ENNR 429: NATURAL RESOURCES ENGINEERING PROJECT

MID-YEAR REPORT

PASSIVE COOLING SOLUTIONS FOR RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS IN PABAL, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA

Liam ONeill Eleanor Taffs Supervisor: Larry Bellamy Date of submission: 4 June 2008 A report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the BE(Hons) degree in Natural Resources Engineering

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In developing countries like India, where electrical energy is not universally available, free running (Nicol and Pagliano 2007) buildings are common. In hot climates passive cooling techniques such as radiant and evaporative cooling, comfort and nocturnal ventilation, and thermal mass and insulation, are employed to control this response in order to improve the thermal comfort of inhabitants. Where such measures are not used effectively and there is no reliable electricity source to provide active cooling, heat stress can have negative effects on the internal living environment. Even where there is a reliable electricity source, it is still desirable to reduce energy consumption. In hot dry or warm humid countries, more than half of the urban peak load of energy consumption is used to satisfy air-conditioning demands alone (Koch-Nielsen 2002). Since the urbanisation rate in developing countries, including India, is extreme, the pressure placed on energy resources to satisfy the future requirements will be great, unless measures to reduce consumption are put in place (Koch-Nielsen 2002). This project centres on a village called Pabal, which is situated in west India in the state of Maharashtra. Most houses in Pabal are free running, yet do not have passive cooling measures integrated into their design. Therefore, during the summer months, high outside air temperatures result in similarly high indoor air temperatures which are well outside the limits of thermal comfort. Research into traditional methods of keeping homes cool during the dry season in India and in other parts of the world have been investigated in this report as well as recent developments in cost-effective housing designs. Through the use of computer modelling this report has found that increasing the thermal mass and ventilation at night and rotating the building so the largest exposure is on the North and South sides will reduce inside temperatures. Changing a roofs colour to increase the solar reflectance and adding insulation underneath the roof will reduce heat gain during the day and decrease the hours of discomfort inside. The recommendations of this report are to further investigate the following design strategies and how they interact to provide thermal comfort: - high thermal mass; - night ventilation; - orientation of the building so that the North and South sides will have the largest solar radiation exposure; - light colour with high solar reflectance on the roof; and - insulation underneath the roof. The most important factors in achieving thermal comfort inside the test building found in this report is preventing heat gain through the roof, and allowing night cooling of the interior mass.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. 2.

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1 BACKGROUND .............................................................................................................................. 2 2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.4. LOCATION.................................................................................................................................. 2 CLIMATE.................................................................................................................................... 3 THERMAL COMFORT .................................................................................................................. 5 CURRENT HOUSE DESIGN .......................................................................................................... 7

3.

LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................................. 8 3.1. BUILDING DESIGN ...................................................................................................................... 8 Layout and Orientation .................................................................................................... 8 Windows and Shading ..................................................................................................... 9 Colour and reflectance of Envelope .............................................................................. 10 Insulation ....................................................................................................................... 11 Thermal mass ................................................................................................................ 12

3.1.1. 3.1.2. 3.1.3. 3.1.4. 3.1.5. 3.2.

PASSIVE COOLING ................................................................................................................... 12 Ventilative Cooling ......................................................................................................... 13 Radiant Cooling ............................................................................................................. 16 Evaporative Cooling ...................................................................................................... 17 Earth as Cooling Source................................................................................................ 18

3.2.1. 3.2.2. 3.2.3. 3.2.4. 4.

MODELLING ................................................................................................................................. 19 4.1. 4.2. MODELLING METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 19 MODELLING RESULTS .............................................................................................................. 20

5. 6. 7. 8.

DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................................ 23 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................ 24 ACKNOWLEDMENTS .................................................................................................................. 25 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 26

ii

TABLE OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1: MAP OF INDIA INDICATING THE LOCATION OF PUNE WITHIN THE STATE OF MAHARASHTRA. ............. 2 FIGURE 2: SATELLITE IMAGE OF PABAL ....................................................................................................... 2 FIGURE 3: SATELLITE IMAGE OF PABAL AND DAM ......................................................................................... 3 FIGURE 4: DIRECT SOLAR RADIATION AND PRECIPITATION INDICATOR IN PUNE (MADE WITH DATA FROM (ISHRAE 2008)). .............................................................................................................................. 4 FIGURE 5: AVERAGE HOURLY DRY BULB TEMPERATURES AND HUMIDITY FOR PUNE IN MAY (MADE WITH DATA
FROM (ISHRAE 2008)). ....................................................................................................................

FIGURE 6: FLOOR PLAN OF FABLAB. (SAUNDERS 2008)............................................................................... 7 FIGURE 7: VARIATION OF ROOM TEMPERATURE FOR FOUR DIFFERENT BUILDING ORIENTATIONS IN MAY 1985 (VERMA ET AL. 1986) ......................................................................................................................... 9 FIGURE 8: LEFT: AIR TEMPERATURE IN THE SHADED AREA (THIN LINE) AND THE UNSHADED AREA (THICK LINE). RIGHT: W ALL SURFACE TEMPERATURE IN THE SHADED AREA (THIN LINE) AND THE UNSHADED AREA (THICK LINE). (PAPADAKIS ET AL. 2000) ............................................................................................ 10 FIGURE 9: ILLUSTRATION OF DIFFERENT WALL DESIGNS ............................................................................. 11 FIGURE 10: VARIATION OF ROOM TEMPERATURE WITH TIME IN DELHI (14 MAY 1985). (VERMA ET AL. 1986) 12 FIGURE 11: TYPICAL DESIGN OF A WINDCATCHER (BAHADORI, MAZIDI ET AL. 2008) .................................... 13 FIGURE 12: STACK VENTILATION SYSTEM AT THE SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE, BERGEN, NORWAY (FORDHAM 2000) ............................................................................................................................................. 14 FIGURE 13: VENTILATION OPTIONS IN HOT, HUMID CLIMATES (AUSTRALIAN_GOVERNMENT 2005) ................ 15 FIGURE 14: BASIC DESIGN OF THE SOLAR CHIMNEY WITH A MASSIVE ELEMENT FOR HIGH THERMAL INERTIA (MARTI-HERRERO AND HERAS-CELEMIN 2007) ............................................................................... 16 FIGURE 15: FLOOR PLAN OF BASE HOUSE DESIGN. .................................................................................... 19 FIGURE 16: HOURS OF EXTREME DISCOMFORT WHEN BASE CASE IS CHANGED ............................................ 21 FIGURE 17: INDOOR MAXIMUM OPERATIVE AIR TEMPERATURES (C) COMPARED.......................................... 22

TABLE OF TABLES

TABLE 1: AVERAGE MONTHLY TEMPERATURE DATA FOR PUNE (ISHRAE 2008). ........................................... 4 TABLE 2: RANGE AND OPTIMUM VALUES OF TROPICAL SUMMER INDEX FOR VARIOUS THERMAL SENSATIONS.... 6 TABLE 3: THERMAL COMFORT IN PUNE ....................................................................................................... 6 TABLE 4: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ROOF IN THE BASE CASE HOUSE. ........................................................ 20 TABLE 5: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR WALLS IN THE BASE CASE HOUSE................... 20 TABLE 6: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FLOOR IN THE BASE CASE HOUSE........................................................ 20 TABLE 7: MODELLING RESULTS FOR THE BASE CASE SCENARIO AND THE EIGHT MODIFIED SCENARIOS. ......... 21

iii

1. INTRODUCTION
In developing countries like India, where electrical energy is not universally available, free running (Nicol and Pagliano 2007) buildings are common. Such buildings are not heated or cooled, meaning that the indoor air temperature changes in response to ambient air temperature changes (Givoni 1994c). In hot climates passive cooling techniques such as radiant and evaporative cooling, comfort and nocturnal ventilation, and thermal mass and insulation, are employed to control this response in order to improve the thermal comfort of inhabitants. Where such measures are not used effectively, and there is no reliable electricity source to provide active cooling, heat stress can have negative effects on health and productivity (Chandra 1995). Even where there is a reliable electricity source, it is still desirable to reduce energy consumption. This is especially true in a country such as India, which is a net importer of energy (Kakodkar 2005) and which anticipates increased energy consumption because of population and economic growth (Rodrik and Subranium 2004; Wilson and Purushothaman 2003). In hot dry or warm humid countries, more than half of the urban peak load of energy consumption is used to satisfy air-conditioning demands alone (Koch-Nielsen 2002). Since the urbanisation rate in developing countries, including India, is extreme, the pressure placed on energy resources to satisfy the future requirements will be great, unless measures to reduce consumption are put in place (Koch-Nielsen 2002). The current project centres on a village called Pabal, which is situated in west India in the state of Maharashtra. Most houses in Pabal are free running, yet do not have passive cooling measures integrated into their design. Therefore, during the summer months, high outside air temperatures result in similarly high indoor air temperatures which are well outside the limits of thermal comfort. The aim of this project, as set by Engineers Without Borders (EWB) UK and EngINdia, is to design a retrofit of a typical Pabal house so that it is cooler in high temperatures, without resorting to the use of electricity. The design should be cost-effective and take into account the local availability of construction materials. Our project will include research into traditional methods of keeping homes cool during the dry season in India as well as in other parts of the world. We will also look into recent developments in cost-effective housing designs, and into the feasibility of retrofitting the existing structures. Computer modelling will be performed to determine which design measures are more effective at reducing indoor air temperatures. If a solution is devised that meets the project criteria, it will be trialled at Vigyan Ashram, an Indian Institute of Education in Pabal. If they also believe it to be successful then they will act as a training centre for the sharing of knowledge of how to construct the cooler, more comfortable houses.

2. BACKGROUND

2.1. Location
Pabal is located in Pune, Maharashtra, India. Pune (also called Poona) is the name of both a city and district in the state of Maharashtra, which is located to the west of India as shown in Figure 1, and has a population of approximately 97 million according to the latest national census (Census 2001). Pune the city has a population of approximately 4 million (Census 2001) and is a renowned centre of learning in India.

Figure 1: Map of India indicating the location of Pune within the state of Maharashtra.

Pabal itself is located 30 km north of Pune. It is a rural, agricultural village with a population of approximately 4,300 people, or 800 households, as measured at the last census in 2001. The EngINdia team, however, reported in 2006 that this number has now grown to about 9,000 (Furminger et al. 2006). As can be seen in the satellite image below (Figure 2) the core of the village is more densely populated, with approximately 60% of the population living there. Those living outside the centre of Pabal live in hamlets and are primarily farmers who grow vegetable crops.

Figure 2: Satellite image of Pabal

At the time of the engINdia expedition, Pabal was experiencing problems with its water supply. Private and public wells were being exhausted during the dry season, forcing the state government to transport water to Pabal each day in 12,000 L water tankers. In order to solve the water supply problems, a dam was constructed near Pabal, but was not in use at the time the engINdia report was published. The dam is shown in the satellite image below (Figure 3). A pipe system from the dam has now been constructed and supplies Pabal with year-round water (Saunders 2008). The water is piped into a water tower each morning, giving the village a short period in which to fill their tanks. Reports suggest that the supply lasts for most of the dry season, but is strained towards the end. During the monsoon season, there are no problems with water supply.

1 km

Figure 3: Satellite image of Pabal and dam

The electricity supply in Pabal is unreliable, with an average of eight power cuts occurring each day. These cuts are due to rationing imposed by the state government because of an electricity shortage in Maharashtra. Alternatives to electricity used in Pabal are candles, kerosene lanterns, gas lanterns, flashlights, and, for the more affluent villagers, 12 volt batteries. There are also biogas generators, installed 15 years ago, although there are problems with supplying the cattle dung from which the fuel is generated.

2.2. Climate
The climate of a given region is generally defined as the interaction of several meteorological elements (Koch-Nielsen 2002), principally: solar radiation; precipitation; humidity; air temperature; and wind.

Hourly weather data from the Indian Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ISHRAE) were used to analyse the climate in Pune District with reference to the above parameters (ISHRAE 2008). Most of Maharashtra, including Pune, is defined under the Kppen system as having a semi arid steppe climate (ISHRAE 2008). The classification BSh denotes that the climate is predominately arid, is a steppe climate opposed to an arid desert climate, and that the coldest month has an average minimum temperature above 0C. 3

As shown in Table 1, summer in India is from April to June of each year, with the most extreme summer week occurring in mid May, week 19 of the year. The wet season begins in May also, with the heavy monsoons continuing through until November. Outdoor air temperatures fall during this period, largely because of the shading effect of cloud coverage. Little rain falls during the rest of the year, the dry season.
Table 1: Average monthly temperature data for Pune (ISHRAE 2008).

Jan Average maximum temperature (C) Average minimum temperature (C) Temperature range (C) 28.2 11.5 16.7

Dry Season Spring Feb Mar

Apr

Summer May Jun

Wet Season Autumn Jul Aug Sep

Oct

Dry Season Winter Nov Dec 27.6 12.3 15.3

30.8 35.7 36.9 35.7 29.6 26.6 26.1 28.1 29.5 28.8 13.1 16 19.5 22.9 23.8 22.7 22 3.9 4.1 21.4 20.6 16.3 6.7 8.9 12.5

17.7 19.7 17.4 12.8 5.8

Solar radiation is radiation from the Sun that penetrates the Earths atmosphere and is incident on the ground. As is evident from Figure 4, the dramatic drop in the level of solar radiation measured in Pune during the months of May to October, the wet season, corresponds with an increase in precipitation. This is due to effect that storm clouds have in blocking a large amount of the direct solar radiation that would otherwise reach the ground.
8000
3

7000

Direct Solar Radiation (Wh/m)

2.5

6000
2

5000

4000

1.5

3000
1

Direct Average

2000
Direct Maximum
0.5

1000
Precipitation Inidcator (KPa)

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Month

Figure 4: Direct solar radiation and precipitation indicator in Pune (made with data from (ISHRAE 2008)).

Humidity levels vary throughout the year as well as throughout the day. The lowest average humidity range of 18 61% is felt in April, which this corresponds with the start of summer and the end of the dry season. The greatest average humidity range of 57 95% is experienced in October, which is the start of winter and the end of the rainy season (ISHRAE 2008). Humidity is also linked to dry bulb temperature, as shown in Figure 5 below. As the temperature increases during daylight hours, humidity decreases, reflecting the evaporation that takes place at higher temperatures.

Precipitation Indicator (kPa)

40

90

35

80

70 30

Dry Bulb Temperature ( )

60 25 50 20 40 15 30 10 - Average Hourly Statistics for Dry Bulb temperatures C May 5 20

Average Relative Humidity

10

Figure 5: Average hourly dry bulb temperatures and humidity for Pune in May (made with data from (ISHRAE 2008)).

Wind direction varies throughout the year, but is generally of low velocity. From October through April winds are predominantly northerly while between May and September they are westerly. Maximum wind speeds of approximately 7 ms-1 are experienced in June while minimum wind speeds of approximately 3 ms-1 occur in January (ISHRAE 2008). In the summer, the period of interest for the current study, the average wind speeds are low, ranging from 1 ms-1 to 2.2 ms-1.

2.3. Thermal Comfort

The first step in thermal design must be to establish the required conditions: the limits of thermal comfort. This will depend on climactic factors such as air temperature and movement, humidity and radiation, but will also be affected by the metabolic rate or intensity of activity of the individual, and the insulative effect of their clothing (Auliciems 1983). Various equations have been derived from experimental data to provide limits of thermal comfort in different climates. Early studies did not make provision for acclimatisation, resulting in narrow comfort limits. However, designing heating and cooling systems for a narrow range of temperatures reduces adaptability (Auliciems and Szokolay 1997). It is also now recognised that acclimatisation to the temperature in different seasons will have a large impact on thermal comfort indicators. For example, Humphreys (1978) found that indoor comfort temperature, Tn, is a function of mean outside temperature, T0:

0: 01 -1 :0 1: 01 0 -2 :0 2: 01 0 -3 :0 3: 01 0 -4 :0 4: 01 0 -5 :0 5: 01 0 -6 :0 6: 01 0 -7 :0 7: 01 0 -8 :0 8: 01 0 -9 :0 9: 0 01 -1 0: 10 0 :0 0 111 11 :0 :0 0 112 12 :0 :0 0 113 13 :0 :0 0 114 14 :0 :0 0 115 15 :0 :0 0 116 16 :0 :0 0 117 17 :0 :0 0 118 18 :0 :0 0 119 19 :0 :0 0 120 20 :0 :0 0 121 21 :0 :0 0 122 22 :0 :0 0 123 23 :0 :0 0 124 :0 0

Time

Tn = 0.534T0 + 11.9

Relative Humidity (%)

This reflects the gradual acclimatisation and change in behaviour that occurs as mean temperatures change each month. Effectively, as mean monthly temperatures increase, the limits of thermal comfort increase accordingly; less clothing is worn and the bodys cooling mechanisms adjust to the new cooling demands. Humphreyss formulation has been modified since it was developed. One such modification is described in Auliciems and Szokolay (1997); mean monthly temperatures and relative humidities are used to find the new effective temperature, ET*, on a psychrometric chart. This temperature indicates how humidity affects apparent temperature. ET* can then be used to find the neutral temperature, Tn, for a free running building with:

Tn = 18.9 + 0.255ET *
The zone of comfort for 90% acceptability can then be taken as Tn2.5C. acceptability is adequate, this can be increased to Tn3.5C.

If 80%

Another indicator of the thermal comfort has been devised by the Central Building Research Institute (CBRI) of India. CBRI suggests that a Tropical Summer Index (TSI) can be used to calculate thermal comfort in hot dry and hot humid climates:

TSI =
Where:

1 3 t w + t g + 2v 1/ 2 3 4

tw = the wet bulb temperature, C tg = the globe temperature, C v = air velocity, ms-1 The TSI is defined as the temperature of still air at 50% relative humidity which induces the same thermal sensation as the actual environmental conditions (Chandra 1994). The thermal comfort felt at ranges of TSI values is shown in Table 2 below:
Table 2: Range and optimum values of tropical summer index for various thermal sensations.

Thermal Sensation Slightly cool Comfortable Slightly warm

Range C Optimum value C 19 25 22 25 30 27.5 30 34 32

Although this indicator was developed especially for use in India, we are unable to use it in our project because the ISHRAE weather data does not include globe temperature, tg, which is a measure of the effect of radiation. The Auliciems and Szokolay (1997) method has therefore been followed and the following thermal comfort limits for 80% acceptability found (Table 3).
Table 3: Thermal Comfort in Pune Jan Feb Marc h Tmax (C) 28. 30. 35.7 2 8 Tmin (C) 11. 13. 16 5 1 Tmean (C) RHmean (%) ET* (C) Tn(C) 19. 8 63 20. 4 24. 1 27. 6 20. 6 21. 7 52. 5 23. 0 24. 8 28. 3 21. 3 25.8 40.0 25.5 25.4

Apri l 36.9 19.5

May 35. 7 22. 9 29. 1 50. 5 29. 0 26. 3 29. 8 22. 8

Jun e 29.6 23.8

July 26. 6 22. 7 24. 4 82 25. 9 25. 5 29. 0 22. 0

Aug 26. 1 22

Sep 28. 1 21. 4 24. 3 80 25. 8 25. 5 29. 0 22. 0

Oct 29. 5 20. 6 24. 3 75 25. 5 25. 4 28. 9 21. 9

Nov 28. 8 16. 3 21. 9 64. 5 22. 5 24. 6 28. 1 21. 1

Dec 27. 6 12. 3 19. 4 63 19. 9 24. 0 27. 5 20. 5

28.4 35 27.5 25.9

26.2 76 27.4 25.9

23. 7 84. 5 25. 0 25. 3 28. 8 21. 8

Upper temperature limit (C) Lower temperature limit (C)

28.9

29.4

29.4

21.9

22.4

22.4

In the preliminary, sensitivity analysis the number of hours over 30C was used to compare the effectiveness of different components of the design against a base case scenario. This level will be revised to match the thermal comfort temperatures above when further analysis is undertaken.

2.4. Current House Design

Most buildings in Pabal consist of brick walls with corrugated iron roofs. Floors are left as bare earth or concrete slabs are used and windows are either single glaze or just openings in the walls. Shutters are often used and can be wooden or metal. Houses are generally made up of between two and four rooms measuring approximately 4 m x 4 m and are connected by open doorways. Sloping roofs are common and the height of the roof ranges from 2.5 to 4 m (Saunders 2008). The FabLab is a building at Vigyan Ashram used for testing new building technologies. A floor plan for the FabLab is shown below in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Floor plan of FabLab. (Saunders 2008)

Like typical houses in Pabal, the windows are not fitted with glass, but with metal shutters. The roof is corrugated iron and the floor is concrete. The walls are clay brick and there is an aluminium veranda connected on the exterior of the wall indicated by the blue line. The whole side of that wall (that is, the yellow and blue sections) has a gap of 0.1 m from the ceiling to provide for ventilation. (Saunders 2008) In May, the most extreme summer month, it is common for the inside air temperatures to reach and even exceed 40C (Saunders 2008). As this general maximum temperature is known, the house designed used to model sensitivity is based on this FabLab design. This will allow basic verification of results.

3. LITERATURE REVIEW
In most countries, energy use in the building sector represents about one third of the total energy consumption. In developing countries the residential building sector accounts for more than half of the electricity consumption (Synnefa et al. 2006). Considering the scale of the energy demand, a great deal of research has been done on how to increase thermal comfort in a building design by passive means. The main text referred to throughout this review is Givonis Passive and Low Energy Cooling of Buildings (Givoni 1994c). This book is a comprehensive guide to the research on passive cooling technology, especially when read in conjunction with the authors later text Climate Considerations in Building and Urban Design (Givoni 1998).

3.1. Building Design

The features discussed in the context of building design are those that minimise the heat gain into the building, but have no actual cooling effect. Givoni (1994) refers to this as the architecture that is appropriate to the climate, or tropical bioclimatic architecture. This can be contrasted with passive mechanisms, which are discussed under the heading passive cooling. These mechanisms act to lower the indoor air temperature rather than just reduce the heat gain. It should be noted, however, that passive cooling systems depend on the building design - the roof, structural materials, or soil under the building for example (Givoni 1994c).

3.1.1. Layout and Orientation

Layout and orientation are important factors for building design in hot humid climates and can help provide comfort when air conditioning is not available (Givoni 1994a). In such climates a building layout that provides for cross-ventilation is of primary importance (Givoni 1994a). A spread out building will enable better natural cross-ventilation than a compact one, with the effect that the indoor temperature will follow the outdoor temperature pattern more closely. Whether this is desirable will depend on whether thermal comfort can be experienced at the outdoor air temperature, as discussed in section 3.2.1. Cooling of the buildings mass during the night can be encouraged by maximising the surface area of the envelope. This can be further enhanced by designing deep porches between rooms which promote ventilation. These porches can also provide a protected semi-outdoor space for family use, with some degree of privacy. (Givoni 1994a) To maximise natural ventilation, whether nocturnal or diurnal, the building should be orientated in relationship to the wind direction. Oblique wind at angles between 30 and 120 degrees to the wall can provide effective cross ventilation if openings are provided in the windward and in the leeward walls, respectively (Givoni 1994a). Many hot, humid regions at low latitudes have winds mainly from the East, so porches should be designed to be interspaced between rooms facing east and west. The main openings of the rooms should be located in the wall sections leading to the porches, with only small and shaded windows in the main eastern and western walls. (Givoni 1994a) Verma et al (1986) found the relationship between indoor air temperature and building orientations in Delhi, as shown below in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Variation of room temperature for four different building orientations in May 1985 (Verma et al. 1986)

Figure 7 shows indoor air temperature for 14 May 1985, which is during the Indian summer. It can be seen that large exposure on the North and South side of the building gives the lowest inside temperatures during summer.

3.1.2. Windows and Shading

Building openings in hot, humid climates play a major role in determining the thermal comfort of the occupants (Givoni 1994a). Their location and size determine the ventilation conditions of the building as well as the solar radiation levels. Large openings in all the walls can provide the design solution for effective cross ventilation but, if unshaded, will let solar radiation penetrate directly through the openings into the interior of the building, elevating the indoor temperature above the outdoor level. (Givoni 1994a) Therefore, all openings in the envelope of the building need to be effectively shaded. If it is desirable that cross-ventilation be maximised, each room should have at least two openings. These openings should be in different walls and preferably one of them in a wall facing the wind direction (Givoni 1994a). In practice, this is not always possible, but windows should still be positioned to ensure air flow in every room. Eastern windows equipped with appropriate, operable shutters can be protected from the sun while taking advantage of an easterly wind for ventilation (Givoni 1994a). The use of windows also decreases the need for artificial lighting, which not only consumes energy but dissipates waste heat into the building space, increasing the room temperature. (Zain-Ahmed et al. 2000) Studies conducted at the Agricultural University of Athens tested the effects on the air temperature and wall surface temperature when a section of building was shading during summer. The results are show below in Figure 8.

Figure 8: Left: Air temperature in the shaded area (thin line) and the unshaded area (thick line). Right: Wall surface temperature in the shaded area (thin line) and the unshaded area (thick line). (Papadakis et al. 2000)

The air temperature in the shaded area is consistently lower than in the unshaded area and the wall surface temperature is more uniform and generally cooler in the shaded area compared to the unshaded area. External shading devices such as eaves are more efficient than internal fixed shading devices, as they lower direct radiation from reaching the internal atmosphere instead of dissipating the heat to the air gap between the shading device and the window (Gouri Datta 2001).

3.1.3. Colour and reflectance of Envelope

Increasing the solar reflectance of a buildings envelope lowers the surface temperature since solar radiation is reflected rather than absorbed. In turn this decreases the heat penetrating into the building, resulting in more comfortable thermal conditions inside (Synnefa et al. 2006). Many studies have concluded that the absorptance of the buildings envelope has an important effect on heating loads, and that the use of light colours, especially on the roof, decreases the total heat load on the building. A study by Synnefa and Santamouris 2006 found that a building with a light roof colour does not require the same level of insulation than a building with a dark roof colour to achieve the same indoor air temperatures. For hot humid climates, Cheng and Givoni (1994) found that the maximum air temperature inside a black cell was 12C higher than inside a white cell. Additionally, the air temperature inside the white cell was only 23C higher than the outdoor temperature. The term solar reflectance (SR) designates the total reflectance of a surface, considering the hemispherical reflectance of radiation, integrated over the solar spectrum. Synnefa et al. (2006) conducted a study on the effects of cool coatings on thermal comfort, which showed that by increasing the solar reflectance from SR = 0.2 to SR = 0.65 on the roof of a house in New Delhi, India, the number of hours per year that the inside temperature exceeds 29C decreases by 17%. The study also showed that the maximum indoor temperature decreases by 3.3C. The same study found that the annual cooling load reduction for a roof with little insulation after being painted white was much greater than for a roof with high insulation that was painted white. Thus, an increase in roof solar reflectance is more effective for houses with little insulation in the roof than for houses with high insulation. (Synnefa et al. 2006) The major heat load of buildings made with metal is the solar energy supplied through the roof. It has been shown that the inside air temperature falls to within 6C of ambient temperature when the roof is painted white. The white paint increases the reflectance of the 10

metal, which has poor reflective properties by itself (Givoni 1994c). The higher reflectance results in less energy supplied to the interior, so that the inside air temperature becomes lower than the temperature inside an identical building without white paint on the roof (Amer 2005). While the figures from the cited reports are merely indicative and will vary as a function of the buildings materials and features, they suggest that painting the roof of a building in a hot climate a light colour, can contribute greatly to improving indoor environmental conditions and decreasing the need for cooling (Santamouris et al. 2007).

3.1.4. Insulation
Insulation is a material that resists and therefore retards the transfer of heat. The interaction of the three modes of heat transfer, convection, radiation, and conduction, determines the overall effectiveness of insulation. Insulative material is characterised by presence of dead air cells within its mass which suppress convective heat transfer by preventing air movement. It is this trapped air that provides the insulation, not the solid material itself. Insulation also affects the rate of radiation transfer, because the temperature difference on either side of the air cells is not large. This causes the overall path of the radiation through the material to be broken into smaller, more convoluted paths. The rate of conduction is decreased due, again, to the presence of the poorly-conductive air pockets (Al-Homoud 2004). The placement of insulative material within the building component can therefore improve indoor conditions. The best performance can be achieved by placing the insulating material close to the point of entry of heat flow, that is, the outside of the building component. However, for practicality it is common to use insulation on the inside or between wall cavities, as shown in Figure 9. (Al-Homoud 2004)

Figure 9: Illustration of different wall designs

A performance study of different passive cooling techniques in Delhi by Verma et al. (1986) showed that cavity walls can in fact provide better protection from heat than insulation on the outside of walls. Figure 10 shows the results of the study for different wall designs shown in Figure 9, where the room temperature for the cavity wall case is consistently lower compared to the case where insulation is on the outside of the wall.

11

Figure 10: Variation of room temperature with time in Delhi (14 May 1985). (Verma et al. 1986)

3.1.5. Thermal mass

Thermal mass reduces the heat gain of a structure by delaying the entry of heat into the building. It is a parameter that is mostly related to the thickness and type of the construction material used. A buildings mass stores excess heat, whether from the sun or from internal loads of the building, for release during cooler periods of the day or at night. Thermal mass is an important parameter in determining thermal performance of the building and is characterised by its time lag, which is the length of time from when the outdoor temperature reaches its peak until the indoor temperature reaches its peak. The roof requires a very long time lag as it receives sunlight most of the day. However, since it is both expensive and not practical to place heavy mass on the roof, additional insulation rather than mass is usually recommended. It should be noted that mass on the roof largely postpones heat gain while colours, on the other hand, significantly reduce heat gain. (Al-Homoud 2004)

3.2. Passive Cooling

The term passive cooling applies to various simple cooling techniques that enable the indoor temperatures of buildings to be lowered through the use of natural energy sources (Givoni 1994c). It is defined as the removal of heat of the building environment by applying the natural processes of elimination of heat to the ambient atmosphere by convection, radiation and evaporation or to the adjacent earth by conduction and convection (Dilip Jain 2004). The term passive does not necessarily exclude the use of a fan or a pump. However, in the context of rural Maharashtra, which is currently experiencing electricity rationing, it is submitted that any system that relies heavily on a connection to mains electricity is not feasible. The research that has been conducted on various passive cooling techniques has been summarised below, and the feasibility of each is discussed at the end. 12

3.2.1. Ventilative Cooling

Proper ventilation inside a built environment is one of the most important factors in achieving thermal comfort. Ventilation has a direct effect on the human body by providing clean, moving air, and an indirect effect through its influence on the temperature and humidity (Abro 1994). Ventilation can be divided into two distinct types: comfort ventilation and nocturnal ventilation. Comfort ventilation occurs during the day, and is effective only when the outdoor air can provide thermal comfort at the indoor air speed and humidity (Givoni 1994c). Nocturnal ventilation can be used where comfort ventilation will not be effective in cooling a building; it requires that a building be closed during the day and ventilated with cool air during the night, thus cooling the thermal mass. Comfort Ventilation The vernacular practice in hot, humid regions is to design the structure so as to allow for maximum cross ventilation during the day (Givoni 1994b). This has the effect of improving physiological comfort by providing a higher indoor air speed. The airflow does not create sensible cooling of air that can be measured on a thermometer, but instead conducts heat from skin (Omer 2008). Humid air is especially suited to improving thermal comfort, as higher air speeds increase the rate of sweat evaporated from skin (Tsutsumi et al. 1996). Vernacular and traditional houses in hot and humid climate zones are designed to utilise the wind as a natural cooling measure. For example, in Japan the walls of traditionally designed houses can be opened widely and partitions between rooms removed to allow wind to pass through (Tsutsumi et al. 1996). Another example is the wind catchers or towers that are common in Middle Eastern countries. These structures funnel wind at higher elevations into houses, thus cooling the buildings interior (Bahadori et al. 2008). Figure 11 below shows a conventional design used in Iran.

Figure 11: Typical design of a windcatcher (Bahadori, Mazidi et al. 2008)

However, wind catchers require high wind speeds, and have no application in regions of low wind speed (Bahadori 1994). 13

It is estimated that comfort ventilation will only be effective up to a temperature of 30C (Givoni 1994). Because of the limited cooling effect of ventilation if outdoor air temperatures are too high, or the climate arid, active control using an air-conditioning system is usually preferred in developed countries (Mochida et al. 2005). This attitude is now beginning to change because of increased awareness of the importance of energy conservation; several recent studies have been undertaken into how ventilation can be utilised to provide thermal comfort in unfavourable climates. Mochida et al (2005) have found that an automatic window opening system that operates in accordance with the temporal variations of indoor and outdoor climates can greatly reduce indoor air temperatures and keep indoor conditions mostly within thermal comfort limits. The tests were conducted on Tohoku University in Japan during the summer of 2001. Results suggested, however, that there existed a time during a day when a comfortable indoor environment could not be achieved only with window control. In areas where air velocity is not high enough for effective ventilation, several solutions have been suggested. In Mochida et al (2005), again, the optimum placement of tree arrangements, which decrease mean velocity and increase turbulence, and openings around the building was found through Computational Fluid Dynamics (CDF) analysis and tree canopy models. The study showed that this kind of design has a major impact on the effectiveness of ventilation, and can decrease the period at which comfort levels are exceeded. Another solution is to use the density differences of indoor air to encourage throughput. This is called stack driven natural displacement (Lomas 2007) and uses the upward buoyant motion of warm indoor air through a vertical shaft to draw cooler air into the building from outside. Figure 12 below shows a natural ventilation stack system:

Figure 12: Stack ventilation system at the School of Architecture, Bergen, Norway (Fordham 2000)

In a recently published review of renewable building energy systems, the major issue with ventilation as a cooling source was identified as the difficulty in establishing a suitable datum of energy impacts for strategic planning (Omer 2008). This is attributable to an uncertainty surrounding air change rates and the difference in enthalpy between the incoming and outgoing air streams, both of which are fundamental parameters in ventilation analysis (Martin 1996). These issues are heightened when designing large scale buildings, but are not so critical in residential buildings.

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The type of ventilation suited to the situation will depend on the building in question. Single sided ventilation is effective to a depth of 6 m into a building, and so is normally used only in smaller residential houses. Simple openings such as windows or vents along one side of an external wall are the usual method of providing this type of ventilation. Cross-ventilation, as shown in Figure 13, is encouraged by the same kind of openings on opposite walls, and is effective over 12 m. For larger spaces, such as atria, mixed flow ventilation is required. (Martin 1996)

Figure 13: Ventilation options in hot, humid climates (Australian_Government 2005)

In arid regions, such as in Pabal, the effect of cross-ventilation during the day could be more limited. Nocturnal Ventilation The ventilation of a building during the night cools its interior mass if the diurnal temperature range, that is the difference in nocturnal and daytime ambient air temperatures, is high during summer (Givoni 1994c). This temperature difference means that the interior mass is cooled effectively during the night, which has the effect of both absorbing heat during the day and lowering the internal air temperature. Experiments suggest that nocturnal ventilation will be effective where the diurnal temperature range is between 15C to 20C.

If no active cooling system is used in conjunction with passive techniques, Blondeau et al. suggested in 2002 that the ventilation scheme could be designed as follows (Blondeau et al. 2002): During the diurnal period, the air change rate is constant; it can be set to values between 0.5 and 10 air changes (with a 1 ach step between 1 and 10 ach). During the nocturnal period, the air change rate is also set to values between 0.5 and 10 ach. Nevertheless, as night ventilation seeks to cool down the building, the air change rate automatically changes from the set point rate to 0:5 ach as soon as the indoor air temperature becomes lower than the outdoor one.

A popular method of nocturnal ventilation that has developed over the last 15 years is the solar chimney. This structure, shown in Figure 14 below operates on a similar basis to stack ventilation; air is drawn out of a building by the rising air in the channel, which is heated by solar radiation.

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Figure 14: Basic design of the solar chimney with a massive element for high thermal inertia (MartI-Herrero and Heras-Celemin 2007)

The first studies about solar chimneys began with Bansal et al. which developed a mathematical model for a steady state of a solar chimney consisting of a conventional chimney connected to a solar air collector (Bansal et al. 1993). Khedari et al. went on to show the experimental results of natural ventilation effect by a solar chimney in a school (Khedari et al. 1999). The results obtained in the school of 25 m2 and with only one room, show the viability of the system. Afonso et al. published the results of a solar chimney compared with a conventional chimney. They proposed a non-steady model of heat transfer in a single horizontal dimension, applying a model based on finite differences. In this model, the coefficients of heat transfer vary throughout the day according to temperatures. The measurements of air flow were made with tracer gas techniques, which agreed with the results of the simulation (Afonso and Oliveira 2000). Ong then proposed a mathematical model of heat transfer in a steady state for a solar chimney (Ong 2003), and contrasted the model with a real solar chimney (Ong and Chow 2003). The solar chimney was characterised by three temperatures: average temperatures of the glass, air and wall. The solar chimney was 2 m in height with the air channel width between 0.10 and 0.30 m, in real meteorological conditions. The best agreement between the simulation and experimental data occurred for solar radiation intensities of 200 to 650 W/m2 and 0.3 m width air channel. More recently, Martl -Herrero et al. modelled the effect of walls of high thermal mass in creating a greater temperature difference between the air in the channel and inside the building itself. At a maximum solar radiation on a vertical surface of 450 W/m2, it was found that an air mass flow of 0.010 kg/s could be achieved (MartI-Herrero and Heras-Celemin 2007).

3.2.2. Radiant Cooling

In radiant cooling mechanisms, the clear night sky is treated as a heat sink for radiation emitted from the buildings surface, usually its roof. Any ordinary surface facing the sky loses heat by long wave radiation and can be regarded as a heat radiator (Chandra 1994). Net negative radiation to the sky occurs between sunset and sunrise. The effect is obstructed by the presence of the atmosphere, without which the heat sink would be space, which has a temperature near absolute zero. Givoni (1994) gives an outline of the current methods being researched and used. 16

The first and simplest approach to radiant cooling is to have a thermally massive, conductive roof with movable insulation on the exterior. The exterior of the roof is heavily insulated during the day to minimise heat transfer into the building, and at night is removed to allow radiation to sky from the building. Heat loss by convection to the ambient air will also occur Experiments in Israel have shown that this has the potential to lower the average indoor temperature by 3.5 K. However, at this stage movable insulation has proved expensive and unreliable(Clark 1989). Another approach is the Skytherm system developed by Hay in 1978 (Hay 1978). Here bags of water are placed directly over a metal deck on the roof. In summer these bags are cooled by exposure to the night sky, and are then covered by movable insulation during the day. In winter, the opposite is practised to provide a heat source. Studies in Florida have shown this method to be effective; the expensive and problematic movable insulation is still of concern, however (Clark 1989). Ordinary specialised radiators can be added to buildings with insulated roofs to provide radiant cooling. Givoni, in his book on passive cooling emphasises that the roof must be insulated to minimise heat loss in winter and heat gain in summer (Givoni 1998). Chandra (1994) suggests that a metal sheet coated with an emissive paint could be placed over an insulated roof to draw cool air into the thermal mass during the night. The roof would then act as a heat sink during the day. Givoni reported a drop of 3 - 5C using this method in hot arid climates (Givoni 1991). Specific to developing countries, a variation on the ordinary specialised radiator has been suggested. Considering that corrugated iron roofs are common in poorer communities, including Pabal, Givoni (1998) has put forward a metallic radiant roof method that can retrofit an existing house. The skyward side of the roof could be coated with an emissive paint to enhance radiation to sky at night. An insulative layer could then be installed underneath the roof in order to prevent heat gain during the day. This layer needs to be easily removable, so that it can be drawn aside to allow heat to escape during the day.

3.2.3. Evaporative Cooling

Evaporative Cooling (EC) is a popular, inexpensive and effective method of cooling in hot, arid climates (Givoni 1994c). It is possible because the latent heat that is required during the process of evaporation is relatively high. Evaporative cooling is an adiabatic process, meaning that the total energy of the air is constant (Mahadevan 2007). This total energy is comprised of sensible and latent heat. Latent heat, as mentioned above, is the energy absorbed or released as heat during a phase change, and in EC is the heat absorption as water changes from its liquid to gaseous form. (Furminger et al. 2006) Two types of evaporative cooling can be utilised in building design, direct and indirect. In Direct Evaporative Cooling (DEC) the moisture content of outside air is increased, and its temperature therefore lowered. This humidified air is then introduced to the house, either by mechanical or passive means. Passive methods include encouraging a temperature difference or using the wind, while mechanical methods largely rely on fans. This approach to cooling is widespread in Phoenix in the United States of America, suited as it is to the arid climate (Bellamy 2008). Indirect Evaporative Cooling (IEC) involves cooling an element of the house itself by evaporation, and does therefore not result in an increase in the humidity of the outdoor air. As the element is cooled, its interior surface can then absorb heat that has penetrated the building envelope or has been generated from an interior source. One method of indirect cooling that has received attention from researchers of late is the pond roof. As the majority of the solar radiation incident on the building hits the roof, a layer of water on the roof 17

transfers the heat to the evaporation process, thereby reducing heat gain into the building (Kharrufa and Adil 2008). A reduction in indoor air temperature of 6 to 9 C has been recorded by this method (Tang 2005). The main issue in determining whether evaporative cooling can be employed to cool a building is the relative humidity of the region. If the ambient humidity is too high, DEC will further increase it, resulting in a possible reduction in thermal comfort. In effect, the increase in thermal comfort gained through cooling of the air will be discounted by the increased humidity. Another consideration is the availability of water. Evaporative cooling requires a considerable amount of water in order to effectively lower air temperatures (Furminger et al. 2006).

3.2.4. Earth as Cooling Source

The earth mass around a building can serve in most climatic regions as a natural cooling source for the building, either in a passive or an active way (Givoni 1994c). In hot regions, the temperature of the soil in summer is usually too high for it to serve as a cooling source. However, it is possible to lower the earth temperature well below the natural temperature by shading it while permitting water to evaporate from the surface. The amount of water required can be reduced to below what is required to water a lawn if effective shading is used, for example, covering the soil with a layer of gravel or woodchips or raising the building off the ground to shade the soil underneath.(Givoni 1994c) Lowering the soil surface will cause the layers below the surface to lower also. Studies have shown that the difference between the outdoor maximum air temperature and the cooled earth temperature in midsummer can be up to 12C in hot humid regions. With such a temperature difference the soil can provide an effective heat sink for a building.(Givoni 1994c) Direct passive conductive cooling from the cooled soil can be achieved with earth-integrated buildings, in which the walls are bermed and the roof is covered by earth.(Givoni 1994c) This approach would be most suitable in hot, dry regions with mild winters. In such places this direct conductive cooling of the building will be very effective.(Givoni 1994c) Another approach is to install pipes in the cooled soil and circulate air through them. The cooler earth mass serves as a heat sink to cool the air that passes through it. The pipes are usually PVC and the air circulation can be through a closed circuit, or an open circuit that uses the outdoor air that is used for ventilation. This is an active approach as requires the use of electricity via a fan to circulate the air through the pipes and into the building. Circulating the air in the cool soil can keep the indoor temperature about 10C below the outdoor average maximum air temperature. During a heat wave the effects can be even greater.(Givoni 1994c) A study on the thermal performance of an earth-air-pipe system constructed in a farm house in Gurgaon, India indicated that effective cooling can be gained during the summer months. The coefficient of performance (COP) of the installed system during summer was found to be 7.9 (Thanu et al. 1999). The COP is the amount of cooling generated divided by the amount of energy needed to run the system so a high COP indicates a high efficiency in energy use. The study also found that variations in the temperature, relative humidity and humidity ratio of the air are dampened as it passes through the system.(Thanu et al. 1999)

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4. MODELLING
The base case house used in this project is shown below in Figure 15. It is a modification of the FabLab design to better represent a typical house that experiences overheating in Pabal. The internal temperatures of the base case house were modelled over a year using hourly weather data averaged over 10 years for Pune district. The purpose of this initial stage of modelling was to verify the model against collected data from the FabLab and to test the sensitivity of these modelling parameters: - thickness of the wall; - wall material; - insulation on walls; - insulation on roof; - night ventilation; - roof colour; and - building orientation.

Figure 15: Floor plan of base house design.

4.1. Modelling Methodology

The modelling was done using the program BSim (v 4, 6, 8, 22), which was developed by the Danish Building Research Institute. This program enables building energy flows and indoor air temperatures to be determined on an hour-by-hour basis over a 'typical' meteorological year. For this preliminary modelling, the aim was to compare the models results against the temperatures that are actually being experienced. This was to verify that the model was giving reasonable answers and to create a baseline from which to improve. In each simulation run, it was assumed there no was no heat source inside the building, apart from four people, who are inside all day, each giving off 72 W of heat. Airflow into the house from ventilation and infiltration is assumed to equal 0.5 air changes per hour (ach) when the shutters are closed and 2.5 ach when the shutters are open. The shutters were assumed to be open during daylight hours and are closed during the night.

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The roof of the base case house is steel cladding painted green with a layer of paper underneath. A description of the properties is shown in Table 4:
Table 4: Characteristics of the roof in the base case house.

Parameter Thickness (mm) Colour Density (Kg/m3) Thermal conductivity (W/mK) Specific Heat (J/kgC) Solar absorbance Thermal Resistance (m2C/W)

Steel cladding green 0.8

Paper 0.59

Both the interior and exterior walls of the base case house are clay brick with no insulation. The windows are openings with no glass and metal shutters that are closed from 9pm to 7am. A description of the properties is shown in Table 5:
Table 5: Characteristics of the interior and exterior walls in the base case house.

Parameter Thickness (mm) Colour Density (Kg/m3) Thermal conductivity (W/mK) Specific Heat (J/kgC) Solar absorbance Thermal Resistance (m2C/W)

Clay Brick 200 light grey 1400 0.48 1000 0.4 0.29

The floor of the base case house is a concrete slab covered with a layer of cork to represent a non-conductive floor covering. A description of the properties is shown in Table 6:
Table 6: Characteristics of the floor in the base case house.

Parameter Thickness (mm) Colour Density (Kg/m3) Thermal conductivity (W/mK) Specific Heat (J/kgC) Solar absorbance

Concrete 100 2300 1.6 800 -

Cork 5 100 0.045 2000 -

4.2. Modelling Results

Modelling was carried out for the base case scenario and for each of the modified scenarios. A single parameter was changed from the base case in each of the eight scenarios and the model was then changed back to the base case before the next parameter was altered. Temperatures of 30C and 16C have been used as preliminary comfort indicators but they do not replace the true comfort temperature ranges which were discussed earlier in the report. These temperatures are indicators of severe discomfort. The results are presented in Table 7 and Figure 16 below. Doubling the wall thickness and adding insulation to the walls both increased the hours above the preliminary comfort level of 30C while eliminating the hours below 16C. Changing the brick type to a brick with a higher density and thermal conductivity reduced the hours above 30C but increased the hours below 16C; this was also the case when the wall material was changed from brick to concrete. 20

Table 7: Modelling results for the base case scenario and the eight modified scenarios.

Model scenario Base case Double wall thickness Change brick type Change wall material to concrete Add insulation to outside of wall Add insulation to underside of roof Increase night ventilation Change roof colour to light grey Rotate building 90

Hours above 30C 1807 1938 1699 1566 1942 1700 1691 1509 1615

Hours below 16C 21 0 23 58 0 0 52 26 21

Base case

Double wall thickness

Change brick type

Change wall material to concrete

Add insulation to outside of wall Add insulation to underside of roof Increase night ventilation

Change roof colour to light grey

Hours below 16C Hours above 30C

Rotate building 90 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

Number of Hours

Figure 16: Hours of extreme discomfort when base case is changed

When the night ventilation was changed from 0.5 ach to 2.5 ach the hours above the comfort level decreased by the same extent as when the brick type was changed but the hours below 16C increased to double that of the brick type modification. Adding insulation to the roof reduced the number of discomfort hours above 30C as well as eliminated the hours below 16C. Changing the roof colour also reduced the discomfort hours above 30C, but increased the hours below 16C. The base case house in Figure 15 is orientated so that the left wall faces north. When the house was rotated 90 so that the left wall faced west, the discomfort hours above 30C decreased and the hours below 16C remained the same.

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The maximum indoor temperatures were recorded in the 19th week of the year in all of the scenarios, which corresponds to the highest outdoor temperatures, 41C, from the meteorological data. Maximum indoor air temperatures returned by the model in week 19 are represented in Figure 17. As can be seen from this graph,Figure 17 the base case model gave indoor air temperatures in excess of the maximum outdoor temperature, which correlates with the temperatures taken inside the FabLab during the same period.

Maximum indoor air temperature (C) Maximum outdoor air temperature (C) 42.5 41.5

Air Temperature (C)

40.5 39.5 38.5 37.5 36.5

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Figure 17: Indoor maximum operative air temperatures (C) compared

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5. DISCUSSION
The modelling results along with the information gained during the literature review allowed for the sensitivity of the building parameters to be better understood. Adding insulation to the walls reduced heat gain during the day but decreased heat loss at night. This resulted in a higher maximum temperature inside and more hours above the thermal comfort level of 30C. Doubling the wall thickness had a similar effect. In contrast, adding insulation to the roof had the opposite effect. Insulation in the roof significantly reduced heat absorption during the day, to the extent that even with a reduction in heat loss at night due to the roof insulation the indoor temperatures were still lower than in the base case. From this, an inference could also be drawn that the main heat gain during the day is from solar radiation, which is mostly incident on the roof. By retarding heat transfer through the roof, more comfortable conditions can be experienced inside, whilst still allowing for heat loss through the walls at night. Changing the colour of the roof from green to light grey reduced the solar absorbance of the surface and increased the solar reflectance. This resulted in a decrease in hours above 30C. As explained by Synnefa and Santamouris et al. (2006) increasing the solar reflectance of a buildings envelope lowers the surface temperature since solar radiation is reflected rather than absorbed, which in turn decreases the amount of heat penetrating into the building. The result is fewer hours of discomfort inside the building (Synnefa et al. 2006). This case reinforces the conclusion made above, that solar radiation incident on the roof is the primary source of heat gain in the building. When the rate of night ventilation was increased, the number of hours above the thermal comfort level of 30C decreased. This is because the rate of heat loss of the interior mass at night was improved, meaning the building started the day at a lower temperature, so could absorb more heat before temperatures became uncomfortable inside. Changing the brick type to one with a higher density and thermal conductivity had a similar effect to increasing the rate of night ventilation. The higher thermal conductivity meant the building could dissipate heat better at night and it started the day at a lower temperature. This was also the case when the walls were changed to concrete, which increased the thermal mass of the wall and decreased the thermal resistance, resulting in more heat dissipation at night and lower indoor temperature during the day. When the building was rotated 90 the hours above the comfort level decreased. This is because the largest exposure of walls and windows to the sun changed from being on the East and West sides of the house to the North and South sides. This is in agreement with the study done by Verma et al (1986) which found that large exposure on the North and South side of the building gives the lowest inside temperatures during summer.(Verma et al. 1986).

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6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

It has been found that increasing the thermal mass of a building by using high density brick or concrete will reduce the number of hours above 30C inside. Increasing ventilation at night and rotating the building so the largest exposure to solar radiation is on the North and South sides will also reduce inside temperatures. Changing a roofs colour to increase the solar reflectance and adding insulation underneath the roof will reduce heat gain during the day and decrease the hours of discomfort inside. The recommendations of this report are to further investigate the following design strategies and how they interact to provide thermal comfort: - high thermal mass; - night ventilation; - orientation of the building so that the North and South sides will have the largest solar radiation exposure; - light colour with high solar reflectance on the roof; and - insulation underneath the roof. It would also be interesting to model the effects of shading in BSim, considering the high solar radiation that Pabal experiences during the dry season. A direct evaporative cooling system, although effective in climates such as Pabals, requires a reliable water supply and connection to the electricity mains. Considering the scarcity of water in Pabal, this approach is unfeasible and will not be considered further. Indirect evaporative cooling, for example roof ponds, faces similar problems. The most important factors in achieving thermal comfort inside the test building seem to be preventing heat gain through the roof, and allowing night cooling of the interior mass. The insulation in the walls appears to trap the heat inside at night, thereby reducing the absorption capacity of the thermal mass the next day, but the roof insulation by itself appears to have a beneficial effect. One method that would achieve the heat loss during the night as well as prevention of heat gain through the roof, and seems well suited to the conditions in Pabal, is the metallic roof radiation to sky system proposed by Givoni (1998). If effective, it would involve a simple retrofit of the existing houses, and would be inexpensive. Further modelling will aim to discover whether this system will be effective in improving the thermal comfort in Pabal conditions. Experimentation to find the optimum combination of thermal mass and night ventilation rates with the system will also be undertaken.

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7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Larry Bellamy, the project supervisor, who has been of great assistance. To EWB UK and engINdia, thank you for providing the project topic and the background information concerning conditions in Pabal, and for the help in making contacts there. Thank you also to Scott Saunders, who took temperature readings for us inside the FabLab in Pabal and provided us with a floor plan and general design information.

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8. REFERENCES
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