End Term Exam 2 marks short questions 1. What is SW Engineering?

It is one field of Computer Science that deals with the building of SW systems which can be so large and/or Complex that they are usually built by a team or sometimes a number of teams. Usually these SW exist with multiple versions for several years and during their lifetime they undergo periodic modifications to get rid of defects or shortcomings. Parnas (1987) defined the subject as MULTI-PERSON CONSTRUCTION OF MULTI VERSION SOFTWARE. This definition gives the idea of the subject and its difference from Programming. 2. Difference Between GSM and CDMA GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) and CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) are two dominant technologies for mobile communication. These two technologies differ in the way calls and data travel over the mobile phone networks take place. On comparing both the technologies GSM has some limitation when the call quality is concerned but still has more flexibility and an easy implementation relative to the CDMA technology. The major difference between the two lies in terms of the technology they use, security factors, their global reach and the data transfer speeds. 1. Technology The CDMA is based on spread spectrum technology which makes the optimal use of available bandwidth. It allows each user to transmit over the entire frequency spectrum all the time. On the other hand GSM operates on the wedge spectrum called a carrier. This carrier is divided into a number of time slots and each user is assigned a different time slot so that until the ongoing call is finished, no other subscriber can have access to this. GSM uses both Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) for user and cell separation. TDMA provides multiuser access by chopping up the channel into different time slices and FDMA provides multiuser access by separating the used frequencies. 2. Security More security is provided in CDMA technology as compared with the GSM technology as encryption is inbuilt in the CDMA. A unique code is provided to every user and all the conversation between two users are encoded ensuring a greater level of security for CDMA users. The signal cannot be detected easily in CDMA as compared to the signals of GSM, which are concentrated in the narrow bandwidth. Therefore, the CDMA phone calls are more secure than the GSM calls. In terms of encryption the GSM technology has to be upgraded so as to make it operate more securely. 3. Spectrum Frequencies The CDMA network operates in the frequency spectrum of CDMA 850 MHz and 1900 MHz while the GSM network operates in the frequency spectrum of GSM 850 MHz and 1900 MHz. 4. Global Reach

GSM is in use over 80% of the worlds mobile networks in over 210 countries as compared to CDMA. CDMA is almost exclusively used in United States and some parts of Canada and Japan. As the European Union permissions GSM use, so CDMA is not supported in Europe. In North America, especially in rural areas, more coverage is offered by CDMA as compared to GSM. As GSM is an

international standard, so its better to use GSM in international roaming. GSM is in use by 76% of users as compared to CDMA which is in use by 24% users. Q3. Normalization http://www.hit.ac.il/staff/leonidm/information-systems/ch28.html Study From dis Link + Xerox

4 Difference Between FDM and TDM FDM vs. TDM TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) and FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) are two methods of multiplexing multiple signals into a single carrier. Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple signals into one, in such a manner that each individual signal can be retrieved at the destination. Since multiple signals are occupying the channel, they need to share the resource in some manner. The primary difference between FDM and TDM is how they divide the channel. FDM divides the channel into two or more frequency ranges that do not overlap, while TDM divides and allocates certain time periods to each channel in an alternating manner. for TDM, each signal uses all of the bandwidth some of the time, while for FDM, each signal uses a small portion of the bandwidth all of the time. TDM provides greater flexibility and efficiency, by dynamically allocating more time periods to the signals that need more of the bandwidth, while reducing the time periods to those signals that do not need it. FDM lacks this type of flexibility, as it cannot dynamically change the width of the allocated frequency. The advantage of FDM over TDM is in latency. Latency is the time it takes for the data to reach its destination. As TDM allocates time periods, only one channel can transmit at a given time, and some data would often be delayed, though its often only in milliseconds. Since channels in FDM can transmit at any time, their latencies would be much lower compared to TDM. FDM is often used in applications where latency is of utmost priority, such as those that require real-time information. The common practice is to divide the channel with FDM, so that you have a dedicated channel with a smaller frequency range. Each of the FDM channels is then occupied by multiple channels that are multiplexed using TDM. This is what telecoms do to allow a huge number of users to use a certain frequency band. Summary: 1. FDM divides the channel into multiple, but smaller frequency ranges to accommodate more users, while TDM divides a channel by allocating a time period for each channel. 2. TDM provides much better flexibility compared to FDM. 3. FDM proves much better latency compared to TDM. 4. TDM and FDM can be used in tandem. 5. Mobile Communications ?? (3 qsn on data communication)

6. Merit and Demerit of Geo Station Satellite? Geostationary satellites appear to be fixed over one spot above the equator. Receiving and transmitting antennas on the earth do not need to track such a satellite. These antennas can be fixed in place and are much less expensive than tracking antennas. These satellites have revolutionized global communications, television broadcasting and weather forecasting, and have a number of important defense and intelligence applications. One disadvantage of geostationary satellites is a result of their high altitude: radio signals take approximately 0.25 of a second to reach and return from the satellite, resulting in a small but significant signal delay. This delay increases the difficulty of telephoneconversation and reduces the performance of common network protocols such as TCP/IP, but does not present a problem with non-interactive systems such as television broadcasts. Another disadvantage of geostationary satellites is the incomplete geographical coverage, since ground stations at higher than roughly 60 degrees latitude have difficulty reliably receiving signals at low elevations. Satellite dishes at such high latitudes would need to be pointed almost directly towards the horizon. The signals would have to pass through the largest amount of atmosphere, and could even be blocked by land topography, vegetation or buildings

7. Use of Radio Band frequency ? Frequency bands and its applications: Band name Abbreviation ITU band Frequency and wavelength in air Example uses 1. Tremendously low frequency TLF < 3 Hz > 100,000 km Natural and man-made electromagnetic noise 2. Extremely low frequency ELF 330 Hz 100,000 km 10,000 km Communication with submarines 3. Super low frequency SLF 30300 Hz 10,000 km 1000 km Communication with submarines 4. Ultra low frequency ULF 3003000 Hz 1000 km 100 km Submarine communication, Communication within mines 5. Very low frequency VLF 4 330 kHz 100 km 10 km Navigation, time signals, submarine communication, wireless heart rate monitors, geophysics 6. Low frequency LF 5 30300 kHz 10 km 1 km Navigation, time signals, AM longwave broadcasting (Europe and parts of Asia), RFID, amateur radio 7. Medium frequency MF 6 3003000 kHz 1 km 100 m AM (medium-wave) broadcasts, amateur radio, avalanche beacons 8. High frequency HF 7 330 MHz 100 m 10 m Shortwave broadcasts, citizens' band radio, amateur radio and over-the-horizon aviation communications, RFID, Over-the-horizon radar, Automatic link establishment (ALE) / Near Vertical Incidence Skywave (NVIS) radio communications, Marine and mobile radio telephony 9. Very high frequency VHF 8 30300 MHz 10 m 1 m FM, television broadcasts and line-of-sight ground-to-aircraft and aircraft-to-aircraft communications. Land Mobile and Maritime Mobile communications, amateur radio, weather radio 10. Ultra high frequency UHF 9 3003000 MHz 1 m 100 mm Television broadcasts, microwave ovens, microwave devices/communications, radio astronomy, mobile phones, wireless LAN, Bluetooth, ZigBee, GPS and two-way radios such as Land Mobile, FRS and GMRS radios, amateur radio 11. Super high frequency SHF 10 330 GHz 100 mm 10 mm Radio astronomy, microwave devices/communications, wireless LAN, most modern radars, communications satellites, satellite television broadcasting, DBS, amateur radio

12. Extremely high frequency EHF 11 30300 GHz 10 mm 1 mm Radio astronomy, high-frequency microwave radio relay, microwave remote sensing, amateur radio, directed-energy weapon, millimeter wave scanner

8. Data Dictionary "centralized repository of information about data such as meaning, relationships to other data, origin, usage, and format."[1] The term may have one of several closely related meanings pertaining to databases and database management systems (DBMS):

a document describing a database or collection of databases an integral component of a DBMS that is required to determine its structure a piece of middleware that extends or supplants the native data dictionary of a DBMS

One of the most important parts of an Oracle database is its data dictionary, which is a read-only set of tables that provides information about the database. A data dictionary contains:

The definitions of all schema objects in the database (tables, views, indexes, clusters, synonyms, sequences, procedures, functions, packages, triggers, and so on) How much space has been allocated for, and is currently used by, the schema objects Default values for columns Integrity constraint information The names of Oracle users Privileges and roles each user has been granted Auditing information, such as who has accessed or updated various schema objects Other general database information

The data dictionary is structured in tables and views, just like other database data. All the data dictionary tables and views for a given database are stored in that database's SYSTEM tablespace. Not only is the data dictionary central to every Oracle database, it is an important tool for all users, from end users to application designers and database administrators. 8. Data Flow Chart

A data flow diagram (DFD) is a graphical representation of the "flow" of data through an information system, modeling its process aspects. Often they are a preliminary step used to create an overview of the system which can later be elaborated.[2] DFDs can also be used for the visualization of data processing(structured design). A DFD shows what kinds of information will be input to and output from the system, where the data will come from and go to, and where the data will be stored. It does not show information about the timing of processes, or information about whether processes will operate in sequence or in parallel 9. Coupling and Cohesion

Read From Xerox 10. Embedded System Applications Almost all the fast developing sectors like automobile, aeronautics, space, rail, mobile communications, and electronic payment solutions have witnessed increased use of Embedded technologies. Greater value to mobility is one of the prominent reasons for the rise and development of Embedded technologies. Initially, Embedded Systems were used for large, safety-critical and business-critical applications that included

Rocket & satellite control Energy production control Telephone switches Air Traffic Control

Automobile sector Here Embedded applications bring about greater efficiency and ensure reduced pollution. Embedded technology has also helped in developing automotive safety systems such as the

Anti-lock braking system (ABS) Electronic Stability Control (ESC/ESP) Traction control (TCS) Automatic four-wheel drive

Aerospace & Avionics Telecommunications Consumer Electronics Consumer electronics has also benefited a lot from Embedded technologies. Consumer electronics includes

Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) MP3 players Mobile phones Videogame consoles Digital cameras DVD players GPS receivers Printers

Railroad Railroad signaling in Europe relies heavily on embedded systems that allows for faster, safer and heavier traffic. Smart cards industry

Smart cards, though began prominently as either a debit or a credit card, are now being introduced in personal identification and entitlement schemes at regional, national, and international levels. Smart cards are appearing now as Citizen Cards, drivers licenses, and patient cards. Long questions Water Fall Model and Spiral Model The Waterfall Model was first Process Model to be introduced. It is also referred to as a linearsequential life cycle model. It is very simple to understand and use. In a waterfall model, each phase must be completed fully before the next phase can begin. At the end of each phase, a review takes place to determine if the project is on the right path and whether or not to continue or discard the project. In waterfall model phases do not overlap.

Advantages of waterfall model: Simple and easy to understand and use. Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model each phase has specific deliverables and a review process. Phases are processed and completed one at a time. Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well understood. Disadvantages of waterfall model: Once an application is in the testing stage, it is very difficult to go back and change something that was not well-thought out in the concept stage. No working software is produced until late during the life cycle. High amounts of risk and uncertainty. Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.

Poor model for long and ongoing projects. Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate to high risk of changing. When to use the waterfall model: Requirements are very well known, clear and fixed. Product definition is stable. Technology is understood. There are no ambiguous requirements Ample resources with required expertise are available freely The project is short. SPIRAL MODEL

The spiral model is similar to the incremental model, with more emphasis placed on risk analysis. The spiral model has four phases: Planning, Risk Analysis, Engineering and Evaluation. A software project repeatedly passes through these phases in iterations (called Spirals in this model). The baseline spiral, starting in the planning phase, requirements are gathered and risk is assessed. Each subsequent spirals builds on the baseline spiral. Requirements are gathered during the planning phase. In the risk analysis phase, a process is undertaken to identify risk and alternate solutions. A prototype is produced at the end of the risk analysis phase. Software is produced in the engineering phase, along with testing at the end of the phase. The evaluation phase allows the customer to evaluate the output of the project to date before the project continues to the next spiral.

Advantages of Spiral model: High amount of risk analysis hence, avoidance of Risk is enhanced. Good for large and mission-critical projects. Strong approval and documentation control. Additional Functionality can be added at a later date. Software is produced early in the software life cycle. Disadvantages of Spiral model: Can be a costly model to use. Risk analysis requires highly specific expertise. Projects success is highly dependent on the risk analysis phase. Doesnt work well for smaller projects.

When to use Spiral model: When costs and risk evaluation is important For medium to high-risk projects Long-term project commitment unwise because of potential changes to economic priorities Users are unsure of their needs Requirements are complex New product line Significant changes are expected (research and exploration)

Quality of software design cohesion and coupling Project evaluation and Estimation(PBP,PV,ROI) COCOMO Numerical Formula One on Transform Analysis

Short Notes 1. Software testing Software testing is an investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with information about the quality of the product or service under test. Software testing can be stated as the process of validating and verifying that a computer program/application/product:

meets the requirements that guided its design and development, works as expected, can be implemented with the same characteristics, and satisfies the needs of stakeholders. Testing Methods: Static Vs. Dynamic testing: Reviews, walkthroughs, or inspections are referred to as static testing, whereas actually executing programmed code with a given set of test cases is referred to as dynamic testing. Static testing can be omitted, and unfortunately in practice often is. Dynamic testing takes place when the program itself is used. Dynamic testing may begin before the program is 100% complete in order to test particular sections of code Software testing methods are traditionally divided into white- and black-box testing. These two approaches are used to describe the point of view that a test engineer takes when designing test cases. White-box testing (also known as clear box testing, glass box testing, transparent box testing, and structural testing) tests internal structures or workings of a program, as opposed to the functionality exposed to the end-user. In white-box testing an internal perspective of the system, as well as programming skills, are used to design test cases.

While white-box testing can be applied at the unit, integration and system levels of the software testing process, it is usually done at the unit level. Techniques used in white-box testing include:

API testing (application programming interface) - testing of the application using public and private APIs Code coverage - creating tests to satisfy some criteria of code coverage (e.g., the test designer can create tests to cause all statements in the program to be executed at least once) Fault injection methods - intentionally introducing faults to gauge the efficacy of testing strategies Black-box testing treats the software as a "black box", examining functionality without any knowledge of internal implementation. The tester is only aware of what the software is supposed to do, not how it does it. Grey-box testing (American spelling: gray-box testing) involves having knowledge of internal data structures and algorithms for purposes of designing tests, while executing those tests at the user, or black-box level. The aim of visual testing is to provide developers with the ability to examine what was happening at the point of software failure by presenting the data in such a way that the developer can easily nd the information he requires, and the information is expressed clearly. Testing Levels: Unit Integration System

Acceptance Testing Approach Top down and Bottom up Bottom Up Testing is an approach to integrated testing where the lowest level components (modules, procedures, and functions) are tested first, then integrated and used to facilitate the testing of higher level components. After the integration testing of lower level integrated modules, the next level of modules will be formed and can be used for integration testing. The process is repeated until the components at the top of the hierarchy are tested. This approach is helpful only when all or most of the modules of the same development level are ready Top Down Testing is an approach to integrated testing where the top integrated modules are tested and the branch of the module is tested step by step until the end of the related module.