A Hundred and One Rules !

A Short Reference for Arabic Syntactic, Morphological &

Phonological Rules for Novice & Intermediate Levels of Proficiency

Mohammed Jiyad

Spring 2003
CONTENTS

Page Subject
I Introduction
1 The Arabic Alphabet
2 The Arabic Consonants Diagram
5 One Direction Connectors, Emphatic Consonants, Short Vowels in Arabic
6 Nunation, The Shadda, The Sun Letters
7 The Moon Letters, Arabic Syntax, The DeIinite Article, Arabic
Morphology
8 The Feminine Marker, The Personal pronouns
9 Countries, towns, villages, DeIiniteness in Arabic, The Nisba
10 Long vowel to a Diphthong, The Possessive pronouns, Sentences in Arabic

11 The Vocative Particle, The IdaaIa, The Simple IdaaIa
12 The Diptotes, Demonstrative Pronouns, The Equational
Sentence -= ~--~ ~=
13 Interrogative Particles, IndeIinite Noun Subject, Negating Equational Sentences
14 The Subject markers, The DiIIerent Forms oI -
Interrogative Particles, The IdaaIa (revisited)
15 Verb-Subject Agreement, Transitive Verbs, Helping Vowels
16 Object Pronouns, The word ', The Cluster Buster
17 Negation oI Past Tense Verbs, '- '- , .
18 The conjunction ) ( , DeIiniteness (Revisited), Emphasis/Contrast
19 The DeIacto Case oI the Noun and Adjective, '~ , ,
Numbers, Plurals
20 Numbers (Revisited), &
21 Verb Object Pronouns, Object Pronouns oI Prepositions
22 Prepositions, Feminine Sound Plurals, The Roots, The Verb Form Numbers
24 The Phonological Environment Ior Form VIII Verb, Non-human Plurals
25 Multiples oI 10, The Conjunction , The Singular Subject and its mood
markers
26 The Present Tense oI the Arabic verb, The Moods
27 Vowels oI the Present Tense Verb
28 _-= , Negation oI Present and Future Tense Verbs, The Sick Verbs
29 . , The Plural Vocatives, Masculine Sound Plural (Revisited)
30 Negation oI the Future Tense (Revisited), Verbs with Two Objects, The Semi-
Diptotes
31 ' & her Sisters, The Apposition ~- , The Moody Present Tense
32. The Subjunctive Mood
33 ' (Revisited), The Nominalizer & her Sisters
II

34 Adjectives (Revisited) ' & her Sisters (Revisited)
35 Phony/Fake IdaaIa, The PerIect Particle ~, The Verbal Noun
36 Forms oI the Verbal Nouns ~-~
37 The Relative Pronouns . -'~-
38 ' (Revisited), The Cognate Accusative =~ -~
39 The noun - , The Emphasis ~-- -= The Dropping oI the Shadda oI
and her sisters
40 The Imperative Mood,
41 The preposition ~- , The Apposition ~- (Revisted), Verbs oI Beginning,
The Active Participle
42 Derivation oI the Active Participle, The nouns and
43 The Haal Construction '=
44 The Passive Participle, Derivation oI the Passive Participle
Negation Particle - (Revisited)
45 The Accusative oI Distinction (Revisited)
46 Particles oI Exception '-`-~`
47 The Accusative oI Purpose, The Absolute Negation
48 The Long Vowels (Revisited)
50 The Pedagogy Section, The whole language and guided
participatory approach
60 Functional Arabic Verbs list
69 ReIerences
I

INTRODUCTION

The Arabic language developed through the early centuries in the Arabian
Peninsula in the era immediately preceding the appearance oI Islam, when it acquired the
Iorm in which it is known today. Arab poets oI the pre-Islamic period had developed a
language oI amazing richness and Ilexibility. For the most part, their poetry was
transmitted and preserved orally. The Arabic language was then, as it is now, easily
capable oI creating new words and terminology in order to adapt to the demand oI new
scientiIic and artistic discoveries. As the new believers in the seventh century spread out
Irom the Peninsula to create a vast empire, Iirst with its capital in Damascus and later in
Baghdad, Arabic became the administrative language oI vast section oI the
Mediterranean world. It drew upon Byzantine and Persian terms and its own immense
inner resources oI vocabulary and grammatical Ilexibility.

During the ninth and tenth centuries, a great intellectual movement was underway
in Baghdad, in which many ancient scientiIic and philosophical tracts were transposed
Irom ancient languages, especially Greek, into Arabic. Many were augmented by the new
wisdom suggested by Arabic thinkers; other text were simply preserved, until Europe
reawakened by the explosion oI learning taking place in Arab Spain, saw its rebirth in the
Renaissance. That is how Arabic became by the eleventh century the principal reservoir oI
human knowledge, including the repository Ior the accumulated wisdom oI past ages,
supplanting previous cultural languages such as Greek and Latin.

And it was the Arabic language alone which united many peoples in the Arab
Empire and the civilization which Ilourished under it. For when we speak oI the Arab
civilization and its achievements we do not necessarily mean that all its representative
were Arab, or that all were Muslims. It was the peculiar genius oI Arab civilization that it
attracted and encompassed people oI many races and creeds. Citizens oI the Arab Empire,
they identiIied themselves with this civilization and it was the Arabic language, with its
great Ilexibility, that made them exponents oI that civilization.. Between the eighth and
twelIth centuries, Arabic was as much the universal language oI culture, diplomacy, the
sciences and philosophy as Latin was to become in the later Middle Ages. Those who
wanted to read Aristotle, use medical terms, solve mathematical problems, or embark on
any intellectual discourse, had to know Arabic.

The Iirst rules oI Arabic language, including its poetry metrical theory, and its
syntax, morphology and phonology, were written in Iraq. This task was conducted both in
Al-Basrah under Al-Khalil Ibn Ahmed Al-Farahidy and in Al-KuuIah under Abu al-Hasan
Al-Kisaa'i. During the Middle Ages Al-Khalil in his book - '- and, his student,
Siibawayh in '- concluded that task. The Iirst complete dictionary oI the Arabic
language was composed by Al-Khalil, who had also been involved in the reIorm oI the
Arabic script and who is generally acclaimed as the inventor oI the Arabic metrical theory.
The proIessed aim oI - '- , which goes under his name, was the inclusion oI all
Arabic roots. In the introduction, a sketch is given oI the phonetic structure oI Arabic, and
II

the dictionary Iully uses available corpora oI Arabic by including quotations Irom the
Qur'an and Irom the numerous pre-Islamic poems, which had both undergone a process oI
codiIication and written transmission by the hands oI the grammarians.

The early attempt to write the Arabic grammar began as early as the time oI the
Iourth Well-Guided Caliphs, Ali Ibn Abi Taalib, when he commissioned a man named
Abu Al-Aswad Al-Du'ali Ior the task. In his book ('` '--= '-` ) Al-
Anbari, '-` reports the Iollowing anecdote .

-'= = --~ - _= - ) `~ -= ( -~ ~=
'- --~ - ' -~ ' -- : ~ ~= ` -'
~ ~= -~ ='=~ ~ ` - ='= - = '--~ _- ' -
-= ~~- . - '+- _- : = . ~ ` .
_- ' .- _ ~~ ~ = '- ' ~`' _- ' ' = . ' :
- _ ' - -- =- ~ _ = .

I came to The Leader oI the Believers, Ali Ibn Abi Talib, and Iound that he was
holding a note in his hand. I asked, "What is this, Oh Leader oI the FaithIul?" He
said, "I have been thinking oI the language oI the Arabs, and I came to Iind out
that it has been corrupted through contacts with these Ioreigners.ThereIore, I have
decided to put something that they (the Arabs) reIer to and rely on." Then he gave
me the note and on it he wrote: Speech is made oI nouns, verbs and particles.
Nouns are names oI things, verbs provide inIormation, and particles complete the
meaning." Then he said to me, "Follow this approach and add to it what comes to
your mind."

Al-Du'ali continued to say,
-- _ - _ '+--~` -=- ' -- -= '
'+ ' ` ' . = _= '+--= '~ ) `~ -= (
'+- - . -= '+--= =- '' -- '~ --
) -= - - ( '- - ' --= _ . ~ =- ~ ~= ' '
= !
~ = =- ~ ~ .

I wrote two chapters on conjunctions and attributes then two chapters on
exclamation and interrogatives. Then I wrote about '+ and I


III

skipped . When I showed that to him (Peace be upon him), he ordered
me to add . ThereIore, every time I Iinish a chapter I showed it to him
(May God be satisIied with him), until I covered what I thought to be
enough. He said, "How beautiIul is the approach you have taken!" From
there the concept oI grammar =- came to exist.

Following Abu Al-Aswad Al-Du'ali came a group oI grammarians that we know
most oI by their names, not their works. The list includes:
Ibn AaSim '= - , Al-Mahry +~ ~ ~--= , Al-Aqran
` ~- , Al-Adwaany ~ ~ _-= , Al-AkhIash -`
-` , Al-Araj , Al-Hadhramy -= =~ - ~-= , Ibn Al-
Alaa' ` ~= , Al-ThaqaIy --` ~= _~-=, who wrote two
Iamous books, '~` and _'=

WaaIi credited Al-ThaqaIy --` Ior transIerring the interest Irom Basrah to
KuuIa, because he began his work there, and Al-Khalil was his student. Among the other
KuuIic grammarians were Al-Tamiimy ~-~- ~= ~-= '--~ '
and Al-Harraa' + ' ~ and Al-Ru'aasy ~ -= who wrote
.--- ( ). II Siibawayh was considered the 'Imaam oI grammar in Basrah, the KuuIic
version was Al-Kisaa'y -'~ - ~= = ~= who studied
under Al-Harraa' + and Al-Ru'aasy . ~ UnIortunately, Al-Kisaa'y did not
author any major work in Arabic grammar. However, he became one oI the best seven
readers oI the Quran.

The Iramework oI the Arab grammarians served exclusively Ior the analysis oI
Arabic and, thereIore, has a special relevance Ior the study oI the language. From the
period between 750 and 1500 we know the names oI more than 4000 grammarians who
developed a truly comprehensive body oI knowledge on their own language.

Siibawayh was the Iirst grammarian to give an account oI the entire language in
what was probably the Iirst publication in book Iorm in Arabic prose. In his book,
'-` ~ ` , Al-Husary reported that Siibawayh used to have his work
reviewed by another grammarian oI his time named Al-AkhIash Al-Saghiir who said that,
" Siibawayh showed me the grammar rules he came up with thinking that I knew better
than him. In Iact, he has better knowledge than me." Siibawayh's example set the trend
Ior all subsequent generations oI grammarians, who believed that their main task was to


IV

provide an explanation Ior every single phenomenon in Arabic. Consequently, they
distinguished between what was transmitted and what was theoretically possible in
language. In principle, they accepted everything Irom reliable resources, which included
the language oI the Qur'an, pre-Islamic poetry, and testimonies Irom trustworthy Bedouin
inIormants. AIter the period oI the Islamic conquests, the sedentary population oI Mekka
and Medina began to regard the Iree-roaming Bedouin, whose language preserved the
purity oI the pre-Islamic times, as the ideal type oI Arab, and the term `
'Language oI the Arabs' came to denote the pure, unaIIected language oI the Bedouins.

Versteegh stated that the early beginnings oI grammar and lexicography began at
a time when Bedouin inIormants were still around and could be consulted. There can be
no doubt that the grammarians and lexicographers regarded the Bedouin as the true
speakers oI the Arabic FuSHa, and continued to do so aIter the conquests. In the words oI
Ibn Khalduun, the Bedouin spoke according to their linguistic intuitions and did not need
any grammarian to tell them how to use the declensional endings. There are reports that it
was Iashionable among notable Iamilies to send their sons into the desert, not only learn
how to shoot and hunt, but also to practice speaking pure Arabic. The Prophet
Mohammed was one oI those when he was a small boy. Other reports come Irom
proIessional grammarians who stayed Ior some time with a Bedouin tribe and studied
their speech because it was considered to be more correct than that oI the towns and
cities.

The Arabic linguistic reIerences tell us that the need Ior some "linguistic
authority" came to exist long beIore the time oI Al-Khalil and Siibawayh. There is a vast
amount oI anecdotes concerning the linguistic mistakes made by the non-Arabs who
converted to Islam. It is commonly believed that these anecdotes document a state oI
conIusion and corruption oI the Classical language. According to many resources, the
Well-guided Iourth Caliph, Ali Ibn 'Abi Taalib, the cousin and son-in-law oI the Prophet
Mohammed, was the Iirst to insist that something to be done. One anecdote mentioned
that Ali came to perIorm his pre-dawn prayer at the Mosque oI A-KuuIah. As he went in,
he heard a non-Arab Muslim reading the Quran and that man was assigning the end-words
voweling incorrectly. The verse in question was Irom FaaTir (Chapter #35. Verse # 28):
'~ -'-= - _~= '~
Those truly Iear Allah,
Among His Servants
Who have knowledge

Apparently, that man had the nominative case assigned to what supposed to be the
direct object -, and the accusative case was assigned to the subject '~. Because
the end-word voweling is the maniIestation oI Arabic language grammar, the meaning oI
that verse was completely messed up. That same day Ali handed a note to Abu Al-
'Aswad Al-Du'ali which said that, "Speech is made oI three elements; nouns, verbs, and
particles." Ali asked Al-Du'ali to expand on that deIinition and write the Iirst grammar
rules Ior
V

Arabic. In other words, Ali was asking Ior a "linguistic authority" whose rules should be
enIorced.

According to some historians, Al-Du'ali at Iirst hesitated but was later persuaded
when his own daughter made a terrible mistake in the use oI the declensional endings, by
conIusing the expressions:
'~~ ~= ' / '~~ ~= ' !
How beautiIul is the sky!/What is the most beautiIul thing in the sky?

She was reported to have said:
'~~ ~= ' / '~~ ~= ' !

The origin oI the "dot," notation oI the three short vowels, and the Nunation is
ascribed to 'Abu Al-'Aswad, and the names oI the vowels (FatHa, Dhamma, Kasra) are
connected to their articulations. From that we have the common expression, '-- _-
= _= ! , literally meaning "put the dots on the letters!, i.e., to "be more
clear/speciIic."Two other innovations attributed to 'Abu Al-'Aswad concern the notation
Ior hamza (glottal stop) and Shadda (consonant gemination). Both signs are absent Irom
the Nabataean script.

The Iramework oI the Arab grammarians served exclusively Ior the analysis oI
Arabic and thereIore has a special relevance Ior the study oI the language. From the
period between 750 and 1500 we know the names oI more than 4000 grammarians who
elaborated a comprehensive body oI knowledge on their own language.

Most Arabic grammars Iollow the order established by Siibawayh and start with
syntax =-, Iollowed by morphology ---, with phonology added as an
appendix. Phonology did not count as an independent discipline and was thereIore
relegated to a position at the end oI the treatise, although a considerable body oI phonetic
knowledge was transmitted in introductions to dictionaries and in treaties on recitation oI
the Qur'an, ~=

The grammarians' main preoccupation was the explanation oI the case endings oI
the words in the sentence, called = , a term originally meant the correct use oI
Arabic according to the language oI the Bedouins but came to mean declension.
Kees believes that the works which appeared aIter Al-Khalil and Siibawayh only
contributed either by oIIering commentaries or Iurther explanations. In this context, this
publication is nothing more than an account oI the most common rules non-speakers oI
Arabic will need to reIer to in their quest Ior learning the language. Yet, our additional
aim is to oIIer some suggestions and ideas on how to present these commonly used rules.


VI

These suggestions and ideas are based on recent research in language proIiciency learning
and pedagogy.

Many researchers agree that Iormal classroom instruction oI certain grammatical
structures -that is, morphological inIlections, Iunction words, and syntactic word order-
can be beneIicial to students. The rationale Ior teaching grammar is multiIaceted. First
students are expected to be already literate and thereIore have established expectation
concerning language instruction. Grammar instruction can be beneIicial because oI the
Iact that it raises learners' consciousness concerning the diIIerences and similarities oI L1
and L2. In this respect, grammar instruction can be used as a "linguistic map," with
reIerence points oI "rules oI thumbs" to assist students as they explore the "topography" oI
the new language.

However, we need to remember that grammatical structures by themselves are
rather useless. Like road signs, grammatical structures take on meaning only iI they are
situated in a context and in connected discourse. Furthermore, Krashen (1982) reminds us
that grammatical structures will become internalized only iI the learners are placed in a
situation in which they need to use the structures Ior communicative purposes.
Consequently, an important role oI the teacher is to create
learning situations in which the students Ieel a need to master the grammar in order to
comprehend and communicate in the target language. A detailed pedagogy scheme on
how to teach and learn grammar is provided in a section that Iollows the presentation oI
the rules.


1

1. The Arabic Alphabet.

The Arabic sources, as long as they do not attribute the invention oI the Arabic
script to Adam or Ishmael, tell us that the script had been introduced either Irom South
Arabia region or Irom Mesopotamia (Iraq). Ibn Al-Nadim, Ior example, said that the
people oI Al-Hira, the capital oI the Lakhmid dynasty in the Euphrates valley, used a
Iorm oI Syriac cursive script which had developed into the Arabic alphabet.

Versteegh claims that the theory oI Syriac origin has now been abandoned by
most scholars. It seems much more likely to him that the Arabic alphabet is derived Irom a
type oI cursive Nabataean in Petra, Jordan. In the Aramaic script, Irom which Nabataean
writing ultimately derived, there are no ligatures between letters. But in the cursive Iorms
oI the Nabataean script most oI the Ieatures that characterize the Arabic script already
appear. Versteegh adds that the elaboration oI an Arabic script Ior texts in Arabic took
place as early as the second century CE. This would mean that the development oI the
Arabic script as it is used in pre-Islamic inscriptions occurred largely independently Irom
the later developments in Nabataean epigraphic script. The most important internal
development in Arabic script is the systematic elaboration oI connections between letters
within the word, and the system oI diIIerent Iorms oI the letters according to their position
within the word.

According to Siibawayh, the Arabic Alphabet is made oI 29 letters, including 3
long vowels. He put them in the Iollowing order starting with the laryngeal and ending
with labial, representing the place oI articulation along the vocal tract.




Though Siibawayh listed 29 letters he concluded that in reality there were 35
sounds which are represented by those 29 letters. He explained that the recitation oI the
Quran and reading oI poetry had necessitated the existance oI those 6 additional sounds.
The list included the 'light Nuun' ---= - , the 'medial Hamza' - - ~+
-, 'AliI al-'Imaala ~~~ ' '~ - -` ,'the J-sounded Shiin - -~
-=', the Z-sounded emphatic S' ' - '- , 'the velarized 'AliI'
-=-- - in the language oI Hijaaz in words like, ' `- '-=.

Siibawayh went on to say that he could trace 42 sounds but the additional 7
sounds were not Iavorable in the recitation oI the Quran and reading oI poetry. ThereIore,
they were oI less signiIicance since their use is only limited to oral communication.





Al-Khalil Ibn Ahmed, who died in 791, grouped and put them in the Iollowing order:



The codiIication oI the Qur'an was a crucial moment in the development oI a
written standard Ior the Arabic language. On a practical level, the writing-down oI the
holy text involved all kinds oI decisions concerning the orthography oI the Arabic script
and elaboration oI a number oI conventions to make writing less ambiguous and more
manageable than it had been in pre-Islamic Arabia.

Writing was not unknown in the peninsula in that period. But, Ior religious
reasons, early Islamic sources emphasized the illiteracy oI the Prophet Mohammed. The
Prophet was , someone who could not read nor write, and this was what made the
revelation oI the Qur'an and his recitation oI the text a miracle.

There are clear indications that as early as the sixth century writing was Iairly
common in the urban centers oI the peninsula, in Mekka and to a lesser degree in
Medina. In the commercial society that was Mekka, businessmen must have had at their
disposal various means oI recording their transactions. There are reIerences to treaties
being written down and preserved in the Ka'ba in Mekka. Even the , the
transmitters oI poetry, sometimes relied on written notes, although they recited the poems
entrusted to them orally. In the Qur'an, we Iind reIlection oI a society in which writing
Ior commercial purposes was well established. In the second sura we Iind, Ior instance,
detailed stipulations on the settlement oI debts that include the exact writing-down oI the
terms.

In the biography oI the Prophet, there are many reIerences to his using scribes Ior
his correspondence with Arab tribes and oI writing treaties. In the accounts preserved by
the historians, scribes and witnesses were mentioned and the Prophet signed those
documents with his Iingernail. Tradition has preserved the names oI several scribes to
whom Mohammed dictated messages, chieI among them being Zayd Ibn Thabit.

Just as Christian monks oI the Middle Ages spent liIetimes writing and
illuminating religious manuscripts, their Arab and Muslim Iorebears contemporaries
devoted their lives to producing elegantly handwritten copies oI the Quran. In lieu oI
pictorial representation, which was Irowned upon, calligraphy became not only practical,
but decorative, replacing design, painting and sculpture over a period oI centuries. Later
every caliph's court employed these artists to draw up oIIicial documents, design oIIicial
signatures and write out diplomatic correspondence.

The Arabs and Muslims oI that time used interlaced geometric lines derivations
Irom the KuIic style to adorn the walls oI palaces and mosques, and the name oI this
style, arabesque, is a reminder oI its cultural origins. Arabic calligraphy Iorms a primary
ornamentation oI the Moorish palace oI Alhambra in Granada, other citadels and


mosques oI Moorish Spain speak eloquently oI the golden ages oI arabesque design and
calligraphy.

The tracery and Ilowing patterns oI the arabesque style, oI calligraphy itselI,
imply a deeper, symbolic meaning stemming Irom ancient mystic belieIs. The designs
endlessly reproducing themselves in apparently conIused entanglements, but in reality
Ilowing an ingenious system, are interpreted as symbolic oI the order oI nature which in
perpetual change always repeats its cycles. The meanders are said to represent the
continuity oI liIe, the circle is held to stand Ior eternity and the rosettes and palmettos oI
design Ior birth and maturity.

Calligraphers today play an integral role in the Arab and Muslim Worlds. They
not only copy Quranic verses and design phrases to be incorporated into building tiles
and mosques , but they write nearly all newspaper and magazine headlines. Modern
Arabic lends itselI to the art, with its Iluid design and diacritical markings.


. The Arabic Consonatial System includes equal numbers oI voiced versus
voiceless, two nasals, three velarised, two lateral and one trill. Please note the
Iollowing diagram:
Obstruents Sonorants (all voiced)
Unvelarized Velarized

Voiceless voiced voiceless voiced nasal lateral trill

labial
labio-dental
interdental
dento-alve. / / /
palatal
velar
uvular /
Pharyngal
Laryngeal /






4


3. One Direction Connectors. OI the 29 letters that make the Arabic Alphabet only six
connect to the proceeding letter. These include two long vowels and , and Iour
consonants; . The rest connect to both sides.

4. Emphatic Consonants are a Semitic languages phenomenon. In Arabic there are Iour
which include . These consonants are articulated by a process oI
velarization: the tip oI the tongue is lowered, the root oI the tongue is raised towards the
soIt palate (velum), and in the process the timbre oI the neighboring vowels is shiIted
towards a posterior realization.

5. Short Vowels in Arabic

The notation oI the short vowels was a complicated problem. Abu Al-Aswad Al-
Du'ali is credited with introduction oI the system oI colored dots in the writing
system, and the terminology, "FatHa - , Dhamma - , Kasra - .". But, a substantial
improvement in the system oI short vowels notation is usually attributed to the Iirst
lexicographer oI the Arabic language, Al-Khalil Ibn Ahmed. He replaced the colored
dots with speciIic shapes Ior the short vowels and the Shadda. With Al-Khalil's
reIorm, the system oI Arabic orthography was almost the same ever since.

When used at the end oI a deIinite noun or adjective they indicate case.

(a) - indicates Nominative case as in '-

(b) - indicates Accusative case as in '-

(c) - indicates Genitive case as in '-

As you might have noticed, Siibawaih did not include the short vowels. Neither did he
talk about the diphthongs which are created every time you have a short vowel
proceeding the long vowels and as in --

6. Nunation. When a noun or an adjective is indeIinite it carries Nunation, which is
any oI the short vowels plus /n/ sound.

(a) - indicates Nominative case as in -~ '
(b) - indicates Accusative case as in '-~
(c) - indicates Genitive case as in '-~
`

Please notice that the accusative Nunation - is always written on ( ) as in '--. An
exception to that is when the Iinal consonant is either the Ieminine marker, Taa'
MarbuTa -'=, or Hamza, '~~

7. The Shadda is used when you have two identical consonants in a sequence,
providing that the Iirst has a Sukuun (zero vowel).

is written as

8. The Sun Letters. Due to a Phonological rule, the // sound oI the deIinite article is
assimilated by any oI the Iollowing sun consonants. ThereIore, you need to use
Shadda to replace the assimilated //. The Sun Letters are:

~

9. The Moon Letters have the deIinite article Iully pronounced. They are:

'-

10. Arabic Syntax. According to Siibawayh words are noun ~ , verb . , or
particle = intended Ior items which are neither noun nor verb. The basic
diIIerence between the three parts is the declension, =` .In principle, only
nouns and their adjectives have case endings to indicate their syntactic Iunction in a
sentence. This classiIication remained intact throughout the history oI the Arabic
grammatical traditions. The noun category was deIined either as a word with certain
syntactic characteristics such as its combinability with the deIinite article or as a word
denoting an essence. Unlike the deIinition oI the noun in Western grammar, the Arabic
noun category includes adjectives, pronouns and even a number oI prepositions and
adverbs. The category oI the verb was deIined as a word that denotes an action and
could be combined with some particles. The particle category includes the remaining
words, and their Iunction is to assist other words in their semantic Iunction in the
sentence.

11. The Definite Article in Arabic. A noun or adjective is made deIinite by preIixing
() to it.
a. an old house ~ --
b. the old house ~ ---





12. The Arabic Morphology. At a very early date, the Arab grammarians invented a
notation Ior the morphological patterns --- , which represented the three root
radicals . For those grammarians, the task oI morphology was the breakdown oI words
into radical and auxiliary consonants ~-. The grammarians set up methods to identiIy
the radicals, oI which the most important was '--~` , the comparison oI the Iorm
under scrutiny with morphologically-related words with the same semantic content. In line
with the idea oI the purity oI the language, the semantic extension oI an existing word was
regarded as the most appropriate device Ior expansion oI the lexicon. The model Ior this
procedure was believed to have been given by the language oI the Qur'an itselI. Semantic
extension became an accepted method oI creating new terminology.

13. The Feminine Marker. As in many other languages, any Arabic noun/adjective
has to be either masculine or Ieminine. With Iew exceptions, the general rule is to
suIIix the Taa' MarbuTa ( / ) to the masculine noun/adjective Iorms to derive the
Ieminine ones. Examples are:

nouns '-~ / '-~ .~ / ~ -'= / -'=
adjectives ~ / ~~ .-~= / -~= ~~= / ~~=

However, you need to remember that the Taa' Marbuta ( / ) is used in certain
ancient Arabic male proper names such as:
== ' ~=
Also, it is used on some broken plural patterns such as:
(giant ) `~= / -'~= (proIessor/s) '-~ / '-~

14. The Personal pronouns are used to replace nouns. The Iollowing is a list oI the
singular (1-5) and plural Iorms (6-10):
. = 6 . ' 1
. - 7 . - 2
. - . - 3
. 9 . 4
. . 5

15. All countries, towns, villages, etc. are treated as Ieminine. The exceptions to this
rule are six Arab countries. These are:

- , '-- , ~ , , ` , ~




16. Definiteness in Arabic. As you might have noticed in the phrases in point #11
above, adjectives in Arabic usually Iollow nouns and agree with them in terms oI
number, gender, case, and deIiniteness/indeIiniteness.
a. small book - '-

b. the small book - '-

II an adjective completely agrees with its noun in every aspect, then you have a
phrase, as in examples (a) and (b) below. However, iI a noun (subject) is deIinite and
its adjective (predicate) is indeIinite you have a sentence, as in (c).

(a) a new house ~~= --

(b) the new house --- ~~=

(c) The house is new ~~= ---

17. The Nisba is an adjective that is created Irom a noun. The most common are those
that reIer to origin, nationality or country. The main device Ior making such adjectives
Irom nouns is to suIIix ( ) Ior masculine and ( ) Ior Ieminine to the noun. The
noun must be Iirst stripped oII (a) the deIinite article, (b) Ieminine suIIix, or (c) Iinal
position long vowel.

a. -= = ()

b. ~ ~ (~)

c. ~ ~ ('~)

18. Long vowel to a Diphthong. II any oI the two long vowel , is proceeded by
the short vowel , the long vowel changes its character to a diphthong:

uu ---~ ou
ii ---~ ei

19. The Possessive pronouns are suIIixed to nouns to express possession and,
consequently, make them deIinite.



my house, your (I) house, our house -- -- = '- --

The Iollowing is a list oI the personal pronouns (singular 1-5 and plural 6-10), and
their corresponding possessive ones:

. '- = . '
. = - . -
. = - . -
. . +
. '+ . +

20. Sentences in Arabic. The closest equivalent in Arabic grammar to the Western
notion oI a 'sentence' is ~= , a syntactically complete string oI words that expresses
a semantically complete message. In a sentence, there is always one head word that
relays or determines the sentential Iunctions resulting in markers in the Iorm oI case
endings. According to the Western analysis oI Arabic sentence structure , there are
two
types oI sentence: nominal and verbal. The Arab Grammarians diIIer and suggest three
types.

(a) -- ~= The verbal sentence is the basic sentence. Its order is (object)<--
- subject <--- verb. In this type oI sentence, a verb is marked by the gender oI its
subject.

(b) -~~` ~= The Nominal Sentence is where the subject takes an initial
position Ior emphatic purposes, Iollowed by the verb, (object)<--- verb <--- subject.
Consequently, the verb is marked by the number and gender oI its subject.

(c) -= ~--~ ~= The Equational Sentence is made oI a subject and a
predicate without any expressed verb. The verb "to be" is understood, predicate<---
subject. Both the subject and the predicate have to be in the nominative case.

21. The Vocative Particle ' is limited Ior use with people only. The noun it is used
with becomes deIinite, and thereIore would carry a short vowel, not Nunation.

'-~ ' ! O, proIessor!






22. Idaafa '-` . The IdaaIa structure is usually made oI two or more nouns that
are semantically related and in a sequence. Sometimes it sounds like a sort oI
"possessive" relationship, where English could use "oI" or "'s" .The Iirst term oI the
IdaaIa might be in any case and should not take Nunation or a deIinite article. The
Second term oI the IdaaIa, on the other hand, is always in the genitive case and may
take Nunation or a deIinite article.

the language proIessor:
'-~ '-~ '-~
a language proIessor:

'-~ '-~ '-~

If you encounter a cluster of nouns, then you should try to find out if it is an Idaafa
structure.

23. The Simple Idaafa is made oI two nouns. The Complex IdaaIa is made oI 3 or
more. As expected, such sequences will create a Syntactical Environment where some
nouns will play double grammatical Iunctions.
a. the university building '= '-
b. the door oI the university building '= '- '

24. The Diptotes is a category oI proper names oI individuals, countries, cities, and
towns. These nouns share the Iollowing characteristics:

a. They do not take the deIinite article.

b. In spite oI the absence oI the deIinite article, they do not take Nunation.

c. In the genitive case they take the accusative case marker instead.

a. Omer's hobbies ~= '
b. Irom Baghdad ~

25. Demonstrative Pronouns. The use oI "this/that & these/those" in Arabic is
determined by the number and gender oI the noun/adjective they introduce.

a. Singulars are (I) -~ (I) ~ = =

b. Plurals are - ` = (no gender distinction)



26. The Equational Sentences. As indicated earlier, an equational sentence in Arabic
is a sentence without a verb. It consists oI two parts, a subject and a predicate. The
subject could be (a) a demonstrative pronoun, (b) a personal pronoun, or (c) a noun,
while the predicate may be either oI these, as well as (c) an adjective, (d) an adverb, or
(e) a prepositional phrase.

(a) a subject demonstrative pronoun . - -~
(b) a subject personal pronoun . ~~= '
(c) a subject noun . -- '-~`
(a) a predicate personal pronoun .' '-~`
(b) a predicate noun . ~~= '-~`
(c) a predicate indeIinite adjective . ~~= '-~`
(d) a predicate adverb . '- '-~`
(e) a predicate prep. phrase . --~ '-~`

A pronoun of separation could be added in example (b) above, where both the subject
and the predicate are nouns.
. ~~= '-~`

27. Interrogative Particles. / . are interrogative particles which are used to
introduce questions that may be answered with either Yes or No.
-- ~ .
Is this an oIIice?

There is some phonological restriction on the use oI when the Iollowing word starts
with a Hamza, such as:
'- ~~= -
It is better, in Iact easier phonetically, to use .

'- ~~= - .

28. Indefinite Noun Subject. You cannot start a sentence in Arabic with an indeIinite
noun subject. Under such circumstances, the subject needs to be moved inside the
sentence and, thereIore, will take the predicate position, not its syntactical Iunction.
'- '-'= -- .
There are Egyptian students (I) in the classroom.



29. Negating Equational Sentences. This type oI Arabic sentence is negated by using
- . Remember that the predicate noun or adjective has to be in the accuasative
case.

The proIessor is not Egyptian. ' - '-~` - .

30. The Subject markers Ior verbs in the past tense are suIIixed to the verb stem in
order to demonstrate subject/verb agreement.
They are:
) - ( ) - ( - ) - ( - ) - ( ' ) - (

) ( ) - ( - ) - ( - ) - ( = ) '- (

31. The Different Forms of - . When subject pronouns are attached to -, it
will take the Iollowing Iorms:
'-~ = -~ '
-~ - -~ -
-~ - - -~
- ~-
- ~- ~
32. Interrogative Particles / . (revisited). The Arabic language does not
tolerate the use oI . with any Iorm oI - in order to make a question. You
have to stick with .
--~ -'= -
Isn't the student (m) in the library?

33. The Idaafa (revisited). Arabic grammar does not allow anything to be placed
between the Iirst and second term oI IdaaIa except Ior a demonstrative pronoun.
ThereIore,
(a) the students book -'= '-
is correct and
(b) this students book -'= -~ '-
is also correct. But,
(c) -'= '+ '-


is incorrect due to the Iact that the possessive pronoun ( '+ ) is inserted between
the Iirst and second terms oI IdaaIa.

34. Verb-Subject Agreement. A verb that proceeds its subject is marked by gender
only. II it Iollows its subject it should be marked by both number and gender.

The students (I) went to the dorm. ~ _ '-'= -- .
The students (I) went to the dorm. ~ _ - '-'= .

35. A Transitive Verb (a) requires an object; intransitive (b) does not.
a. I ate an apple. ='- - .
b. I went to the university. '= _ -- .

36. Helping Vowels replace the Zero Vowel when the Iollowing word starts with
Hamza. ThereIore, an environment Ior using a helping vowel will be created every
time one uses a deIinite article. The purpose oI this Phonological Rule is to provide a
smooth transition Irom one word to the next. Generally speaking, this transition is
governed by the Iollowing rules.

a. II the proceeding vowel is FatHa the helping vowel is Kasra.

Is the book new? ) . ( ~~= '- .

b. II the proceeding vowel is Kasra, the helping vowel is FatHa.

This pencil is Irom the oIIice. - -~ . - ~ ) (

c. II the proceeding vowel is Dhamma, the helping vowel is Dhamma.

'~ ) - ' ( ~~ - '
Why did you (m, pl) meet the director (I)?

37. Object Pronouns. You remember what was mentioned earlier that possessive
pronouns are suIIixed to nouns. Now, I would like to remind you that object pronouns
are suIIixed to the verbs. Please, notice the diIIerence oI the pronouns in the Iollowing
sentences:
a. (Possessive Pronoun) '= _= '+ '- .
b. (Object Pronoun) ~ '+ ~'~ .



38. The word ' has diIIerent meanings, depending on the context. It could mean
"what," and in this case you are expected to have a demonstarative pronoun or a
deIinite noun Iollowing it.
What is this? ~ '
What is his job? ~= '
When the question word ' is Iollowed by a verb in the past tense, it changes its own
Iunction to a negation particle.
I did not eat at this restaurant. =~ ~ - ' .

39. The Cluster Buster. Generally speaking, Arabic does not tolerate three or more
consonant clusters. The common practice to deal with such a phonological
environment is to insert a short or long vowel in between. We mentioned earlier the
use oI the short helping vowel. A good example Ior the use oI a long vowel is when
we have an attached object pronoun Ior transitive verbs which have - as a subject.
Notice the use oI the long vowel ( ) to break the cluster in the Iollowing sentences:

~ '~ ~'~ .
You (mp) saw her in the market.

_+-~ '~ -' .
You (mp) met us in the caIe.

- -~ -~= .
You (mp) taught him Arabic.

40. Negation of Past Tense Verbs. There are two methods to negate the verbs in past
tense. The easy way is by using ' beIore the verb. The other is to use the negation
particle Iollowed by the jussive Iorm oI the verb.

We didnt watch/see this movie. '~ ' - ~ '~ .
~ '~ - ~ .

41. '- / '- are nouns that can also be used as adverbs.

(a) There is a student (I) in the classroom. '- -- -'= .
(b) The new book is here. - '- ~~= ' .



42. . is a noun that will be a Iirst term oI IdaaIa and could mean "every/each" iI it is
Iollowed by a singular indeIinite noun. II the singular noun is deIinite, . would mean
"all/whole". II it is used aIter a noun, then it should carry its corresponding pronoun suIIix
and its Iunction becomes emphatic.
a. I read every book! '- . .

b. I read the whole book. '- . .

c. I read the book, all oI it. '-

However, iI . is Iollowed by a plural noun, that noun should be deIinite and both
create IdaaIa. Check the Iollowing sentences:

--=~ . -=
All the employees (m) came.

-= . -= --~ .
All the oIIice employees (m) came.

43. The conjunction ( ) changes to ( ) when the sentence is negated.
I like coIIee and tea. '~ +- - = .
Neither do I like coIIee nor tea '~ +- - = ` . .

44. Definiteness in Arabic (Revisited). You should know by
now that a noun or an adjective in Arabic is made deIinite by one oI the Iollowing
methods:
a. a deIinite article
b. Iollowing the vocative particle
c. a possessive pronoun
d. by relating it to a deIinite noun in IdaaIa structure

45. Emphasis/Contrast. Since verb Iorm indicates the person,
gender, and number oI the subject any use oI a subject pronoun is considered
redundant. II, however, you want to emphasize or contrast two objects Arabic allows
you to use the subject pronoun in such a linguistic environment.

=~ _ - --~ _ -- ' .
I went to the library and they went to the restaurant.
`

46. The Defacto Case of the Noun and Adjective in Arabic is Nominative. A noun
case is changed to accusative iI it becomes an object oI a verb (There are other cases
where a noun should carry the accusative case marker. Check Kaana & Inna points). A
noun is said to be in the genitive case iI it Iollows a preposition
or it is a second term oI IdaaIa. No matter what is the case oI the noun, the adjective
will Iollow, marked by the same case.

The Egyptian man is in his house. - - - ~ . = .

I saw the Egyptian man. -~ . = ~'~ .

I said hello to the Egyptian man. -~ . = _= -~ ~ .

47. '~ (why) has to be Iollowed by a verb because it asks about action/activity (verbs
usually express those).

Why did you (m) go back to the room? _ -= '~

48. When it means how many, has to be Iollowed by an indeIinite noun, in the
accusative case. Unlike English, it has to be singular. Arab grammarians call it a
particle oI "The Accusative oI Distinction," or --~ .

How many students are there in the class? -- '- '=

49. Numbers that proceed nouns should take the opposite gender
oI those nouns. Furthermore, they should carry the marker that is determined by their
grammatical Iunction in the sentence. The noun itselI has to be in the genitive case
because this combination will create an IdaaIa.

a. I met Iive students (I). '-'= ~ -' .

b. Five students (m) came. `= ~~ . -=

50. Plurals. There are three types oI plural in Arabic:

a. The Masculine Sound plural is created by ( ) suIIixed to the noun in
the nominative case, and ( ) in both genitive and accusative cases.
teachers (m) ~ -~ ~ -~ ~ ~




b. The Feminine sound plural is created by dropping the Taa MarbuuTa and
replacing it with ( ) Ior the nominative case and ( ) Ior the
accusative & genitive cases.
teachers '~ ~ '~ ~ '~ ~
c. The Broken plural is an irregular Iorm. Even though several nouns may
exhibit the same "broken" pattern, one has to learn the words individually.

dog(s), cat(s) - / = ` / ==

51. Numbers (Revisited). It was mentioned earlier that numbers that proceed nouns
should take the opposite gender oI those nouns. An additional rule which you need to
consider is that unlike English, the noun has to be in plural only between 3-10. AIter
that the noun has to be singular in the accusative case. This is another example oI
--~ "accusative oI distinction."

. '~ ~ = ~~ --~
I bought IiIteen pencils.

52. / both mean which (as a question word). The Iirst is used Ior masculine
while the second is used Ior Ieminine. The noun which Iollows either one oI them has to
be in the genitive case. The implication is that the two nouns create IdaaIa. Please notice
that / carry the vowel oI the original case oI the noun you ask about.

-~ =
a. Which magazine (subject-nominative) is this?


~'~ -'=
b. Which student (m) (object-accusative) did you (I) see?

'~ -~ _
c. To which city (object of a prep.-genitive) did you travel?

53. Verb Object Pronouns. We mentioned earlier that object pronouns are suIIixed to
the transitive verbs.
. '=- == ' ~'~
He saw her at the train station.

54. Object Pronouns of Prepositions. The object pronouns Ior transitive verbs are the
same Ior the intransitive verbs which take prepositions. An exception to this is the object
pronoun Ior the Iirst person, ' , which becomes () Ior some prepositions.
- - ~ _ .
She went with me to the market.

Please remember that the object pronouns in such linguistic environment are attached
to prepositions, not the verbs.

The list oI verb and preposition object pronouns suIIixes includes the Iollowing:
Object Subject Independent

. ' - - ) / (

. - - =
. - - =
. -
` . - '+
. '- '- =
. - -
. - -
. +
. +






55. Prepositions which end with AliI MaQsura, (,) will reclaim their original ( ) Iorm
when any object pronoun is attached to them. Check the Iollowing example:

'=- == ' ~'~ '~-= '+-= ~ .
He greeted her when he saw her at the train station.

56. Feminine Sound Plurals take the genitive marker Ior the accusative case.

~- -- '-'= '~'~ .
We saw the students (I) at the post oIIice.

57. The Roots. Most Arabic words can be attributed to some 3-letter root, where
radicals are reIerred to by means oI a prototypical root, . . stands Ior the Iirst
radical, Ior the second, and Ior the third. This 3-letter root Iorm is the entry you
need to use when you want to check out any word in any Arabic dictionary. You
should know by now how to dissect words in order to get to that root. Mainly, you
need to drop oII any gender and number markers oI the noun/adjective. In case oI the
verbs, you need to drop oII any subject, tense, and mood markers.

58. The Verb Form Numbers system is quite old, going back to the earliest European
Arabic grammars such as that oI Guillaume Postal, Paris, ca. 1538 and Pedro de
Alcala' ca. 1613. Their order oI numbering is the same as that which we are Iamiliar
with today. Another grammar was published in Rome ca. 1622 which uses the
numbering system but has Iorms II and IV switched. Erpenius' grammar was only
superseded in 1810 by the grammar oI De Sacy, who used the same system which has
been in vogue ever since. Incidentally, the numbering system was also used in older
grammars oI Hebrew, but seems to have Iallen out oI usage.

The system, an extremely useIul mnemonic device is not entirely unrelated to the
traditional work oI , Ior it Iollows the order oI =~ and ~~ . The use
oI numbering, however, is the Latin, European innovation which might have been a
claque on some aspect oI the study oI Latin grammar. At the very least, it is well
known that Latin grammar traditionally numbers the diIIerent classes oI conjugation.
De Sacy is careIul to make clear in his presentation the verb Iorms that they Iall into
groups oI
= `-` ~~ -= ~~ = ~~







Most verbs in Arabic can be classiIied into ten Iorms. These Iorms are:

. . . . ='- . ~
. . . . - - -
. . =' ~ '~ . . - _ -
. . . - . . ~=
` . . - ~ = . ~= -~ . - -~

Furthermore, each transitive pattern has an automatic passive counterpart where the stem
short vowel Ftha and Kasra are replaced by Dhamma and Kasra.

To learn more about these forms, please check the computer program ARAFORM. You
will find it and other programs at the following website:
www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/mjiyad/


59. The Phonological Environment for Form VIII Verb. The
characteristic Ieature oI Form VIII is the reIlexive aIIix / - / which is inserted aIter
the Iirst radical oI the root. That / - / will create the environment Ior a phonological
rule oI assimilation that applies itselI iI the Iirst radical is a dental stop or Iricative.
The result is that the inserted / - / is assimilated. Involved here are the Iollowing
consonants:


Compare the Iollowing examples:


(a) a Iully pronounced / - / _ ~ -= _ ~ =

(b) a Iully assimilated / - / - '= - _=

Luckily, Arabic does not have many verbs oI this type. However, you need to
remember the three Iollowing related phonological rules:

(1). AIter the emphatic consonants the inserted / - / becomes
emphatic , as in ~ ~=




(2). AIter the Iricatives there is a complete assimilation and the
resultant double consonant is written with Shadda, as in = =

(3). II the Iirst radical oI the verb is ( ) as in . , the ( ) will be
completely assimilated by the inserted / - /, and thus the use oI the Shadda
would be required. Consider the Iollowing example:
. . -

60. Non-human Plurals are treated as Ieminine singular in terms

oI adjective, pronoun, and subject-verb agreement.

~~= ' -~ . '- -~= .
The cars are new. They are pretty, too.

61. Multiples of 10 do not show gender distinction. Consider the Iollowing
sentence:
'~ ~= --- ''- ~= .
I wrote twenty letters and I read twenty books.

62. The Conjunction is usually Iollowed by a noun or a pronoun suIIix in the
accusative case. On the other hand, tolerates the use oI verbs aIter it. Both are
used to make compound sentences and mean "but."

` +- -= --= - = .

I dont like coIIee but I like milk.

_'- .= - .-~= .

The program is beautiIul but it is long.

63. The Singular Subject and its mood markers Ior verbs in the present tense are
preIixed and suIIixed to the verb stem. This is necessary to demonstrate subject/verb
agreement. These singular markers are:







- - '

Subject markers . .. -
Mood markers - - - -
64. The Plural Subject and mood markers. It was mentioned above that Ior verbs in
the present tense subject and mood markers are preIixed and suIIixed to the verb stem
in order to demonstrate subject/verb agreement. The same is true with plural markers,
which are:
- - =

Subject marker .. ... .. ...

Mood markers none none -

65. The Present Tense of the Arabic verb requires that you preIix the subject marker
and suIIix the mood marker to the stem oI the verb. However, this is not as easy as it
sounds, especially Ior Form I. The vowels you need to add are going to be a little bit
challenging. Note the Iollowing paradigm.

. . - - . - - - ~
. . - . - _ = - _ =
. . - . - - - - - -
. . - ~ . - - ~
. . - . - - ~
. . =' - . ='- ~ '~ - ~ '~
. . - . - . - - . --
` . . - - ~ = . - - - ~ = -
. . ='- - . '- . ='- - - . '- -
. . - - . -- - - --
. . - - -- . ~ ~ -= - ~ ~ -
. . - . - ~= - ~=
. . - -~ - . - -~ ~= -~ ~= -~




66. The Moods. The Present tense verb in Arabic has three moods.
1. Indicative is the regular present tense verb.

-~ -~ - ~ .
My sister lives in this apartment.

2. Subjunctive is used when there is doubt, Iear, hope, purpose, obligation,
negated Iuture, etc.

-~ -~ - ~ .

My sister will not live in this apartment.

3. Jussive is used in negating the past tense with the particle

~ -~ -~ - .
My sister did not live in this apartment.

67. Vowels of the Present Tense Verb. There are three important vowels you need to
take note oI when you conjugate any Arabic verb Irom past tense to the present tense.
These include:

1. The Subject marker vowel, which is the Iirst vowel oI the verb;
2. The Stem Vowel, which is the vowel that goes on the second
radical/consonant oI the root;
3. The Mood Marker Vowel, which is the last vowel oI the verb.

The Iollowing is a chart oI these various vowels Ior the ten Iorms oI the Arabic verb
system:
Form Indicative Mood Stem Subject

I Dhamma unpredictable Fatha
II Dhamma Kasra Dhamma
III Dhamma Kasra Dhamma
IV Dhamma Kasra Dhamma
V Dhamma Fatha Fatha
VI Dhamma Fatha Fatha
VII Dhamma Kasra Fatha
VIII Dhamma Kasra Fatha
IX Dhamma Fatha Fatha
X Dhamma Kasra Fatha


68. -= _ means "until" when it is Iollowed by a verb in the past tense. When it is
Iollowed by a verb in the present tense it will express purpose and, thereIore, means
"in order to/so that." In that case, the verb should be in the subjunctive mood.

(a) -= _ -= '- ~ --'= .
(b) '- ~ _ -= '- _ - - - .

69. Negation of Present and Future Tense Verbs.
Verbs in the present tense are negated by `. Verbs which express Iuture tense are
negated by aIter dropping the Iuture marker preIix ( ~ ). Please remember that
the verb has to be changed to the Subjunctive Mood.

a. We dont watch/see this movie. - ~ ~ '~ ` .
b. We will not watch/see this movie. ~ - ~ ~ ' .

70. The Sick Verbs -~ '` . Any verb that has a long vowel as one oI the
three radicals in its root is called a sick verb. These long vowels will go through a
change when the verb is used in the present tense. Consequently, there are three types.
a. Assimilated, iI the Iirst radical oI the verb is a long vowel such as:
. / . - to arrive.

b. Hollow, when the second radical position is occupied by a long vowel such
as:
'~ / -~ to walk.

c. Defective, when the third radical position is occupied by a long vowel such
as:
'= / =~ to invite.
To check how these irregular verbs are conjugated to the various
pronouns for both present & past tenses, please
check the computer program at the website address given earlier.

71. . are nouns and when used beIore another noun they create an IdaaIa
(a). II, however, they are used aIter a noun, they will be emphatic Ior that proceeding
noun, and will carry its case and its identical pronoun reIerence (b).

a. ~ .~ = . '-~ .
b. '+ ~ . ~ = '-~ / .



72. The Plural Vocatives '+ and . '+ - You have already been introduced to
the vocative ' , which is used with singular nouns and, thereIore, could be Iollowed
by a proper noun, a title, or an IdaaIa, regardless oI the gender.

-~~ ' ! '-~ ' ! - -~ ~ ' !

The plural Iorms show gender distinction and, thereIore, Arabic has '+ Ior the
masculine and '+ - Ior the Ieminine. The plural vocative should be Iollowed by a
noun with the deIinite article in the nominative case.

`= '+ ! '-'= '+ - !

73. It was mentioned earlier that the Masculine Sound Plural (MSP) is Iormed by
suIIixing ( ) Ior the nominative case, and ( - ) Ior the accusative and genitive
cases, to the singular Iorm oI the noun.

- = - = / -- =

The Iinal ( ) oI this kind oI plural is dropped when such a noun takes the position oI a
Iirst term oI IdaaIa. This rule applies regardless oI the case oI the noun, whether it is
nominative, accusative, or genitive.
'= - = / '= - =
the university employees (N and A & G)

74. Negation of the Future Tense (Revisited). When the Iuture verb is marked by (
~ ) the negation particle that is used should be Iollowed by the verb in the
subjunctive mood.

- _ - -- becomes '~ - _ - --

II the Iuture tense is marked by ~ then such a construction may be made
negative by placing ` beIore the imperIect indicative verb.
--- _ - ` ~ becomes -- - _ - ~


`

75. Verbs with Two Objects. Among verbs that take two objects is a group that
means "to give/to grant." Consider the Iollowing example:

~ '+ -- ~ -== .
The woman gave her daughter a present.

The direct object is ~ and the indirect object is '+ --

76. The Semi-Diptotes is another category that includes colors, the elative patterns oI
adjectives and some broken plural patterns. They behave like Diptotes and, thereIore,
they do not take Nunation and they take the accusative marker Ior the genitive case.
The ruler is on a green book. . - '- _= =~ ~

They (m) study in private schools. . ' ~ ~ ~

I talked to a girl who was taller than her sister..'+ - = -- _ -~

However, they can take the deIinite article. When they do, they behave like regular
nouns or adjectives.

'- _= =~ ~ -` .
~ ~ ~ '= ~ .
. ` --- _ -~ '+ - =

77. ' & her Sisters ( - ' .= ' - _-), which
usually go with equational sentences, leave the subject in its nominative case but
change the inIlected predicate to the accusative case.

The Iood was delicious. ~~ .` ' .

The Iood is not delicious. - ~~ .` .

You know that equational sentences reIer to present time. The equivalent in past time
is expressed by using the verb ' .

78. Nouns are said to be in Apposition ~ - to another noun when you can drop oII
any oI them without aIIecting the semantics oI the sentence. Grammatically and
logically speaking, both oI the nouns should carry the same case marker.


' --= `'= ~ = .
The Caliph Omar was Iair.

79. The Moody Present Tense. Present tense verbs are said to be in the Indicative
Mood. However, verbs which express hope, desire, purpose, like, dislike, doubt, Iear,
uncertainty, obligations, etc., change their mood Irom the regular Indicative to the
Subjunctive. That also requires that they should Iollow one oI the Subjunctive
particles, such as . `- _ -= Note the purpose
expressed in the Iollowing sentence:

'- ` --~ _ -- .
I went to the library so that I would study there.

80. In the Subjunctive Mood oI the Arabic verb, the Iinal ( ) oI the third person
masculine plural is dropped and replaced by a silent ( ) .
they (m) go -~
in order Ior them (m) to go -~-
In addition to ( ), other particles oI subjunctivity which express purpose/intention and,
thus, mean in order to, so that. include _ -=.
. '- ~~- - _ '~
They (m) traveled to Egypt in order to study there.
The original form of the underlined verb is ( ~~)

Please note that the Iinal ( ) oI the second person Ieminine singular should also be
dropped, but without replacement with silent ( ).
you (I.s.) study -~ ~
so that you (I.s.) study ~ ~
. '- ~ ~ - _ '~
You (I.s.) traveled to Egypt in order to study there.
The original form of the underlined verb is ( -~ ~ )





81. The most common subjunctive particle in Arabic is probably , which usually
sits between two verbs reIerring to the same or a diIIerent person, and thus,
Iunctioning something like the inIinitive in English. II you examine the sentence
careIully, you will notice that introduces a subordinate clause which Iunctions as
an object Ior the main verb.
-~ _ - ~ .
I want to go to the bank.

82. It has been mentioned earlier that ' can be used as a question word and as a
negation particle Ior the verb in past tense. In addition, it can be used to be as a part oI
a nominalizer as in:

-- - ~ ~ '~-= -' .
I met him when he lived in this house.

83. The Nominalizer & her Sisters ( ` ' . ) change
the subject nominative case marker to the accusative but they leave the predicate in its
nominative case. By the way, / are called "Nominalizers" because they
introduce nominal sentences.

~~ .` .
In Iact, the Iood is delicious.

-' ~~ .` - .
My sister said that the Iood was delicious.

~~ .` .
... but the Iood was delicious.

is only used in the initial position oI a sentence, and Iollowing any Iorm oI '.
Anywhere else you have to use . Its meaning, thereIore, changes Irom "indeed/in
Iact" to "that". Remember that all these particles should be Iollowed by nouns or
attached pronoun suIIixes. Also notice that and her sisters should be Iollowed by
the subject or its corresponding attached pronoun.





84. Adjectives. We learned earlier that adjectives in Arabic are usually placed aIter
the noun they modiIy, and thereIore, they agree in terms oI number, gender,
deIiniteness/indeIiniteness, and case with that noun. The comparative and superlative
degrees oI the adjectives are Iormulated Iollowing the pattern |AIalu| ( . ).
They should be treated as Diptotes (no Nunation & accusative marker Ior genitive
case).

ThereIore, - --------~
and .-~ = --------~ .~=
a. With comparative adjectives, you need to use the preposition ( ) to
compare the two nouns, as in:
My house is smaller than hers. '+ -- --
b. In superlative, the most common method is to place the adjective beIore the
noun, as in:
-- - -- .
My house is the smallest (house) in the village

Please remember that the comparative and superlative forms of adjectives are gender
blind. Therefore, can be used for feminine and masculine nouns as well.

85. ' & her Sisters (Revisited). We said earlier that ' & her Sisters are used
with equational sentences. However, they can tolerate the use oI verbs aIter them. That
verb has to be in the present indicative Iorm, as in:

- ' - - .~ '+ .
She was working in her oIIice.


II the subject is expressed, it should be placed between ' & her sisters and the
verb.

- ' '-~` '+ - - .~ .
The proIessor was working in her oIIice.
An exception to this rule is when you want to topicalize the subject, and that simply
means that you want to emphasize it.

- ' '-~` '+ - - .~ .

86. Phony/Fake Idaafa. You might have noticed that the noun which Iollows the
adjective that is in the superlative Iorm structure is in the genitive case.

- -- -- .

The reason is that this combination creates the Syntactical Environment Ior IdaaIa.
Because the components oI this structure are not limited to the usual nouns (the Iirst
term is in Iact an adjective) Arab Grammarians tend to call this Phony/Fake IdaaIa.

87. II the PerIect Particle ~ is used with a verb in the past tense, then both are
translated as a Present PerIect (has/have Participle).

She has worked in this Iactory. - ~ = ~ ~ ~ _-- .

When this particle is used with ' and a verb, then the whole phrase is translated as
a Past PerIect (hadparticiple).

- ~ .- ~ -~ ' .
My Iriend had visited me a year ago.

88. The Verbal Noun ~- ~ is a noun that is derived Irom a verb. ThereIore, it
acts like a noun, as in the Iollowing examples:

a. a subject - ~ -~ . ~ .

b. an object - - = .

c. a Iirst term oI IdaaIa ~ - = ~ ~ ~ '- .




d. a second term oI IdaaIe ~~ = - '- .

e. a predicate _- = - .

A verbal noun derived Irom a transitive verb does sometimes act like that verb and would
take an object.

. - '-~` ~ - - ==

89. Forms of Verbal Nouns. Action/activity is expressed by verbs and verbal nouns.
Like other languages, the verbal nouns in Arabic indicate that action/activity, and
behave like regular nouns. The
Iollowing chart shows the various ways oI derivation according to the Iorms:
Verb Form Verbal Noun Verb Example Verbal Noun Example
I. . unpredictable any verb unpredictable
II. . ~ .--
III. ~ '~ ~ '~ ='- . ='
IV. '== - == ' .
V ~ = ~ = . - - . .
VI. . ~ . ='- . ~ . ='-
VII. - - ' - . -
VIII. ` -~ -~ ' - . -
IX. ~= ~= ` .
X. ~= -~ ~= -~ '- -~ . - -~

90. The Dropping of the Shadda of and her sisters ' .Arab
grammarians call this - ---= . It was mentioned earlier that these particles
change the subject's vowel marker Irom nominative to accusative case. When the
Shadda is eliminated, the subject maintains its nominative case marker (a).
Furthermore, these particles will tolerate the use oI verbs (b) aIter them.

. ' '-~` - ~ ~




(a) . ' '-~` - ~ ~
I heard that the proIessor (I) is coming.

. '- _ '~ '+ = ~ _ '= '~

(b) . '- _ '+ = '~ ~ _ '= '~
My neighbor travelled to Baghdad, but her husband travelled to Cairo.

91. The Relative Pronouns . -'~ - are used to introduce subordinate
adjectival clauses and thereIore create complex sentences. The choice oI such
pronouns depends on the antecedent's number and gender.

~ is used Ior masculine singular.
- is used Ior Ieminine singular.
is used Ior Ieminine plural.
~ is used Ior masculine plural.

a. II the antecedent is part oI the subject phrase, the relative clause is
embedded inside the main sentence.

.'- '+- = '~ ~ . =

b. II the antecedent is part oI the object phrase/predicate, then the relative
close Iollows the main sentence.

.'+- = '~ ~ . = - '

c. II the antecedent is indeIinite, you do not need to use a relative pronoun.
.'+- = '~ ` = - '

d. Sometimes you will encounter a sentence with a relative pronoun and a
relative clause, in which the antecedent is absent, but still understood.

- '-~ - - ~ ~ .
Originally, this sentence is:
) '-~` ( - '-~ - - ~ ~ .


92. ' (Revisited).We mentioned earlier three possible ways oI using this word. The
Iourth possibility Ior using ' is as a relative pronoun like ~. With that, it can
introduce a relative clause Ior an antecedent that is only expressed in a Iorm oI an
object pronoun.

' - = / ~ ~ -~` .
I like what I read this week.

93. The Cognate Accusative = ~ - ~ is a vebal noun, which is derived
Irom the same verb oI the sentence, and it does come in a phrase as:

a. indeIinite that is Iollowed by an adjective

.'~-== ' - = - ~ . = ~ - =
This man loves his country a lot.

b. deIinite as a part oI IdaaIa or Iollowing .

.'+ ` --- -= '+ '-~ -=
She respects her proIessor (the way) a daughter respects her mother.

. ~ ='~~ . '+ ' ~ ='~
Her Iamily helped her greatly.
Please remember that the Cognate Accusative phrase Iunctions as an adverb to modiIy
the verb oI the sentence.

94. The noun - is Ieminine and means "soul." II you use it beIore another noun it
will create IdaaIa and change its meaning to "same."
=~ - '~- .' .
He always eats at the same restaurant.

II it Iollows a noun, it should carry a corresponding pronoun reIerence to that noun
and its case as well. Its Iunction becomes emphatic.
~- . ~ ~ -' .
I met the correspondant, himselI.

95. The Emphasis ~-- with the use oI . - . Emphasis can be
expressed by using any oI the above particles aIter a noun, providing that an identical




personal pronoun be suIIixed. The particle should carry the same case marker oI the
noun it reIers to.
a. nominative
. ~- ~ - =
The teacher, himselI, came.
b. accusative
. + '~ ~ ~ ~ '~
I saw the teachers (I), all oI them.
c. genitive
. + - `= _ - ~ =
I spoke to the students, some oI them.

96. -= is a noun which will create IdaaIa when it is used with another noun (a). It
also serves to negate nouns and adjectives and may be translated "non-," "un-," and so
on. When it is used in such a Syntactical Environment (i.e., with adjectives) it creates
what we call "Phony/Fake IdaaIa," where the second term is an adjective (b).

a. `= - = `= '~-=` - = .
Students and non-students attended the meeting

b. -- - = ~ = ' .
His act was unacceptable.

97. The Imperative Mood oI the verb is used when someone is given a direct
command or making a request. This command/request is either (a) positive or (b)
negative.

a. -- ~ _ -
You (I.s.) go to the library!

b. -- ~ _ -~ `
You (I.s.) do not go to the library!

The verb that is used in both cases is Iormed Irom the second person Jussive Mood
with a little modiIication. In (a) you need to drop the subject marker preIix and insert a
Hamza // instead to break the resulting consonant cluster, as in - . In the case oI
the negative imperative (b) you just put the negation particle ` in Iront oI the verb.





98. Though the imperative structure is inherently addressed to a second person, it can also
be expressed indirectly. In this case you should have in mind either (a) Iirst person or (b)
third person. You can Iorm that by preIixing the particles ( ) or ( ) to the Jussive
Mood verb.
(a) . '- = ~ ~ .
Let us eat at this restaurant!

(b) + - _ . -~-
Let them (m) go to their homes!

99. The preposition ~- , which means "since," is generally used with words that
express time concepts such as - ~ +~ -~ ='~ etc.

='~ ~- -- - _ - .
He went home since an hour.

It can also be used with verbs and, thereIore, changes its semantic/syntactic Iunctions
to an adverb oI time.
'- - ~- '+ - ' ' .
I have not met her since we separated.

100. The Apposition ~ - (Revisted). A noun is said to be in apposition to another
noun iI it oIIers additional inIormation about that noun. The apposition noun should
agree with the original noun's case, gender, and number.

- ' ' -= ~ ~ ~ ~ .
I met the school principle, Mr. Ali.

101. Verbs of Beginning. Past tense verbs like . = ~ ~ may be used with a
Iollowing verb in the present indicative. Both verbs agree with the subject which, iI
expressed, should be placed between them, as in:

= ~ = - '- ~ '-=` _- .
The people began to talk about the situation oI children in Iraq.

102. The Active Participle ~ . ='- In general, the meaning oI the active
participle is "perIorming/having perIormed" the action indicated by the verb. The
English equivalent is commonly (a) an adjective ending in -ing, as in:


`

(a) ~ '~ - '- '= - ~ - ~ '-'
The women living in this apartment are students.

In addition, a great many Active Participles have taken on speciIic concrete meanings
and are used as (b) ordinary nouns such as:

(b) - '= . '= - ' '~ - =' '=

The third possible use oI the active participle is what the Arab Grammarians call the
circumstantial or Haal Construction.

.'+ - - '= - - _ -'= - =
The student (I) came to class carrying her book.

103. The Derivation of the Active Participle. The Active Participle derivation
pattern Ior verb Form I is usually . ='. For the other Iorms (II-X), the pattern is to
preIix ( ) to the stem. The stem vowel on the second radical is always Kasra. An
exception to that is Ior pattern IX, which has to be FatHa. Notice the Iollowing
examples:

(IV -- . ) (III) ~ ='~ (II) ~
(VII) -- (VI) . ~- (V) -
(X) -- -~ . (IX) ~= (VIII) _ ~ -~
104. The nouns and will take long vowel markers instead oI the usual short
vowels. This usage is restricted to two conditions: (a) as a Iirst term oI IdaaIa or (b) when
a possessive pronoun is attached to either oI them.
(a) '= - ' .

'= ' - ' .

'= _= -~ ~ .

(b) ' - ' .

'' - ' .

'+- _= -~ ~ .



105. The Haal Construction . '= As indicated earlier the active participle can be
used in the Haal Construction. It has to be indeIinite and in the accusative case. It has to
agree with the modiIied noun in number and gender. Also, you need to remember that the
Haal could be a clause. Notice how the Iollowing sentence can be expressed.

-= '= - '+ - - '= - - _ .
The student (I) came to class carrying her book.

. -= - '= '+ - - . ~= - - _ .

. -= - '= '+ - - . ~= - - _ .

You might have noticed that the verb oI the Haal Clause has to be in the present
indicative mood. Because the verb . ~ = is transitive, the active participle derived
Irom it would take an object. That is why the noun '+ - - in the sentence above is in
the accusative case.

Obviously, iI a verb is intransitive, such as = - = , the active participle will not
require an object. Check the Iollowing sentence:

= - - '= ='- - - _ .
The student (I) came to class smiling.
You need to remember that whether the Haal Construction '= is expressed by a
verbal sentence or an equational sentence, the independent pronoun agrees with the
noun modiIied by the . '=

.- -
He studied Arabic while he was little/young.

106. The Passive Participle - ~ ~ is only derived Irom transitive verbs. The
basic meaning oI the passive participle is "undergoing or having undergone the action
indicated by the verb." The most common use oI the passive participle is as an
adjective.

. ~ - -- ' ~ ~ '- ~ ~ '~
I saw the stolen car in Iront oI the post oIIice.





Secondly, it can be used with - = as a second term oI a Iake IdaaIa.
-- '= ' - = - = '-=~ .
The university considers her an undesirable person.

Thirdly, it can be used as a a regular noun.

-'~` '- = ~-= = ~ '~ ~ '~ ~ .
It is well known that the Arabs have greatly participated in the world civilization.

107. The Derivation of Passive Participle - ~ ~ You may derive a passive
participle Ior Form I by using the pattern - . Examples are:
~= -~ - - ~

For the other Iorms, you replace the stem Kasra vowel with FatHa, as in:
~= -~ -= . '-

108. Negation Particle - (Revisited). In rule # 22, it was mentioned that any
Iorm oI - is used to negate Equational Sentences. We also said in rule # 62 that
present tense verbal sentences are negated by using ` . Please check the Iollowing
sentences:

-~ ` '= ~ = ' ' ~ .
We know that Sadaat was one oI the heros oI the Egyptian revolution.

'= ~ = ' ' ~ ` -~ ` .
We don't know that Sadaat was one oI the heros oI the Egyptian revolution.

II, however, the same sentence starts with a pronoun subject, Arabic allows you to
negate it with - . In Iact, this Iorm oI negation is pretty strong.

-~ ` '= ~ = ' ' ~ = .

-~ ` '= ~ = ' ' ~ '-~ .

109. The Accusative of Distinction (Revisited) --~- . In point # 48 we mentioned
that , which means "how many," should always be Iollowed by an ideIinite noun



in the accusative case. Arab Grammarians called this noun ~ --~- "The
Distinction oI Number." Consider the Iollowing example:

. = ` ''- ~ =
I read twenty books during the break.

The underlined word could be articles, reports, magazines, charts, etc.

There is another Iorm oI this accusative noun which deals with kind/type. It is called
. =- --~- Usually it is an indeIinite singular noun/verbal noun which has the
meaning oI "with respect to, in terms oI, as to," and thus involves some level oI
comparison.
. '=-` ~ -~ `= `
As to preparedness Ior the exam, she is the most among all students.

However, it is not necessary that the accusative oI distinction is limited to expressing
comparison. Consider the Iollowing sentence:

' ~ -- - ` ` .
The mother Iilled the house (with) happiness.

110. Particles of Exception . '-`-~` This category includes:
= ` , ~ '~'= ~ `

A noun that Iollows any oI the above has to be in the accusative case. Examples are:

a. with an intransitive verb:
~ ' ` `= '= .
The students came, except Ior Khalid.
b. with a transitive verb:
~ `= ~' ` - =-
The students visited the museum, except Ior Khalid.

However, iI the verb is negated and the semantics oI the sentence imply that the noun
which Iollows ` is the one who perIormed the verb's act, then Arabic allows you to
put that noun in the nominative case.

~ _ `= - ~ =- ~' ` - .
The students did not go to the museum, except Ior Khalid.



111. The Accusative of Purpose =` -~ is an indeIinite, singular verbal
noun in the accusative case. It gives inIormation about why the action/verb is done. It
can always be an answer to the question word . '~ Consider the Iollowing
sentences:
`= ' .
The students stood up.

'~ `= '
Why did the students stand up?

. '-~` ' -= `= '
The students stood up in respect Ior the proIessor.

112. The Absolute Negation. It was mentioned earlier that one has to use some Iorm
oI - to negate the Arabic equational sentence. However, Arab grammarians have
also deIined a rather "strong" semantic environment where you have to use I instead.
They called this method - = -'- ` . Check the Iollowing examples:

1. There is a man in the house. . = -- - .

2. There is no man in the house. - . = -- - .

3. There is a no man in the house. -- - . = ` .
40
Functional Arabic Verbs List

Depending on the type oI the verb used in a sentence, there are three patterns oI Arabic Verbal
Sentences.

1. Basically, a transitive verb needs an object, and the pattern is:
(Option. Adv. Ph. 3) (Op. Adv. 2) (Op. Adv. Ph. 1) Object Subject Verb

. ='~ .- ('+ = -= ) = ~ ~~ -= ~ - = - =

My mother cooked a delicious meal in her kitchen an hour ago.

Optional means that you can have 1, 2 ,3, or NONE of those adverbial phrases. The order depends on what
you want to emphasize. The most important comes last.

2. An intransitive verb does not need an object, and the pattern is:

(Op. Adv. Ph. 3) (Op. Adv. 2)(Op. Adv. Ph. 1) Subject Verb

- ~ = - = '+ - = ~-= - .
My sister sat by herselI in her room all day long.

3. II the intransitive verb takes a preposition the pattern is:

(Op. Adv. Ph. 1) Object oI the Prep. Preposition Subject Verb

='~ ~- - -~ _ - .
My brother went to the library since an hour.

Please note the Iollowing :

* Indicates a "sick verb" which means that there is a long vowel among the 3 Radical Letters oI
its root.

** Indicates a double end "Shadda Verb."
Both types behave a little bit diIIerent Irom the regular verbs when they are conjugated to the
various subject pronouns.
to travel . '~ 1
to eat . . 2



1

to meet . . ' 3
to write . - - 4
to drink . ~ 5
to ask . '~ 6
to read . 7
to work, do . . ~ = 8
to obtain, get . _= . - = 9
to beIriend with . ' / _ '- 10
* to buy . ,-~ 11
* to walk . _~ 12
to talk with . ~ = / _ 13
to talk about = . ~ = / 14
to hear . _ ~ ~ 15
to listen to . _ _ ~ -~ 16
to learn . = 17
to learn sth. . 18
to play . - 19
to go . - 20
to leave . 21
to run . 22
to ride . - 23
* to drive, lead . ' 24
to cook . _ - = 25
* to sleep . ' 26

2

*to wake up . '= 27
**to shower . =-~ 28
to welcome, receive someone . - = 29
to see, watch . ~ '~ 30
to carry . . ~= 31
to move, transIer . .- 32
to go up . ~ 33
to go down . 34
to rent . ='-~ 35
to spend . 36
to exchange (currency) . 37
* to stand up . - 38
to sit down . = 39
to dance . 40
* to sing . _ -= 41
to help, assist . ~ ='~ 42
to begin, start . ~ 43
to complete, Iinish . . ~ 44
to argue '- .45
to discuss ' .46
to look Ior . = - = 47
* to Ily . '= 48
to book, reserve . = = 49
to laugh . = - = 50
* to cry . _ 51
** to like, love . -= 52
to hate . - 53



43

* to visit . 54
to marry . 55
to elect . - =- 56
to become sick . 57
to Ieel, sense . ~ 58
to swim . _ - ~ 59
to hug, embrace . - = 60
to kiss . . - 61
to open . _- 62
to close . = 63
to hit . - 64
to jump . - 65
to be inIormed . - 66
to teach . = 67
to wear . - 68
to take oII . _ 69
to drink . ~ 70
to answer . '= 71
to correspond with . . ~ 72
to be angry with . - - = / _= 73
to compete with . '- 74
to take . ~ 75
* to give . _== 76
to author . - 77
to steal . ~ 78


44

to think . 79
to believe . ~ - -= 80
to immigrate . =' 81
to attack . =' 82
to live, reside . ~ 83
to graduate . = 84
to advertise, announce . = 85
to smile . ~ - 86
to use . . ~-~ 87
to employ . ~= -~ 88
to mention . 89
to remember . ~ 90
to assemble, meet . _ ~ -= 91
*to borrow (not money) . '-~ 92
to introduce . ~ 93
to imagine . - 94
to preserve, maintain . _= = '= 95
** to solve . . = 96
to escape . 97
** to continue . . 98
to greet . _= ~ 99
* to arrive . . 100
* to Iind . ~ =
* to promise . ~ =
* to invite . '=
to recover . _ =-~
* to act cruely, to be harsh . '~ 15
* to walk . _~ 16
* to return . '= 17


45

*to Iorget . ~ 18
to criticize . ~ - - 19
to inIluence, aIIect . 110
to exit . 111
to enter . . 112
to scream, shout . 113
to whisper . ~ 114
to cross . - = 115
to express . = - = 116
*to say . ' 117
*to buy . ,-~ 118
*to complain . '~ 119
*to grow . '~ 120
to win . _ 121
to lose . ~ 122
to participate . '~ 123
*to Iast . ' 124
*to pray . _ 125
*to build . _- 126
to demolish, tear down . ~ 127
to convert to Islam . ~ 128
to surrender . ~-~ 129
**to settle down . - -~ 130
to be able . ~ 131
to please . 132
to make happy . ~ ~ 133
to raise an issue . ' 134
*to add . '- 135
to demand . - '= 136



46

to happen . ~ = 137
*to remain, stay . - 138
to try . '= 139
*to be . ' 140
to take place, occur . ~ = 141
to exert . ~ 142
to apologize . ~-= 143
*to want . _ -~ 144
**to respond . 145
to do . . ~ = 146
to accept . . - 147
to decline, reIuse . 148
to lose . ~ - 149
to expose . - ~ 150
to push, pay . _ 151
to deal with a matter, to eat a meal . '- 152
to discover . - ~ - 153
*to repeat . '= 154
to supervise . - 155
to encourage . _ = ~ 156
to lie . ~ 157
to preIer . . - 158
to trust . 159
**to continue . ~-~ 160
*to accept . 161
**to decrease . . 162
*to increase . 163
to appear . += 164
to save . ~ - 165


47


to pressure . _= = - 166
*to come . '= 167
to diIIer . - - 168
**to doubt . ~ = 169
to understand . + 170
to serve | . ~ 171
*to describe . - 172
**to think, believe . = 173
to wait . = - 174
to be late . ' 175
to surprise . '=' 176
to bother, harrass . _ = 177
to calculate, assume . ~ 178
*to indicate . _ '~ 179
to include . . ~ ~ 180
*to manage, direct . 181
to get closer . - 182
to accuse . + 183
to exceed . '= 184
to explain . ~ 185
to deIine . ~ = 186
to achieve, investigate . - = 187
to be exposed . - ~ 188
to expect . _ 189
to carry out, execute . ~ - 190
to wonder, question oneselI . '~ 191
*to stroll, walk around . _ ~ ~ 192
to succeed . _ = 193
to Iail . . ~ 194


48

to commit a mistake, crime . - 195
to honor . 196
to renew . ~ = 197
to get angry . - - = 198
to target . ~+ -~ 199
to be hesitant, to be spread (rumor) . 200
to kill . . - 201
to wound . = 202
.**to get ready . ~ -~ 203
to allow . _ ~ ~
to take ` . ~
to eat . .
to come, attend . - =
to study .
to mention .
*to visit .
to live, reside . ~
to write . - -
*to live . '=
*to be absent . '=
to spend the night, evening ` . + ~
to memorize . = - =
to wear . -
to play . -
to smoke .
to change sth. . - =
to help . ~ ='~
to travel . '~
to be late . '



49

to be busy . . ~
to meet, assemble ` . _ ~ -=
to move to . _ . - -
to rent . ='-~
to welcome . . -- -~
to leave .
to occupy . . -=
50

The Pedagogy Section

The Explicit/Implicit Controversy

Although many proIessionals agree on the beneIits oI some grammar instruction,
the question oI how to teach grammar has met with little agreement. The controversy has
become particularly acute with the advent oI the communicative language teaching
revolution, which has consistently underscored the importance oI stressing meaning over
Iorm. For years, our proIession has been grappling with polarized views concerning the
teaching oI grammar within a communicative Iramework. Some scholars (Higgs and
CliIIord 1982) advocate an explicit method oI grammar instruction, with direct teacher
explanations Iollowed by related manipulative exercises. Many oI us have probably
experienced this method oI grammar instruction, since most textbooks tend to present
grammar in this Iashion.

UnIortunately, many oI the textbooks' manipulative drills are grounded in shallow
and artiIicial contexts, so these drills become rather meaningless to students. Another
problem with explicit grammar instruction is that it advocates a direct and overt role on
the part oI the teacher. Consequently, this practice designates a rather passive role on the
part oI the students. Interaction Ior them is supposed to take place aIter the explanation
and aIter a plenty oI structural manipulation oI the grammatical elements. In Rivers'
(1983) terms, "skill-getting" should be stressed beIore "skill-using."

On the other side oI the spectrum, implicit grammar explanation as espoused by
Krashen (1985), Terrel (1977), and Dulay and Burt (1973) reject the need Ior Iormal
grammar analysis. These researchers argue that students can acquire language naturally iI
they are provided with suIIicient comprehensible input Irom the teacher. In other words, iI
students are exposed to a suIIicient amount oI comprehensible input, they will eventually
be able to hypothesize and determine the Iunctions as well as the meanings oI linguistic
Iorms. Theoretically, the learners should be able to do the hypothesizing on their own.

However, Herron and Tomasello (1992) advise that the inductive method cannot
guarantee that the learner will discover the underlying concepts or that the induced
concepts will actually be correct. Furthermore, the inductive approach can be Irustrating
to adult learners, many oI whom have already become analytical with regard to the rules
that govern their native languages. The learners intuitively yearn to speed up the learning
process by consciously comparing and contrasting their own native rules to the rules that
govern the new target language.

Reformulating Grammar Instruction

Although explicit and implicit teaching are clearly opposites, they share some
notable deIiciencies. Neither approach acknowledges the critical role oI the teacher in
negotiating classroom explanations, and neither approach acknowledges the contributions
and backgrounds that the learners bring to the instructional setting (Tharp and Gallimore
5

1988). Moreover, neither approach recognizes the natural learning tendencies that occur
between human beings outside the classroom. Learning is a dynamic, reciprocal, and
interactive process. However, our proIession has been grappling with two established
methods, neither oI which recognizes the mutually responsive interactions that are
Iundamental to learning as it occurs naturally between humans in everyday liIe.

ThereIore, we believe it is time Ior the proIession to begin a serious reappraisal
regarding teaching oI grammar. We are advocating a whole language and guided
participatory approach that contrasts with traditional explicit or implicit teaching. In many
ways, this alternative approach may serve as a viable compromise between
explicit/implicit polarized views. For a number oI reasons that will be discussed later, we
believe that a whole language and guided participatory approach might hold the key to
dramatic improvement in the teaching oI grammar.

Basic Principles of Whole Language Teaching

BeIore discussing some practical applications oI this approach, we should discuss
some basic principles oI whole language and guided participatory teaching. Many
specialists in Iirst language development have been exploring the implications oI whole
language teaching Ior the past decade. Likewise, researchers in cognitive psychology have
been investigating guided participation in the areas oI science, math, and social studies.
UnIortunately, Ioreign language education has been lagging behind these other
disciplines. First we will discuss some basic principles oI a whole language approach to
grammar instruction, and then we will discuss how to use guided and joint problem
solving to enhance grammar explanations.

As early as 1976, psychologist Ken Goodman stated that "language is language
only when it is whole" (quoted in Fountas and Hannigans 1989, p. 134). According to
Goodman, the whole is always viewed as being greater than the sum oI its parts, and it is
the whole that gives meaning to the parts. In terms oI grammar instruction, words,
phrases, or sentences are not linguistic islands unto themselves; on the contrary, these
linguistic elements only gain meaning when they are placed in context, and when used in
conjunction with the whole. According to Goodman, once students experience the whole,
they are then better prepared to deal with the analyses oI the parts.

We should acknowledge that Goodman is primarily addressing the needs oI Iirst
language learners. However, research in Iirst language development has oItentimes acted
as a catalyst Ior theoretical advancement in second language development. Furthermore,
many second language specialists are currently emphasizing the importance oI content-
based instruction, authentic texts Ior listening and reading comprehension, and the need
Ior connected discourse in grammar instruction, all oI which emphasize the importance oI
whole language rather than Iragmented speech in second/Ioreign language classroom.

Conceptually, then, we need to reappraise our orientation to grammar instruction
iI we have too oIten Iocused on Iragmented discourse and artiIicial exercises. Many
5

language programs stress a bottom-up approach by emphasizing the "bits and pieces' oI
language (sound, vocabulary lists, verb drills, etc.). This classroom practice usually results
in non-language that can be characterized as being unnatural, cognitively undemanding,
and dull (Cummins 1984). On the other hand, a whole language approach stresses natural
discourse and encourages students to comprehend meaningIul and long samples oI
discourse Irom the very beginning oI the lesson.

By introducing the lesson with a whole text (Ior example, a story, poem, song,
taped listening selection or cartoon), the teacher is Ioreshadowing the grammar
explanation through the use oI integrated discourse that will highlight the critical grammar
to be taught. Galloway and Labarca (1990) explain that Ioreshadowing oI new language
elements is beneIicial, Ior it provides "learners with a 'Ieel' Ior what is to come and can
help students cast Iorward a Iamiliarity net by which aspects oI language prompt initial
recognitions and later, gradually, are pulled into the learner's productive repertoire." In
this way, the lesson highlights the Iunctional signiIicance oI the grammar structure beIore
the learners' attention is Iocused on Iorm. In a way, this is like using advance organizers to
assist the students by providing an "anchoring Iramework" Ior the new concepts to be
learned. Unlike many classroom textbooks, which may oIIer a group oI disconnected
sentences or a "contextualized" drill, a whole language and guided participatory approach
invites the learner to use language Iunctionally and purposeIully through integrated
course.

This practice is in agreement with Krashen's (1982) Input Hypothesis, which
stresses the importance oI comprehensible input that "contains structures a little beyond
our level oI competence." As a result, Irom the very beginning oI the lesson the teacher
and learners are engaged in authentic use oI language through joint problem-solving
activities and interactions. By using pictures, mime, and gestures, the teacher scaIIolds
and guides the learners to eventually comprehend the story or other sample oI connected
discourse. Once comprehension is achieved, the teacher can then turn the students'
attention to various linguistic elements.

Unlike bottom-up processing, which is traditionally linear in approach, grammar
instruction using a whole language approach is cyclical. During the Iirst stage oI the cycle,
the teacher Ioreshadows the grammar structure with an appropriate text. At this point, the
meaning or comprehension oI the text is oI prime importance. The second stage is actually
an extension oI the Iirst stage, since once again the emphasis is on meaning.

However, the second stage diIIers due to an increased level oI learner
participation. Now the learners have a general idea oI the signiIicance oI the text;
consequently, they can become more participatory through various activities, mime, role
playing, etc. All oI these activities serve to deepen comprehension Ior the learners. Once
comprehension is achieved and meaning is understood, the teacher moves into the third
stage and turns the learners' attention to Iocus on Iorm, or the various linguistic elements
oI the grammatical structures.


5

AIter this stage, the teacher completes the cycle by encouraging learners to
interact with integrated discourse through expansion activities such as rewriting or
recreating similar stories, paired activities, or group activities. Through these extension
activities, the learners become more aware oI the Iunction oI the grammatical structure.
That is, they learn that they can carry out a particular task or Iunction by exploiting or
using the appropriate grammatical structure. This approach is in agreement with Larsen-
Freeman's (1991) suggestion that meaning, Iorm, and Iunction need to be "interacting
dimensions" oI grammar instruction.

A Model for Integrating Form in a Whole Language Approach

Focus on Iorm has recently become the topic oI intense research and has been
shown to be an important design Ieature oI language teaching (Long 1991). The theory oI
learning and development has emphasized the importance oI creating a zone oI proximal
development with the learner so that what the learner requires help on today will emerge
as independent, automatic perIormance at a later time. Grammar teaching can also be
viewed in this way. It is no less an interactive process between expert and novice than any
other aspect oI developing communicative ability in learners. Learners need to be guided
to reIlect on language they use to create their own meanings.

No language teaching should be driven by grammar instruction alone, nor should
grammar instruction be literally interpreted to mean instruction on morphology (e.g.,
adjective or subject-verb agreement, rules Ior pluralization, etc.) or meaningless
manipulation oI Iorms. When the teacher Iocuses on Iorm, attention is drawn to the Iormal
properties oI the language, which includes its sound system, word Iormation, syntax,
discourse markers, and devised Ior relating one sentence to another, to name a Iew. Our
colleagues who teach reading in the elementary schools call this Iorm oI instruction
"language Arts." Classes that Iocus on language Iorm Ior the purpose oI increasing
comprehension and meaning have been shown to result in greater language gains than
classes where no Iocus on Iorm is available or where Iorms are learned as meaningless
structures (Lightbown and Spada 1990). ThereIore, the issue is not whether a teacher
should Iocus on Iorm; rather, answering the question oI how and when and in what
context will ultimately clariIy this important design Ieature oI Ioreign language
instruction. The Iollowing is a Iour step model Ior contextualizing interactions with
students about the Iorms in a whole language lesson.
1. Presentation of Meaningful Language

This step represents the "whole" language you are presenting in a thematic way. It
can be an interesting story (Iolktales and legends work well), a TPR lesson, a recorded
authentic listening or video segment, an authentic document, or a demonstration oI a real-
liIe situation. Materials Irom the textbook (narratives, dialogues, stories) may even be
used iI they are Iound to be interesting and episodically organized. The presentation does
not consist oI isolated, disconnected sentences illustrating the target Iorm in question.
Rather, it is thematic, contextualized whole language intended to capture student interest
and provide opportunities Ior the teacher to create comprehension through the negotiation
5

oI meaning. The structure should appear oIten enough during the presentation to be salient
to the student without making the language sound unnatural or stilted. Authentic stories,
documents, or listening segments can guarantee naturalness and oIten contain naturally
occurring repetitions.

The presentation should also be interactive. By scaIIolding participation in the
activity, teachers can guide students through the new elements oI the language to be
learned. This guided participation may take the Iorm oI student repetition oI key phrases
cued by the teacher during a storytelling session, student-teacher role reversal in a TPR
activity, cloze exercise based on listening segments, or discussions that anticipate the
content oI a reading. The goal here is to enable students to stretch their language abilities
by using the new elements oI the target language in meaningIul ways through the help and
mediation oI the teacher. This step may last either part oI or the entire class session. For
example, a storytelling lesson may contain pre-storytelling activities, dramatization, pair-
work comprehension checks, or story-telling exercises. The length oI time required
depends on the nature oI the activity and the amount oI negotiation work required to
charge the language with meaning.

2. Attention

This step Iocuses learner attention on some aspect oI the language used during the
presentation activity. In this step, the teacher highlights some regularity oI the language.
This can be achieved in several ways. Teachers can ask questions about patterns Iound in
a written text or about words and phrases repeated in a story. Overhead transparencies oI
example sentences Irom the presentation can be prepared, with important words and
phrases circled or underlined. The point to this step is to get learners to Iocus attention on
the target Iorm without needless elaboration or wasted time.

3. Co-construct an Explanation

Learners and teachers should be co-constructors oI grammatical explanation.
AIter learners Iocus attention on the target Iorm, the teacher assists them in raising their
awareness about the target structure. During this step, students are guided to hypothesize,
guess, make predictions, or come to generalizations about the target Iorm.

Co-constructing an explanation requires teacher questions that are well chosen,
clear, and direct. Questions are powerIul tools in the hands oI teachers who can adjust
their questioning "in Ilight" to meet the emergent understandings oI their students. For
example, asking students questions such as "what words do you hear or see repeated in the
text, and what could they mean?," "What pattern do you see in this group oI words?," and
"How do certain words change as their meanings change?" is a way to help students to
draw insights Irom the language they hear and understand. These cognitive "probes" help
learners discover regular grammatical patterns, sound systems, word order, unique
cultural meanings oI words, or language Iunctions.

5`

As students hypothesize and generalize about the target Iorm, teachers build upon
and extend students' knowledge without overwhelming them with superIluous
grammatical details. Hypothesis testing can also be conducted, with teachers leading
learners in trying out their new knowledge by applying their generalizations to new
situations. Teachers are also aware that the help they provide is graduated and may range
Irom brieI hints about the target Iorm to explicit instruction iI needed (AljaaIreh 1992).

It is important to note that, unlike guided induction techniques, which primarily
rely on teacher questioning, a co-constructed explanation is not inquisition. Rather, co-
constructed explanations recognize that students may not be able to perceive the Iormal
properties oI language on the basis oI the teacher's questions alone. What is obvious to an
expert language user is oIten a mystery to the novice. A co-constructed explanation is as
participatory Ior the teacher as it is Ior students. That is, teachers need to assess the
abilities oI their students and assist them by providing as well as eliciting inIormation
when necessary. As Tharp and Gillimore (1988) point out, teaching is responsive
assistance and cannot be reduced to series oI actions to be perIormed in the same order in
every instructional circumstance. By listening closely to learner contributions during this
step, teachers can assess how much help is needed to attain the concept. In time, some
learners may be able to work in small groups on their own grammar problems and report
back to the class about their discoveries (Fotos and Ellis 1991).

4. Extension Activity

Focus on Iorm is only useIul iI this knowledge can be pressed into service by the
learners in a new way at a later time. In whole language teaching, the teacher never loses
sight oI the "whole." ThereIore, the extension activity provides learners with the
opportunity to use their new skill in creative and interesting ways while at the same time
integrating it into existing knowledge. The extension activity should be interesting, be
related to the theme oI the lesson in some way, and, most importantly, allow Ior creative
selI-expression. Extension activities are not work sheets on which learners use the target
Iorm to Iill in the blanks oI disconnected sentences. Rather, they can be inIormation-gap
activities, role play situations, dramatizations, games, authentic writing projects, paired
interviewed, class surveys, or simulations oI real liIe situations. The possibilities are
endless, as long as the learners have the chance to try to use the target Iorm in ways that
they see are useIul and meaningIul. The extension activity closes the circle and puts the
"whole" back into whole language teaching.

The discussion above should lead to the conclusion that language learning is a
thinking process, or Irom the learner's viewpoint, a guessing game. Teachers need to
design cognitively demanding activities that will encourage learners to hypothesize,
predict, take risks, make errors, and selI correct (Fountas and Hannigan 1989). By doing
so, the learners become active participants in the learning process. All the whole language
and guided participatory activities should encourage the learners to be active thinkers and
hypothesizers as they collaborate in language learning activities with the teacher or with
their peers.
5

Whether listening to a storytelling activity, co-constructing a grammar
explanation, or collaborating with peers during an extension activity, the learners are
actively discovering and hypothesizing about the target language. This approach concurs
with Bruner's (1986) advice that students need to be cognitively challenged through the
use oI discovery methods. Moreover, all he classroom activities should encourage
interaction and the Iunctional use oI language by giving learners opportunities to share
inIormation, ask questions, and solve problems collaboratively.

Finally, a distinguishing theme oI whole language and a guided participatory
approach to grammar instruction is that learning needs to be integrated, contextualized,
and meaning-centered activities (Pearson 1989). Such activities Iacilitate comprehension
and retention on the part oI the learners. Furthermore, the extension activities encourage
learners to integrate meaning, Iorm, and Iunction while experiencing language in context.
It should be mentioned that creating integrated and meaning-centered activities is
probably one oI the most diIIicult aspects oI whole language teaching, since, many
textbooks still stress context-reduced practice and Iragmented materials.

Creating contextualized activities is the only way to implement, encourage and
succeed at whole language teaching. Through whole language learning students are able
to converse with more conIidence, and their listening, reading, and writing skills improve.
As they use Arabic in real communication, it becomes less "Ioreign" and more natural ,
integral part oI their experience. We know the best way to learn a Ioreign language is to
live with those who speak it, and our students should be encouraged to take this step and
go to the Arab World Ior a semester or a year program. In preparation Ior that event, and
also Ior those students who will not venture beyond the classroom, there is much practice
to be done with peers and with teacher, whose responsibility is to Iind or create
meaningIul practice.
`
References:

'=~ -= '-` ~ ` -- = - . ~ --=
'- - .-= ` .

-- - '- ~~= .-= ~ . --= -- -'~ - =~ ~+
'- `+ .

~= '='= ` . - - -+- .

'- --~ . '-- - -~ -- - .

'=- - '--= '= - ~ `= =-~ . '- .

- ~= ~-= = . '- '=-' ~- _-= - -+ .

AljaaIreh, A. "The Role oI Implicit/Explicit Error Correction and Learner's Zone oI
Proximal Development." Unpublished dissertation. University oI Delaware, 1992.

Bruner, J. Actual Minds, Possible Worlds. Cambridge, MA; Harvard University Press,
1986.

Celce-Murcia, M. "Making InIormed Decisions About the Role oI Grammar in Language
Teaching." Foreign Language Annals 18 (1985):297-301.

Cummins, J. "Language ProIiciency, Bilingualism and Academic Achievement."
Bilingualism and Special Education: Issues in Assessment and Pedagogy. San Diego,
CA: College-Hill, 1984.

Fotos, S.., and R. Ellis. "Communicating about Grammar: A Task-Bases Approach."
TESOL Quarterly 25 (1991): 605-628.

Fountas, I., and I. Hannigan. "Making Sense oI Whole Language: The Pursuit oI
InIormed Teaching," Childhood Education 65 (1989): 133-137.

Galloway, V., and A. Labarca. "From Student to Learner: Style, Process and Strategy."
Ed. D. Birckbichler. New Perspectives and New

Directions in Foreign Language Education. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook
Company, 1990: 111-158.


`


Herron, C., and M. Tomasello. "Acquiring Grammatical Structures by Guided
Induction."The French Review 65 (1992): 708-718.

Higgs, T. V., and R. T. CliIIord. "The Push Toward Communication." Ed. T. V. Higgs.
Curriculum, Competence and the Foreign Language Teacher. ACTFL Foreign Language
Series, vol. 13. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook, 1982: 57-79.

Krashen, S. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. OxIord: Pergamon,
1982.

Krashen, S. The Input Hypothesis: New York: Longman, 1985.

Larsen-Freeman, D. "Teaching Grammar." Ed. M. Celce-Murcia.Teaching English as a
Second Language. Boston, MA: Heinle and Heinle, 1991: 279-295.

Lightbown, P., and N. Spada. "Focus on Form and Corrective Feedback in
Communicative Language Teaching." Studies in Second Language Acquisition 12
(1990): 429-448.

Long, M. "The Least Second Language Acquisition Theory Needs to Explain." TESOL
Quarterly 24 (1991): 649-666.

Oller, J., Jr. "Some Working Ideas Ior Language Teaching." Eds. J. Oller, Jr. and P.
Richard-Amato. Methods That Work. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1983.

Pearson, D. "Reading the Whole-Language Movement." Elementary School Journal 90
(1989): 231-241.

Rivers, W. Communicating Naturally in a Second Language. Chicago: University oI
Chicago Press, 1983.

Terrel, T. "A Natural Approach to Second Language Acquisition and Learning." Modern
Language Journal 61 (1977): 325-337.

Tharp, R., and R. Gallimore. Rousing Minds to Life: Teaching, Learning and Schooling
in Social Context. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988.

Versteegh, Kee. The Arabic Language. New York: Columbia
Uinversity Press, 1997.