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r r r d r F = ma = h k = eE dt
(for a field in the x-direction)
ky
kx
Effect of Collisions
We also showed that the electrons undergo collisions in a material after a collision time . This means that the equation we wrote above has to be modified:
r d 1 r F = h + k dt
( )
This second term, which takes collisions into account, acts like a frictional force. Since there is no derivative in this form, it says that the force is proportional to k/, which is like saying it is proportional to the velocity of the particles (k ~ momentum). Other frictional forces act this way, like friction due to air resistance (this is proportional to the velocity, and explains why a terminal velocity exists. Similarily, it explains why the electrons velocity doesnt grow without limit when you apply an electric field)
r d 1 r r 1 r r F = h + k = e E + v B c dt r r r = e E + v B
( ) )
Now, assuming that mv = k (ie. the electrons velocities are shifted by this amount due to the electric/magnetic field) we have:
r r 1 r r d 1 r F = m + v = e E + v B c dt
How do the electrons move? (the result of this experiment is called the Hall Effect)
r 1 d 1 r 1 r r d 1 F = m + v = e E + v B m + v x = e E x + vY B c c dt dt
(net force in x direction) y
Ex
(electrons build up down here)
1 d 1 m + vY = e v x B c dt
(net force in the y direction) We need to consider what happens after this initial electron drift to the bottom part of the metal slab
Initial state: electrons start to flow in the y direction. This creates a field EY
+
EY
+ -
+ -
+
Ex
1 d 1 m + v x = e E x + vY B c dt 1 d 1 m + vY = e EY v x B c dt mv 1 x = e E x + vY B c 1 mvY = e EY v x B c
e e vx = E x cvY ; vY = EY + cvx m m
For electrons moving in the z-direction, we have: vz = 0 (they dont feel the magnetic field), unless there is an electric field and then we have: vz = -(e/m)Ez The constant C = (eB/mc) is called the cyclotron frequency (see the next assignment to find out why) The Hall Effect occurs when we apply an electric field in the xdirection and a magnetic field in the z-direction (which generates, as well, an electric field in the y-direction EY). What happens?
e vY = EY + cv x = 0 m cv x c v x EY = m =m e e
And:
e vx = Ex m vx Ex = m e
so putting it together:
eB Ex EY = mc
eBE x / mc 1 EY = 2 = RH = jx B ne E x B / m nec
y EY
(CGS units)
+
EY
+ -
+ e-
+
Ex
jx
1 RH = ne
(SI units)
Li Na K Rb Cu Ag Au Al In
Thermal Conductivity
Last chapter, we found that for phonons, the thermal conductivity is = 1/3 Cvl (heat capacity/unit volume = C, v is the velocity of phonons, l is the mean free path) The exact same theory can be applied for free electrons (just like phonons, they move with a certain velocity, and have a mean free path) Most of the mobile electrons are at the Fermi energy, so F = mvF2 We also have, using Cel = 1/2 2Nk2T/f and l = vf
Thermal Conductivity
What carries the heat in a metal? The electrons or phonons? In pure metals, the electronic part is much greater than the phonons (density of free electrons is high) If the metal is impure, the mean free path of the electrons will be lower, so the phonon part may dominate Note that the thermal conductivity of a metal should look like the specific heat at low temperatures: C ~ T + T3 ~ AT + BT3
(different constants, but same functional form at low temperatures)
Wiedemann-Franz Law
In the early days, scientists did not know if what carried heat and what carried electrical current in metals was the same particle (ie the electron) One test of this was to take the ratio of the thermal conductivity to the electrical conductivity:
k Tn / 3m k = = T = LT 2 ne / m 3 e
2 2 2 2
Note that the Lorentz number is just a constant the terms of m and n cancel. It should be the same for all metals and equal to 2.45 x 10-8 W/K2 (using the Free Electron Fermi Gas model in SI units) How well does this hold up?
Wiedemann-Franz Law
L This model works incredibly well for most metals (L ~ 2.45 W /K2) Therefore, it appears that electrons carry both heat and current (which should be expected) At low temperatures, the Lorentz number decreases slightly (our model starts to break down) Over all though, it is very successful Metal Ag Au Cd Cu Mo Pb Pt Sn W Zn (O deg C) 2.31 2.35 2.42 2.23 2.61 2.47 2.51 2.52 3.04 2.31 L (100 deg C) 2.37 2.40 2.43 2.33 2.79 2.56 2.60 2.49 3.20 2.33