wave War by Alvin and Heidi Toffler

with weaponspikes, swords, axes, lances, battering ramsdependent on human muscle power and designed for close combat. In brief, First Wave wars bore the unmistakable stamp of the First Wave agrarian economies that gave rise to them, not in technological terms alone but in organization, communication, logistics, administration, reward structures, leadership styles, and cultural assumptions. Examples: Tribal Wars, Greek War, Ancient Chinese War B. SECOND WAVE WAR The Industrial Revolution launched the Second Wave of historical change. That wave transformed the way millions of people made a living. And war once more mirrored the changes in wealth creation and work. War accelerated the industrialization process itself by spreading, for example, the principle of interchangeable parts. This basic industrial innovation was quickly put to use turning out everything from handguns to the pulleys needed on sail-driven warships. In preindustrial Japan, too, some of the earliest, primitive mechanization was for the purpose of producing arms. The machine age gave birth to the machine gun, to mechanized warfare, and to entirely new kinds of firepower, which, in turn, led inevitably, as we shall see, to a new kinds of tactics. Industrialization led to improved roads, harbors, energy supplies, and communication. It gave the modern nation-state more efficient means of tax collection. All these developments vastly enlarged the scale of potential military operations. As the Second Wave surged through society, First Wave institutions were eroded and washed away. A social system arose that linked mass production, mass education, mass communication, mass consumption, mass entertainment with, increasingly, weapons of mass destruction. As industrial civilization reached its peak in the postWorld War II period, mass destruction came to play the same central role in military doctrine as mass production did in economics. It was the deadly doppelganger of mass production. Examples: WWI, WWII, Cold War III. Third Wave War by Alvin and Heidi Toffler

A. FIRST WAVE WAR Agricultural revolution launched the first great wave of change in human history and it led gradually to the formation of the earliest premodern societies. Agriculture became the womb of war for two reasons. It enabled communities to produce and store an economic surplus worth fighting over. And it hastened the development of the state. Together these provided the preconditions for what we now call warfare For thousands of years the basic mode of warfare involved face-to-face killing, and soldiers were armed

The worlds most technologically advanced societies today have split-level economies partly based on declining Second Wave mass production, partly on emergent Third Wave technologies and services. None of the high-tech nations, not even Japan, has completed its transition to the new system of economics.

The Dual War US and its allies concurrently employed two different wars against Iraqs Saddam Hussein: From the outset there were two air campaigns, although they were integrated and few thought of them as separate. One employed the familiar attrition-style methods of modern that is, Second Wave war. But a radically different kind of war was also waged from Day One. The world was stunned at the very start

by unforgetable television images of Tomahawl missiles and laser-guided bombs searching out and hitting their in Baghdad with astonishing accuracy: the Iraqi Air Force headquarters, the buildings housing the Iraqi Intelligence Service, the Ministry of the Interior (headquarters of Saddams police), the Congress Building, the headquarters of his Baath Party. IV. Futuristic Wars by Alvin and Heidi Toffler A. SPACE WARS The competing armies of many countries are far too dependent on missiles and satellites to imagine them ignoring the heavens. THE VASTNESS OF SPACE IS A KEY FACTOR IN THE WAR-FORM OF THE FUTURE. GULF WAR according to Col. Alan Campen, former Director of Command and Control Policy at the Pentagon, the first instance where combat forces largely were deployed, sustained, commanded and controlled through satellite communications. The earliest US spy machine was launched in AUGUST 1960. US military space machines: a. b. c. d. e. f. Keyhole 11 for taking extremely fine-grained photos from space Magnum satellites for listening to foreign telephone conversations LACROSSE satellites for collecting radar images of foreign territory Project White Cloud spacecraft for locating enemy ships Jumpseat satellites for detecting foreign electronic transmissions And other numerous other communications, weather, and navigational birds

B. ROBOTIC WARS As robots proliferate in both factories and offices, civilian research on robotics is advancing swiftly. From chips that control self-healing phone networks to intelligent buildings and smart highways, a technical base is being laid for robotization of the economy in the future. What robots can do: a. replace reconnaissance helicopter pilots or tank drivers b. gather intelligence and spot targets c. deceive or destroy enemy radar d. collect data about damage inflicted on an opponent e. repair equipment and patrol perimeters f. recover and defuse live warhead g. provide logistical support h. clean mines i. fix bomb-damaged runways, etc.

ROBO-TERROR The problem with remotely controlled robotic weapon is that they depend on vulnerablecommunications that link humans to less bright, but nicely responsive mechanical extensions of themselves. If communication breaks down, or is disrupted, sabotaged or manipulated by the enemy, the robot becomes useless or potentially self-destructive. If the ability to sense data, interpret it and make decisions is embedded in the weapon itself, the communication links are internalized and more secure. C. DREAM WEAPONS NEXT-GENERATION SENSORS DREAM MINES SMART ARMOR ALL-ELECTRIC BATTLEFIELD

D. NON-LETHAL WARS Non-Lethal is defined as those technologies which can anticipate, detect, preclide or negate the use of lethal means, thereby minimizing the killing of people. SOME EXAMPLES OF NON-LETHAL TECHNOLOGIES FOR PEOPLE a. advanced infrasound generators designed for crowd control and have been tested in France and other nations; emit very low frequency sound waves that can be tuned to cause disorientation, nausea and loss of bowel control; effects have been found to be temporary, terminating when the generator is switched off. b. Laser rifles used to flash-blind people temporarily c. Calmatives or sleep-inducing agents incapacitate people, curb violence and limit casualties SOME EXAMPLES OF NON-LETHAL TECHNOLOGIES AIMED AT AN ENEMYS HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE (key concept: denial of service) a. Anti-traction makes surface slippery; using airborne delivery systems or human agents, we can spread or spray Teflon-type, environmentally neutral lubricants on railroad tracks, grades, ramps, runways, even stairs and equipment, denying their use for a substantial period.

THE FOURTH DIMENSION Space added a fourth dimension to war, providing detailed images of Iraqi forces, the damage inflicted by allied air attack and early warning of Scud missile launches. Space provided a navigation system of stunning accuracy that touched upon the performance of every combat soldier and on missiles, tanks, aircrafts and ships. Satellites identified targets, helped ground troops avoid sandstorms and measured soil moisture, telling Schwarzkopf, the allied commander, precisely what parts of the desert could support tank movements. MISSILE TECHNOLOGY CONTROL REGIME agreement, done in 1987 by the G-7 nations, the seven largest economic powers, on a set of common export controls designed to prevent other countries from laying their hands on missiles that could carry a nuclear warhead of more than 227 pounds farther than 175 miles. It is an effort to slow down missile proliferation

b.

Polymers and adhesives- can glue equipment in place and keep it from operating c. Special munitions temporary contaminate fuel or change its viscosity to degrade engines function d. Liquid metal embrittlement it is possible to wage a kind of graffiti war by using a felt marker or a spray can to apply a colorless chemical to key components of metal structures like bridge pylons, airport facilities, elevators or weapons, the fluid causing them to become brittle, breakable and hence unusable. Non-lethality emerges not as a simple replacement for war or an extension of peace but as something differentsomething radically new in global affairs: an intermediate phenomenon, pausing place, an arena for contest in which more outcomes could be decided bloodlessly. It is a revolutionary form of military action that faithfully reflects the emerging Third Wave civilization.

i.e. Protagoras, Empiricus

Diogenes,

Sextus

Role of Science and Ethics Scientific methods may provide ways of ethical thinking & moral discovery. Scientific investigation of societies may provide the data of ethics. Scientifically plausible theories may explain by comparative analysis the historically situated differing moral system by using psychology and history in the broadest senses. Scientific achievements may determine the scope & limits of responsible moral choice and decision. The study of the history of science may show us a scientific ethic. Science brings us new choices, new problems, & new circumstances for old problems. Relations of Scientific Developments to Ethics Scientific discoveries may force ethical decisions Scientific discoveries may help men to rational control and hence ethical planning of their lives and societies Science may offer a model of democratic living for those who may be persuaded to see. SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY and ETHICS Euzo Russo | David Cove Human activity is the subject of ethical laws It is humans actions that are subject of ethical imperatives. Ethical Imperatives of a Responsible Citizen To be informed about the possibilities opened by science and technology and heir potential dangers. To participate in decision making in an informed way, with personal action or political influence in his/ her own city and in the world. Who is Responsible for the Creation of Atomic Bomb? the creation of the atomic bomb is basically an accumulation of the basic knowledges and findings of different scientists a. b. c. d. e. f. Democritus Proposed that there are four different atoms Galileo Founded modern science and mechanical physics Henry Becquerel Won Nobel Prize in 1903 for radioactivity Max Planck Discovered that energy is not a continuum but comes in packages called quanta Albert Einstein Showed matter and energy are interconvertible Neils Bohr Won Nobel prize in 1922

3.8 Ethical Aspects of Science and Technology ETHICS and SCIENCE Robert Cohen Science deals with facts, ethics deals with values a contrast of knowledge: knowledge of facts vs. knowledge of values. Ethics An idea or moral belief that influences the behavior, attitudes, and philosophy of life of a group of people. Its main concern is how men shall live with one another First link between Science and Ethics The question how (and how much) can we know? Philosophers of many outlook Individuals who tried to establish Ethics a. Idealists offered theories of absolute a priori ethics tied closely to his mathematical approach to absolute knowledge of nature. i.e. Plato Aristotelian Materialists successful taxonomic & developmental empiricists as much in their sociopolitical ethics as in their biological modeled approach to nature. Humanist Empiricists offered experimental evidence for their reasonable scientific estimates of their probabilities or the impossibilities of diagnosis and cure, along with humane & rational advice on the conduct of life in this uncertain, natural world. i.e. Hippocrates Skeptics logically criticized the sufficiency of the evidence for every belief about nature.

b.

c.

d.

g. h.

Presented the first model of an atom in 1913 which was composed by a nucleus containing protons and neutrons James Chadwick Won Nobel prize in 1935 Discovered the existence of neutrons in 1930 Otto Hahn Won Nobel prize in 1944 Published a paper with Fritz Stasemann on January 6, 1939 presenting evidence that the nucleus of a uranium can be split when hit by a neutron, liberating a great amount of energy.

INTRODUCTION to ENGINEERING ETHICS C.E. Harris, Jr. | M.S. Pritchard | M.J. Robins National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) Code Principle which engineers follow and apply in their work. Professional Ethics Standards in the Professional Community Preventive Ethics Anticipates possible consequences of actions to avoid more serious problems later Two dimensions 1. Engineers must think ahead to anticipate possible consequences of their actions as professionals 2. Engineers must think effectively about those consequences and decide what is ethically and professionally right. Direction of the Codes given in Particular Circumstances Avoid conflict of interests. Recognize propriety interests of others. Hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public in the performance of their professional duties. Act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees. Elements involved in Training in Preventive Ethics Stimulating the moral imagination Recognize ethical issues Develop analytical skills Eliciting a sense of responsibility Tolerating disagreement and ambiguity ON BECOMING a RESPONSIBLE ENGINEER C.E. Harris, Jr. | M.S. Pritchard | M.J. Robins Standards of Responsibility a. Intentional Caused harm knowingly and deliberately b. Negligent Caused harm not knowingly. It was done without due care. c. Reckless Caused harm unintentionally but one has a predisposed conscious awareness of the harm that is likely to result. Models of Professional Responsibility a. Malpractice Model Professionals have a duty to conform to the standard operating procedures of the profession. They are morally responsible of the harm caused by their failure. b. Positive Responsibility A view test ascribes responsibility to an individual without having any special implication about the responsibilities of others.

Who is Responsible for the Genetic Screening Discrimination? Based on the accumulation of basic knowledge of different scientists. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Thomas Morgan Showed spontaneous invitations occurred in fruit fly Herman Muller Discovered tha xrays can change and (sometimes) destroy the nature of a gene Oswald Avery, Colin Mcleod and Maclyn McCarty Showed that genetic information is written in DNA James Watson and Francis Crick Proposed the double helical structure of the DNA Salvador Luria, Mary Human, Guiseppe Bertani, and Jean Weigle Discovered restriction enzymes Alan Maxan, Walter Gilbert and Frederick Sanger Devised different ways to determine the sequence of a DNA molecule Human Genome Project Initiated under the leader ship of James Watson in 1990. Aimed to discover the sequence of human genes in 15 years.

Recent Advances in Biological Science which raise Ethical Issues a. Human embryo research Screen couples who may carry defective genes and counsel them to help them decide whether or not to have children. b. The misuse of Genetic Screening Discriminates the defective gene. Can help an individual obtain health insurance or employment. c. The release of genetically engineered microbes, plants, and animal into the environment Can lead to a couple of environmental issues. d. The modification of genes in the human germ-line. Aims in changing the human germ-line. Can be used for other stuff which can harm people, living things, and the environment.

Framework for Responsibility Suggested/ propsed of Kenneth A. Alpern a. Principle of Care Proposes that other things being equal, one should exercise due care to avoid contributing to significantly harming others. Corollary of Proportionate Care Suggests that when one is in a position to contribute to greater harm, one must exercise greater care to avoid doing so.

representation a map of some local region of objects or phenomena. The essence of validity in science education is that the map: should be very clear, precise, and connected in every part should be able to give a rigorous answer to every well-formulated question within its scope. Each discipline, with its respective map, is large enough to be relatively self-contained. The student can work in it, the scientist can research in it, for long periods without having to cross its frontiers. But this region borders on other scientific disciplines and the frontiers between them are ill-defined. Ex. In some fields of chemistry, one may often have to consult the books in the physics library; on the other side of chemistry the point where one enters biology is equally uncertain. The scientific world picture is something that people believe in, and talk about but it is seldom actually taught as a single topic. Ex. Students of physics and chemistry are not taught anything about geology or physiology. Medical students acquire only the merest acquaintance with behavioral psychology. The academic boxes may be even smaller than a conventional discipline. Ex. Astronomy and cosmology may never be mentioned in one department of physics; in another, the physical behavior of elementary materials such as metals and polymers may never be explained The existence of a single, unique, eventually-to-be discovered scientific world picture is a myth. In and around the traditional physical and biological sciences, the local maps can be made to fit together with acceptable tolerances; beyond this region, the scientific representations shade off, and become infernally controversial. SCIENTISM AND ITS MANIFESTATIONS How Does Science Know It? Valid science consists of a whole set of schematic representations (maps) of the world of nature I various aspects, at various degrees of depth. In practice, scientific research proceeds very satisfactorily according to its own traditions. The research scientist picks up these traditions and these are:

b.

Impediments to Responsibility Self-interest Self-deception Weakness of will Ignorance Egocentric thinking Microscope vision Acceptance of Authority 3.9 Ideological Aspects of Science and Technologies I. SCIENTISM AND ITS MANIFESTATIONS by John Ziman

Attitudes Towards Science Polarization of attitudes - one feels bound to take up a definite position towards science, even if only to be for it, or against it, in a simple-minded way. exaggerated amongst the intelligentsia as the traditional Two Cultures of humanistic and scientific education. Scientific knowledge is so immense in extent, so extraordinarily detailed and precise, so general in its applications, that our attitudes towards it cannot be simple and single-valued. The attitude to be taken towards science is an important factor in our philosophical, ethical, social, and economic and other opinions. There is a real need, within the formal educational system, for some teaching, and learning, and discussion, and maturing of understanding, about science.

What Is Known To Science Scientific knowledge is a representation of the natural world. What is taught in a scientific discipline is some aspect of that

 criteria and standards of validity appropriate research methods formats of presentation of results and conclusions The actual methods of science are far more refined and subtle than any schematic scientific method, and its results are usually more soundly based on the good judgment of experienced research workers than could ever be justified by formal logic. The question whether science has, in principle, a unique method would be seen to be far more subtle than most scientists realize. Without such correctives to nave philosophical scientism, it is easy to fall into the fallacy of positivism, where science is regarded as the primary source of truth. In its most extreme form, logical positivism even rejects all other sources of knowledge, whether of the material world or of human affairs. For the positivist, every issue the economic policy of a government, the efficacy of the penal system, the treatment of mental disorders must be expressed as a problem situation on a suitable map; an economic theory a sociological model a psychiatric methodology Even where the existing maps are so fragmentary or speculative as to be completely misleading, he is liable to cling to them in the name of rationality against common sense, practical experience, intuitive wisdom or a humane tradition.

the construction of an aesthetically gratifying world picture The active power of science is to be nurtured and guided towards the solution of practical problems. Basic research may not, in the first instance, seem directly applicable but those who vote large sums of money for it are willing to support it as a strategic reserve, to be mobilized for action in due course. Given that it is impossible to calculate the relevance of any particular basic investigation to any particular human need, the whole question of how to guide science towards the solution of practical problems seems quite unanswerable. This is a rationale of the ideology of pure science, which is to be pursued by individuals motivated entirely by the disinterested search for truth. From a technical point of view, the distinctions between pure and applied knowledge, between technologically oriented science and scientific technology, seem as arbitrary as those between the strategic and tactical aspects of military operations.

What Is Science? Academic scientism contributes significantly to the bewilderment and ambivalence that many people including scientists themselves feel about the validity of the claims of psychology, sociology, economics, and other scholarly studies of human behavior. In the absence of a clear understanding of the status of the natural sciences as sources of valid knowledge, there is no virtue in a superficial imitation of the methods of those sciences nor, on the other hand, can grounds be established for, or against, the objective scientific point of view in the scrutiny of man as a social being. What Can Science Do? The goals of research can never be completely divorced from human interests. In the highest reaches of academic science, these interests are correspondingly high-minded; the satisfaction of curiosity the exploration of nature

What Is Science Like As a Job? In the absence of reliable information, myths abound (as conveyed implicitly by the system of science education): glamorized as an ideally free and noble life the happiest scientists are those who work in the most exciting fields the spiritual rewards of pure science outweigh the more material compensation of the applied scientist and technologist research is difficult but is carried out amongst uniquely intelligent and high-minded colleagues, deeply imbued with the scientific attitude But it is obviously unrealistic that contrary myths abound: research is represented as a prostitution of the intellect for the benefit of the power hungry and unscrupulous corporations. scientific attitude is a sham, concealing the bitterness, the deceits, the injustices, engendered by the struggle for priority mediocre scientists produce vast quantities of useless results that completely clog up the literature. Since science has always been more of a vocation than a profession, and still depends enormously on the deep personal commitment of its practitioners, this gives rise to serious problems when people discover realities that fail to match their expectations.

What Can Scientists Do? The narrow specialization needed to reach the research frontier conveys the image of the research scientist as the ultimate in specialized expertise To make significant progress in his own field, he must know it thoroughly, to its full depth recognize relevant work by other research scientist speak with authority on the current state of knowledge within his field, and apply himself, as best he can to improve that knowledge by further research. The notion that only the scientific or technological specialist can give really reliable advice leads immediately to the ideology of technocracy. In this manifestation of scientism, the authority of science is given human form, in the persons of the scientists themselves. By their mastery of all that is known to science, they have become the most worthy to govern society, either indirectly as backroom boys manipulating the politicians and administrators or, less modestly, by learning the various arts of decision making and sitting in the seats of power themselves.

In many spheres of rational knowledge, dealing with many observable aspects of the natural world especially the individual and social behavior of biological organisms there is an almost complete lack of reliable, fundamental theory. Notwithstanding many successes in the technological applications of the physical sciences and applied mathematics, the behavior of any complex, strongly interacting system cannot be accurately predicted over a long period. Success in political decision-making depends on a diversity of skills and insight. The career of the research scientist seldom includes situations where rapid decisions must be taken under conditions of uncertainty, moral ambivalence, or the conflict of irreconcilable interests. For these reasons, scientists are among those persons in society whose experience least prepares them for the most demanding responsibilities of politics, business, or war.

II. SCIENCE AND IDEOLOGY by Helen E. Longino Whats The Good Of Science? Scientific research is infinitely laborious. Its rewards are distributed very haphazardly and are of the insubstantial stuff of fame that soon fades. Those who enter such a style of life must be buoyed up with the belief that the game itself is worth more than the candle The tendency to value scientific knowledge for its own sake arises as a practical necessity of day-to-day scientific life. This is the supreme manifestation of scientism, assigning to the activity of research a moral value that exceeds the intellectual force or the practical utility of its products. Science becomes something more than a philosophy or an ideology: it takes upon itself the trappings of a religion, beyond the reach of rational justification or criticism. Feminist Science? Some theorists have written as though a feminist science is one whose theories encode a particular world view, characterized by complexity, interactions and wholism. Such a science is said to be feminist because it is the expression and the valorization of a female sensibility or cognitive temperament. Alternatively, it is claimed that women have certain traits ( for example, dispositions to attend to particulars and interactive and cooperative social attitudes and behaviors rather than individualists and controlling ones) that enables them to understand the true character of natural processes (which are complex and interactive). While problems of this interactionist view see it as an improvement over most contemporary science, it has also been caricatured as soft-or antimathematical. Some women in the sciences who feel that they are being asked to do not better science but inferior science have responded angrily to this characterization of feminist science, thinking that it is simply new clothing for the old idea that women cant do science. By focusing on science as practice rather than content, as process rather than product, we can reach the idea of feminist science through that of doing science as a feminist. Feminism is many things to many people, but it is at its core in part about the expansion of human potentiality. When feminists talk of breaking out and do break out of socially prescribe sex roles, when feminists criticize the institutions of domination, we are thereby insisting on the capacity of humansmale and femaleto act on perceptions of self and society and to act to bring about changes in self and society on the basis of those perceptions. (Not overnight and not by a mere act of will. The point is that we act.) And so our criticism of theories of the hormonal influence or determination of

What Do Most Scientists Really Believe? Science is not an end in itself Science is not the only source of knowledge Scientific knowledge is never absolutely objective Scientific knowledge is reliable only over certain aspects of the natural world Even within the traditional natural sciences, it is far more difficult to arrive at a reliable scientific answer than is imagined by most people.

so-called gender role behavior is not just a rejection of the sexist bias in the description of the phenomena the behavior of the children studied, the sexual lives of lesbians, etc.but of the limitations on human capacity imposed by the explanatory model underlying such research. Feminists--in and out of scienceoften condemn masculine bias in the sciences from the vantage point of commitment to a value-free science. Androcentic bias, once identified, can then be seen as a violation of the rulesas bad science. Feminist science, by contrast, can eliminate that bias and produce good, more true or gender-free science. The feminist scientist is responsive to the ideals of a political community as well as to some subset of the standards endorsed in her or his scientific community. Feminist scientific practice admits political considerations as relevant constraints on reasoning, which through their influence on reasoning and interpretation shape content.

Evelyn Keller has used object relations theory to explain how the natural sciences are permeated by an ideology of domination. Whereas Habermas sees the interest in technical mastery of an object theorized as other as constitutive of the empirical sciences, Keller suggests that it is a deformation of cognitive aims. Conclusion All the feminist thinkers discussed in the article Science and Ideology agree that human interests have played a crucial role in the construction of scientific knowledge to date. One could practice science as a feminist by (1) recognizing the ways in which the background assumptions of mainstream science facilitated certain conclusions and excluded others and (2) deliberately using background assumptions appropriately at variance with those of mainstream science. This kind of feminist science, or more generally of oppositional science is always local and respectful of some of the standards of a specific scientific community. And it requires a mainstream or established tradition to which it is opposed and with which it is in some form of dialectical tension. III. Case Against Contemporary Technology Dickson by David

a. Neo-Marxism These new or neo-Marxist accounts of scientific knowledge are characterized by three main themes: 1. One is that the dystopic applications of modern science--the domination of political life by thermonuclear weapons, new particle beam weapons, and other monsters of annihilation, etc. are not a misuse of socially neutral science but the inevitable result of bourgeois science. 2. A second theme is the rejection of reductionism, which radical scientists take to be characteristic of bourgeois science and partly to blame for the inappropriate technologies. Reductionism reflects the bourgeois interest in centralized control. 3. And a third theme is that a more adequate, even emancipatory, science is possible and that adoption of its methodology will reveal the truths of nature. b. Jugen Habermas In particular, Habermas states that the "empirical-analytic sciences are constituted by a technical cognitive interest, that is, an interest in "technical control over objectified processes." c. Michael Foucault Some discourses or "discursive formations" give rise to a science. This occurs when (informal) norms of verification are transformed into formal criteria. This way of seeing the emergence of a science of something requires that we abandon the idea that there is a unique one-to-one correspondence between descriptive sentences and the facts. Instead science, or scientificity, is to be seen as one stage of development of discursive formations: a stage in which norms of verification and coherence are incorporated into a fixed set of formal criteria. The process Foucault describes here involves or can involve two processes discussed above. One is the inclusion of metaphysical-social, economic, political--assumptions among the background assumptions directing reasoning in a field. The second process is the convergence of contextual and constitutive values in the constitution of a field of inquiry, as the social and political needs that require knowledge for their satisfaction direct the kind of knowledge sought and hence specify acceptable forms of solution to cognitive problems. d. Evelyn Fox Keller

Man is constantly inventing things to improve their lives. Technology is seen as means of progress. Society greatly depends in these technologically-based machines.

ATTACK ON TECHNOLOGY: Machines would eventually take over the planet. Technological trends: weapons, poisons, diseases and other inventions that may lead to the destruction of the world. Domination of scientific over aesthetic. PROBLEMS BROUGHT ABOUT BY TECHNOLOGY: Environmental pollution Depletion of the worlds non-renewable natural resources Replacement of fossil fuels to nuclear energy Use of excessive energy Industrialization gives rise to unemployment Prominent gap between the rich(developed) and poor (undeveloped) countries Development of wartime projects such as radar, nuclear bombs, biological weapons and weapons of mass destruction. Individuals find themselves removed from the major decision making in his society. Decision making now requires special skills and intricate knowledge. Thus, it gives rise to inequality in terms of information.

IV. Critical Feenberg

Theory

of

Technology

by

Andrew

TECHNOLOGY AND THE END OF HISTORY The degradation of labor, education, and the environment is rooted not technology per se but in the anti-democratic values that govern technological development. A democratic politics of technology offers and overcomes the destructive relation of modern industrialism values to nature, both in human beings and the environment. INSTRUMENTAL THEORY Technology, as pure instrumentality, is indifferent to the variety of ends it can be employed to achieve. Technology also appears to be indifferent with respect to politics, at least in the modern world and especially with respect to capitalist and socialist societies. The socio-political neutrality of technology is usually attributed to its rational character and the universality of the truth it embodies. The universality of technology also means that the same standards of measurement can be applied in different settings. FUNDAMENTAL LAW: YOU CANNOT OPTIMIZE TWO VARIABLES SUBSTANTIVE THEORY Jacques Ellul and Martin Heidegger argue that technology constitutes a new type of cultural system that restructures the entire social world as an object of control.

supplanted by the extension of technically exploitable knowledge. Albert Borgmann calls for a two-sector economy in which an expanding craft will take up the slack in employment from an increasingly automated economic core. He asserts that dominant technological paradigm is perfect in its way.

POLITICAL BOUNDARIES There have been two serious challenges to Western hegemony: a. JAPAN The struggle to overcome (European) modernity (kindai no chokoku) attracted the support of many of the most sophisticated writers and philosophers in Japan in the 1940s.

b. USSR Despite certain substantivist implications of the Marxist theory of economic stages, the Soviet regime adopted a typical instrumentalist position on technology, using and importing it as though it were a neutral tool.

Lenin: Communisim is electrification plus

soviets. This experiment appears to be over now, drained of its heroic ambitions by the dullness of bureaucratic corruption, incompetence and irresponsibility. CRITICAL THEORY a difficult course between resignation and utopia analyzes the new forms of oppression associated with modern industrialism argues that they are subject to new challenges explains how modern technology can be redesigned to adapt it to the needs of a freer society integrates the instrumental and substantive theories Marxist Lukacs and the Frankfurt School: The liberation of humanity and the liberation of nature are connected in the idea of a radical reconstruction of the technological base of modern societies. argues that technology is an ambivalent process of development suspended between different possibilities. TECHNOLOGY IS NOT A DESTINY BUT A SENSE OF STRUGGLE.

Ellul: Technique has become autonomous. Heidegger: The technical restructuring of modern
societies is rooted in a nihilistic will to power, a degradation of man and being to the level of mere objects.

The substantive impact is that technology is not simply a means anymore but that it has become an environment and way of life. TECHNOLOGY BOUND & UNBOUND In both theories (instrumental and substantive), technology is destiny. MORAL BOUNDARIES Jurgen Habermass argues that the public life of democratic societies presupposes a commitment by the citizens to engage in rational argument. The redeeming power of reflection cannot be

CIVILIZATION CHANGE Marx: An economy controlled by workers would be able to redesign technology to apply high levels of skill to production Harry Braverman et. al: Economic interests determine major features of technological design. Samuel Bowles & Herbert Gintis: Economic and technical changes have impact on the educational system Post Marxism: Michel Foucaults work advocates new forms of resistance to the exercise of power through technical strategies. THE CRITICAL ALTERNATIVES The existing society contains the suppressed potentiality for a coherent civilizational alternative based on a system of mutually supporting transformations of social institutions, culture and technology. We need a positive perspective on how technology should be transformed. Radical democratization can thus be rooted in the very nature of technology, with profound substantive consequences for the organization of industrial society.