CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. FLOW EQUATIONS 2. ENERGY LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW 2.1. MAJOR HEAD LOSSES 2.1.1. DARCY-WEISBACH FORMULA 2.1.2. MANNINGS FORMULA 2.1.3. HAZEN-WILLIAMS FORMULA 2.2. MINOR HEAD LOSSES 3. FLUID FRICTION APPARATUS 4. CONCLUSION REFERENCES 1 1 3 3 4 5 5 6 10 11 12

1. INTRODUCTION
There are two basic types of flow in pipes. The first type is laminar flow, which is characterised by the fluid flowing in smooth layers of laminae. This type of fluid motion is called streamline flow because all of the particles of fluid are moving in parallel paths. If the velocity of flow reaches a high enough value, the flow ceases to be laminar and becomes turbulent. The movement of a particle becomes random and fluctuates up and down in a perpendicular direction, as well as parallel to the mean flow direction, in a turbulent flow. Reynolds numbers (Re) are very important in identifying whether or not the flow pattern inside a pipe is laminar or turbulent.[2] If the Re value is less than 2,000 the flow is laminar, but if the Re value is greater than 4,000, the flow is turbulent. Reynolds numbers between 2,000 and 4,000 cover a critical zone between laminar and turbulent flow. 1.1. FLOW EQUATIONS 1) Antoine Chezy, in 1775, A French civil engineer developed the Chzy equation, which relates the uniform flow velocity to channel roughness, hydraulic radius, and bed slope. v = C Rs v = average velocity of flow R = hydraulic radius S = slope of the channel C = coefficient depending upon the various characteristics of the channel and their comparison with those of another similar channel.[5] Two other flow formula defined more accurately the value for the coefficient C in the Chezy formula. Kutter formula : b m + n s C= m n 1 + (a + ) x ) s R a+ C= A m 1+ R
2

Bazin formula :

Values of m to be used in the Bazin formula for determining C in the chezy formula.

2) Robert Manning, in 1885, developed Manning formula used for open channel flow conditions. 1 2 / 3 1/ 2 R s n v = velocity of flow, m/s v= R = hydraulic radius, m S = slope of the energy gradient n = a roughness coefficient [5]

2. ENERGY LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW

The flow of liquid through a pipe is resisted by viscous shear stresses within the liquid and the turbulence that occurs along the internal walls of the pipe, created by the roughness of the pipe material. This resistance is usually known as pipe friction and is measured is feet or metres head of the fluid, thus the term head loss is also used to express the resistance to flow.[5] Head losses are generally the result of two mechanisms: a) Friction along the pipe walls. b) Turbulence due to changes in streamlines is through fittings and appurtenances. Head losses along the pipe wall are called friction losses or head losses due to friction, while losses due to turbulence within the bulk fluid are called minor losses. Many factors affect the head loss in pipes, the viscosity of the fluid being handled, the size of the pipes, the roughness of the internal surface of the pipes, the changes in elevations within the system and the length of travel of the fluid. The resistance through various valves and fittings will also contribute to the overall headloss. 2.1. MAJOR HEAD LOSSES Major head losses/friction losses are not caused by friction between the wall of the conduit. The friction losses take place within the stream itself and can be thought of as energy losses due the changes in kinetic energy of the fluid particles as they bounce against each other. The head loss caused by pipe friction can be found out using either of the following formulae: 1) Darcy-Weisbach formula; 2) Mannings formula;

3)

Hazen-Williams formula.

2.1.1. DARCY-WEISBACH FORMULA Julius Weisbach, developed a formula for pipe flow, based to some extent on the Chezy formula. hf = f (L/d) x (V2/2g)
where: hf = head loss (m) f = friction factor L = length of pipe work (m) d = inner diameter of pipe work (m) V = velocity of fluid (m/s) g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s) [3]

Henry Darcy (1857) showed that f is not dimensionless but dependent upon numerous parameters: -the roughness of conduit wall, -the velocity of flow, -the viscosity and density of fluid, -the diameter of pipe. [3] Values for f for water flowing in straight smooth pipe are shown in table.

2.1.2. MANNINGS FORMULA Mannings formula, though generally used for gravity conduits, is also applicable to turbulent flow in pressure conduits and yields good results, provided the roghness coefficient n is accurately estimated. Head loss, according to Mannings equation is given by: HL = (n2V2L)/R4/3 where n = Mannings rugosity coefficient L = Length of pipe in metres V = Flow velocity through pipe in m/sec R = Hydraulic mean depth in m. [5] 2.1.3. HAZEN-WILLIAMS FORMULA The Hazen-Williams formula has be developed specially for use with water and has been generally accepted as the formula used for pipe flow problems.[5],[1] v = 0.849CR 0.63 s 0.54 v = velocity of flow, m/s R = hydraulic radius, m S = slope of the energy gradient = Head loss/Length C = a roughness coefficient Values of C in the Hazen-William Formula and of n in the Manning Formula.

2.2. MINOR HEAD LOSSES At several points in a pipeline, circumstances dictate: -a change in pipe diameter -a change in the direction of the pipe -the need for an obstruction such as valves, metering devices. At such points the turbulent flow lines are disturbed and additional turbulence occurs. The energy losses due to fitting are only a very small percentage of the overall energy loss in the pipe. Hence, energy losses are considered negligible and are not taken into account in the design.[4] On the other hand, piping systems has numerous fittings, making connections between many sections of straight pipe. The energy losses due to the fittings are often larger than those in straight pipe sections. v2 2g

hm = k m x

where hm = energy head loss due to fitting km = loss coefficient v2/2g = velocity head

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3. FLUID FRICTION APPARATUS

Fluid friction apparatus are designed to allow a detailed study of fluid friction and local losses that occur when an incompressible fluid flows through pipe bends, valves and pipe flow metering devices. Pressure differential transmitters and data acquisition cards are added later to help in the computerised experimental analysis of the local losses of valves, fittings and bends.[2] An example of a fluid friction apparatus is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Picture of a fluid friction apparatus and a data acquisition system[2]

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4. CONCLUSION

There are two types of pipe flow, according to the Reynolds number laminar and turbulent. Basic flow equations were given by Chezy and Manning. When fluid flows through a pipe or conduit, it counters resistance to its flow. In straight piping, this resistance is caused by the roughness of the pipe surface. In addition to friction losses, there are also losses due to turning gate valves, globe valves, flow control valves, sudden enlargements, 45 or 90 junctions, etc.

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REFERENCES
1) Water Supply Engineering by Santhosh Kumar Garg.
2)

World Transactions on Engineering and Technology Education, Vol.2, No.3, 2003, Measuring local losses in pipe flows utilising data acquisition cards and a computer, Riza Grbz, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey.

3) Darcy_Weisbach_Formula.pdf
4)

Minor losses, A. Le Duc, Fachgebiet Hydromechanik, TU Mnchen, June 14th 2007.

5) EGEN503_Lecture5.ppt

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