Chapter 23 Electromagnetic Waves Lecture 14

23.1 The Discovery of Electromagnetic Waves

23.2 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
23.3 Electromagnetic Waves Carry Energy and
Momentum
23.4 Types of Electromagnetic Radiation: The
Electromagnetic Spectrum
23.5 Generation and Propagation of Electromagnetic
Wave
23.6 Polarization
23.7 Doppler Effect
Electromagnetic Theory
Theoretical understanding of electricity and
magnetism
Seemed complete by around 1850
Coulombs Law and Gauss Law explained electric
fields and forces
Ampres Law and Faradays Law explained
magnetic fields and forces
The laws were verified in many experiments

Introduction
Unanswered Questions
What was the nature of electric and magnetic fields?
What is the idea of action at a distance?
How fast do the field lines associated with a charge
react to a movement in the charge?
James Clerk Maxwell studied some of these
questions in the mid-1800s
His work led to the discovery of electromagnetic
waves
Introduction
Discovery of EM Waves
A time-varying magnetic field gives rise to an electric
field
A magnetic field can produce an electric field
Maxwell proposed a modification to Ampres Law
A time-varying electric field produces a magnetic field
This gives a new way to create a magnetic field
Also gives equations of electromagnetism a symmetry
Section 23.1
Symmetry of E and B
The correct form of Ampres Law (due to Maxwell)
says that a changing electric flux produced a
magnetic field.
Since a changing electric flux can be caused by a
changing E, there was an indication that a changing
electric field produces a magnetic field
Faradays Law says that a changing magnetic flux
produces an induced emf, and an emf is always
associated with an electric field
Since a changing magnetic flux can be caused by a
changing B, we can also say that a changing magnetic
field produces an electric field
Section 23.1
Section 23.1
Symmetry of E and B, cont.
Electromagnetic Waves
Self-sustaining oscillations involving E and B are
possible
The oscillations are an electromagnetic wave
Electromagnetic waves are also referred to as
electromagnetic radiation
Both the electric and magnetic fields must be
changing with time
Although Maxwell worked out the details of em
waves in great mathematical detail, experimental
proof of the existence of the waves wasnt carried
out until 1887
Section 23.1
Perpendicular Fields
According to Faradays
Law, a changing magnetic
flux through a given area
produces an electric field
The direction of the electric
field is perpendicular to the
magnetic field that produced
it
Similarly, the magnetic
field induced by a
changing electric field is
perpendicular to the
electric field that produced
it
Section 23.1
Properties of EM Waves
An electromagnetic wave involves both an electric
field and a magnetic field
These fields are perpendicular to each other
The propagation direction of the wave is
perpendicular to both the electric field and the
magnetic field
Section 23.1
EM Waves are Transverse Waves
Imagine a snapshot of the electromagnetic (em) wave
The electric field is along the x-axis
The wave travels in the z-direction
Determined by the right-hand rule #2
The magnetic field is along the y-direction
Because both fields are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation, the wave is a transverse wave
Section 23.2
Light is an EM Wave
Maxwell found the speed of an em wave can be
expressed in terms of two universal constants
Permittivity of free space,
o

Magnetic permeability of free space,
o

The speed of an em wave is denoted by c

Inserting the values, c = 3.00 x 10
8
m/s
The value of the speed of an electromagnetic wave is
the same as the speed of light
o o
c
c
=
1
Section 23.2
Maxwell answered the question of the nature of light
it is an electromagnetic wave
He also showed that the equations of electricity and
magnetism provide the theory of light

EM Waves in a Vacuum
Remember that mechanical waves need a medium
to travel through
Many physicists searched for a medium for em
waves to travel through
EM waves can travel through many materials, but
they can also travel through a vacuum
All em waves travel with speed c through a vacuum
The frequency and wavelength are determined by
the way the wave is produced
Section 23.2
EM Waves in Material Substances
When an em wave travels through a material
substance, its speed depends on the properties of
the substance
The speed of the wave is always less than c
The speed of the wave depends on the waves
frequency

Section 23.2
EM Waves Carry Energy
An em wave carries
energy in the electric
and magnetic fields
associated with the
wave
Assume a wave
interacts with a charged
particle
The particle will
experience an electric
force
Section 23.3
EM Waves Carry Energy, cont.
As the electric field oscillates, so will the force
The electric force will do work on the charge
The charges kinetic energy will increase
Energy is transferred from the wave to the particle
The wave carries energy
The total energy per unit volume is the sum of its
electric and magnetic energies
u
total
= u
elec
+ u
mag


Section 23.3
elec o mag
o
u E and u B c

= =
2 2
1 1
2 2
EM Waves Carry Energy, final
As the wave propagates, the energies per unit
volume oscillate
The electric and magnetic energies are equal and
this leads to the proportionality between the peak
electric and magnetic fields





o o o
o
o o
E B
E c B
c

=
=
2 2
1 1
2 2
Section 23.3
Intensity of an EM Wave
The strength of an em wave is usually measured in
terms of its intensity
SI unit is W/m
2

Intensity is the amount of energy transported per unit
time across a surface of unit area
Intensity also equals the energy density multiplied by
the speed of the wave
I = u
total
c =
o
c E
o
2

Since E = c B, the intensity is also proportional to the
square of the magnetic field amplitude


Section 23.3
c

=
=
o o o
o
o o
E B
E cB
2 2
1 1
2 2
2 2
1 1
2 2
total o o o
o
I u c cE cB c

= = =
Solar Cells
The intensity of sunlight on a typical sunny day is
about 1000 W/m
A solar cell converts the energy from sunlight into
electrical energy
Current photovoltaic cells capture only about 15% of
the energy that strikes them
Also must account for nights and cloudy days
Making better and more practical solar cells is an
important engineering challenge
Section 23.3
EM Waves Carry Momentum
An electromagnetic
wave has no mass, but
it does carry momentum
Consider the collision
shown
The momentum is
carried by the wave
before the collision and
by the particle after the
collision
Section 23.3
EM Waves Carry Momentum, cont.
The absorption of the wave occurs through the
electric and magnetic forces on charges in the object
When the charge absorbs an electromagnetic wave,
there is a force on the charge in the direction of
propagation of the original wave
The force on the charge is related to the charges
change in momentum: F
B
= p / t
According to conservation of momentum, the final
momentum on the charge must equal the initial
momentum of the electromagnetic wave
The momentum of the wave is p = E
total
/ c
Section 23.3
Radiation Pressure
When an electromagnetic wave is absorbed by an
object, it exerts a force on the object
The total force on the object is proportional to its
exposed area
Radiation pressure is the force of the electromagnetic
force divided by the area

This can also be expressed in terms of the intensity

=
radiation
F
P
A
Section 23.3
- A
= = = = =
- A
radiation total
F F L Work I
P u
A A L Volume c
total
I u c =
= =
radiation
F I
P
A c
Electromagnetic Spectrum
All em waves travel through a vacuum at the speed c
c = 2.99792458 x 10
8
m/s ~ 3.00 x 10
8
m/s
c is defined to have this value and the value of a meter
is derived from this speed
Electromagnetic waves are classified according to
their frequency and wavelength
The wave equation is true for em waves: c =
The range of all possible electromagnetic waves is
called the electromagnetic spectrum

Section 23.4
Figure 23-8 p797
f c =
Light is an
Electromagnetic
Wave
EM Spectrum, Notes
There is no strict lower or upper limit for
electromagnetic wave frequencies
The range of frequencies assigned to the different
types of waves is somewhat arbitrary
Regions may overlap
The names of the different regions were chosen
based on how the radiation in each frequency
interacts with matter and on how it is generated
Section 23.4
Radio Waves
Frequencies from a few hertz up to about 10
9
hertz
Corresponding wavelengths are from about 10
8

meters to a few centimeters
Usually produced by an AC circuit attached to an
antenna
A simple wire can function as an antenna
Antennas containing multiple conducting elements or
shaped as dishes are usually more efficient and
more common
Radio waves can be detected by an antenna similar
to the one used for generation
Radio Waves, cont.
Parallel wires can act as an antenna
The AC current in the antenna is
produced by time-varying electric
fields in the antenna
This then produces a time-varying
magnetic field and the em wave
As the current oscillates with time,
the charge is accelerated
In general, when an electric charge
is accelerated, it produces
electromagnetic radiation
Section 23.4
Microwaves
Microwaves have
frequencies between about
10
9
Hz and 10
12
Hz
Corresponding wavelengths
are from a few cm to a few
tenths of a mm
Microwave ovens generate
radiation with a frequency
near 2.5 x 10
9
Hz
The microwave energy is
transferred to water
molecules in the food,
heating the food
Section 23.4
Infrared
Infrared radiation has
frequencies from about 10
12

Hz to 4 x 10
14
Hz
Wavelengths from a few
tenths of a mm to a few
microns
We sense this radiation as
heat
Blackbody radiation from
objects near room
temperature falls into this
range
Also useful for monitoring
the Earths atmosphere
Section 23.4
Visible Light
Frequencies from about 4 x10
14
Hz to
8 x10
14
Hz
Wavelengths from about 750 nm to
400 nm
The color of the light varies with the
frequency
Low frequency; high wavelength red
High frequency; low wavelength
blue
The speed of light inside a medium
depends on the frequency of the
radiation
The effect is called dispersion
White light is separated into
different colors

Section 23.4
Section 23.4
Dispersion Example
Ultraviolet
Ultraviolet (UV) light has frequencies from about 8 x
10
14
Hz to 10
17
Hz
Corresponding wavelengths are about 3 nm to 400
nm
UV radiation stimulates the production of vitamin D
in the body
Excessive exposures to UV light can cause sunburn,
skin cancer and cataracts
Section 23.4
X-Rays
Frequencies from about 10
17
Hz to about 10
20
Hz
Discovered by Wilhelm Rntgen in 1895
X-rays are weakly absorbed by skin and other soft
tissue and strongly absorbed by dense material such
as bone, teeth, and metal
In the 1970s CT (CAT) scans were developed
Section 23.4
Section 23.4
X-Ray Example
CT Scan
With a single X-ray image,
there will always be parts
of the persons body that
are obscured
Images can be taken from
different angles
A CT scan takes many X-
ray images at many
different angles
Computer analysis is used
to combine the images into
a three-dimensional
representation of the object
Section 23.4
Gamma Rays
Gamma rays are the highest frequency
electromagnetic waves, with frequencies above 10
20

Hz
Wavelengths are less than 10
-12
m
Gamma rays are produced by processes inside
atomic nuclei
They are produced in nuclear power plants and in
the Sun
Gamma rays also reach us from outside the solar
system
Section 23.4
Astronomy and EM Radiation
Different applications generally use different
wavelengths of em radiation
Astronomy uses virtually all types of em radiation
The pictures show the Crab Nebula at various
wavelengths
Colors indicate intensity at each wavelength
Section 23.4