Ch10 Zumdahl Lecture Part21

Simple Cubic
Three Cubic Unit Cells and the Corresponding Lattices
Figure 10.9
Chapter 10 | Slide 1 Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
Cubic Unit Cells Simple Cubic

8 particles, one at each corner of a cube 1/8th of each particle lies in the unit cell each particle part of 8 cells 1 particle in each unit cell 8 corners x 1/8 edge of unit cell = twice the radius coordination number of 6
Body-Centered Cubic
2r
Cubic Unit Cells Body-Centered Cubic

9 particles, one at each corner of a cube + one in center 1/8th of each corner particle lies in the unit cell 2 particles in each unit cell 8 corners x 1/8 + 1 center edge of unit cell = (4/ 3) times the radius of the particle coordination number of 8
Face-Centered Cubic
4r 3
Cubic Unit Cells Face-Centered Cubic

14 particles, one at each corner of a cube + one in center of each face 1/8th of each corner particle + 1/2 of face particle lies in the unit cell 4 particles in each unit cell 8 corners x 1/8 + 6 faces x 1/2 edge of unit cell = 2 2 times the radius of the particle coordination number of 12
Concept Check
Determine the number of metal atoms in a unit cell if the packing is: a) Simple cubic b) Body centered cubic
2r 2
Chapter 10 | Slide 8
Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
Concept Check
A metal crystallizes in a face-centered cubic structure. Determine the relationship between the radius of the metal atom and the length of an edge of the unit cell.
Problem
Polonium crystallizes in a simple cubic arrangement, with the edge of a unit cell having a length d=334pm. What is the radius (pm) of a polonium atom?
Calculate the density of Al if it crystallizes in a fcc and has a radius of 143 pm Given: Find: Concept Plan: Relationships: Solution:
face-centered cubic, r = 1.43 143 pm x 10-8 cm, m = 1.792 x 10-22 g 3 density, g/cm density, g/cm3
Problem
Silver metal crystallizes in face centered cubic arrangement with the edge of a unit cell having a length of d=407pm. What is the radius (pm) of a silver atom? What is the density of silver?
fcc
mass
# atoms x mass 1 atom
l = 2r2
V = l3
m, V
102 m,
d = m/V 1 cm = 1 pm = 10-12 m V = l3, l = 2r 2 , d = m/V fcc = 4 atoms/uc, Al = 26.982 g/mol, 1 mol = 6.022 x 1023 atoms
-8 1 mol 26.982 g= 4.045 ! 10 l atoms = 2r Al 2" = 2(1.43 !10 "8 cm)(1.414) 4 " = 1.792 "10 ! 22 cm g 6.022 "10 23 atoms 1 mol m 1.792 !10 "22 g 3 !8 m 1 cmd = V = 6.618 V = l 3 = 4.045 "10-12 cm !10 " 23 cm 3 143 pm " " -2 = 1.43 "10 !8 cm ! 23 3 g = 6.618 "10 cm1 pm 10 m = 2.71 cm3
Check:
the accepted density of Al at 20C is 2.71 g/cm3, so the answer makes sense
Crystal Structures
Closest-Packed Structures First Layer with spheres, it is more efficient to offset each row in the gaps of the previous row than to line-up rows and columns
Another way to envision crystal structures is to think of atoms stacking in layers.
Closest-Packed Structures Second Layer the second layer atoms can sit directly over the atoms in the first called an AA pattern
Closest-Packed Structures Third Layer with Offset 2nd Layer

the third layer atoms can align directly over the atoms in the first called an ABA pattern
or the second layer can sit over the holes in the

first called an AB pattern
or the third layer can sit over the uncovered

holes in the first called an ABC pattern
Hexagonal Closest-Packed
Cubic Closest-Packed Face-Centered Cubic
Hexagonal Closest Packing
Cubic Closest-Packed Structures
Figure 10.14
Figure 10.15
The Indicated Sphere Has 12 Nearest Neighbors

Each sphere in both ccp and hcp has 12 equivalent nearest neighbors
Classifying Crystalline Solids

classified by the kinds of units found sub-classified by the kinds of attractive forces holding the units together molecular solids are solids whose composite units are molecules ionic solids are solids whose composite units are ions atomic solids are solids whose composite units are atoms
nonbonding atomic solids (Group 8A) are held together by dispersion forces metallic atomic solids are held together by metallic bonds network covalent atomic solids are held together by covalent bonds
Figure 10.16
Molecular Solids
the lattice site are occupied by molecules the molecules are held together by intermolecular attractive forces
dispersion forces, dipole-dipole attractions, and H-bonds (if it is able to)
Ionic Solids held together by attractions between opposite charges nondirectional therefore every cation attracts all anions around it, and vice versa the coordination number represents the number of close cation-anion interactions in the crystal the higher the coordination number, the more stable the solid lowers the potential energy of the solid
because the attractive forces are weak, they tend to have low melting point
generally < 300C
Ionic Solids
Lattice Holes
Tetrahedral Hole Octahedral Hole Simple Cubic Hole
CsCl coordination number = 8 Cs+ = 167 pm Cl = 181 pm
NaCl coordination number = 6 Na+ = 97 pm Cl = 181 pm
Lattice Holes
in hexagonal closest packed or cubic closest packed lattices there are 8 tetrahedral holes and 4 octahedral holes per unit cell in simple cubic there is 1 hole per unit cell number and type of holes occupied determines formula (empirical) of salt
Cesium Chloride Structures

coordination number = 8 of each Cl inside the unit cell whole Cs+ inside the unit cell
cubic hole = hole in simple cubic arrangement of Cl ions
= Octahedral = Tetrahedral
Cs:Cl = 1: (8 x ), therefore the formula is CsCl
Rock Salt Structures

coordination number = 6 Cl ions in a face-centered cubic arrangement of each corner Cl inside the unit cell of each face Cl inside the unit cell each Na+ in holes between Cl octahedral holes 1 in center of unit cell of each edge Na+ inside the unit cell Na:Cl = ( x 12) + 1: ( x 8) + ( x 6) = 4:4 = 1:1, therefore the formula is NaCl
Zinc Blende Structures

coordination number = 4 S2 ions in a face-centered cubic arrangement
of each corner S 2 inside the unit cell of each face S2 inside the unit cell
each Zn2+ in holes between S 2

tetrahedral holes 1 whole in the holes
Zn:S = (4 x 1) : ( x 8) + ( x 6) = 4:4 = 1:1, therefore the formula is ZnS
Fluorite Structures
coordination number = 4 Ca2+ ions in a face-centered cubic arrangement of each corner Ca2+ inside the unit cell of each face Ca2+ inside the unit cell each F in holes between Ca2+ tetrahedral holes 1 whole in all the holes Ca:F = ( x 8) + ( x 6): (8 x 1) = 4:8 = 1:2, therefore the formula is CaF2
Atomic Solids
atomic solids are solids that contain atoms at the lattice points nonbonding atomic solids (Group 8A) are held together by London dispersion forces metallic atomic solids are held together by metallic bonds network covalent atomic solids are held together by covalent bonds
Nonbonding Atomic Solids (Group 8)

noble gases (solid) held together by weak dispersion forces
very low melting
Metallic Atomic Solids

solid held together by metallic bonds
strength varies with sizes and charges of cations
coulombic attractions
tend to arrange atoms in closestpacked structure

either hexagonal cp or cubic cp maximizes attractive forces and minimizes energy
melting point varies mostly closest packed arrangements of the lattice points
cations
Metallic Bonding
metal atoms release their valence electrons metal cation islands fixed in a sea of mobile electrons
+ + + ee+ + + ee+ + + ee+ + + ee+ + + ee+ + + ee+ + + ee+ + + ee+ + +
Network Covalent Solids

atoms attached to its nearest neighbors by covalent bonds because of the directionality of the covalent bonds, these do not tend to form closestpacked arrangements in the crystal because of the strength of the covalent bonds, these have very high melting points
generally > 1000C
dimensionality of the network affects other physical properties
The Diamond Structure: a 3-Dimensional Network

the carbon atoms in a diamond each have 4 covalent bonds to surrounding atoms
sp3 tetrahedral geometry
Properties of Diamond
very high melting, ~3800C
need to overcome some covalent bonds
very rigid
due to the directionality of the covalent bonds
very hard
due to the strong covalent bonds holding the atoms in position used as abrasives
this effectively makes each crystal one giant molecule held together by covalent bonds
you can follow a path of covalent bonds from any atom to every other atom
electrical insulator thermal conductor

best known
Figure 10.12
chemically very nonreactive
The Graphite Structure: a 2-Dimensional Network

in graphite, the carbon atoms in a sheet are covalently bonded together
forming 6-member flat rings fused together
similar to benzene bond length = 142 pm
Properties of Graphite
hexagonal crystals high melting, ~3800C need to overcome some covalent bonding slippery feel because there are only dispersion forces holding the sheets together, they can slide past each other glide planes lubricants electrical conductor parallel to sheets thermal insulator chemically very nonreactive
sp2
each C has 3 sigma and 1 pi bond
trigonal-planar geometry each sheet a giant molecule
the sheets are then stacked and held together by dispersion forces
sheets are 341 pm apart
Silicates
Most common network covalent atomic solid ~90% of earths crust extended arrays of SiO
sometimes with Al substituted for Si aluminosilicates
tetrahedral
Quartz -SiO2
3-dimensional array of Si covalently bonded to 4 O melts at ~1600C very hard
glass is the amorphous form

Figure 10.26
10
Classification of Solids- Summary
Bonding Models for Metals

Electron Sea Model
Band Model (MO Model)
Table 10.3
The Electron Sea Model

A regular array of cations in a sea of valence electrons.
Band Theory
the structures of metals and covalent network solids result in every atoms orbitals being shared by the entire structure for large numbers of atoms, this results in a large number of molecular orbitals that have approximately the same energy, we call this an energy band
Figure 10.18
11
Band Theory
when 2 atomic orbitals combine they produce both a bonding and an antibonding molecular orbital when many atomic orbitals combine they produce a band of bonding molecular orbitals and a band of antibonding molecular orbitals the band of bonding molecular orbitals is called the valence band the band of antibonding molecular orbitals is called the conduction band
The Band Model for Magnesium

Virtual continuum of levels, called bands.
Figure 10.20
Band Gap
at absolute zero, all the electrons will occupy the valence band as the temperature rises, some of the electrons may acquire enough energy to jump to the conduction band the difference in energy between the valence band and conduction band is called the band gap
the larger the band gap, the fewer electrons there are with enough energy to make the jump
Band Gap and Conductivity

the more electrons at any one time that a substance has in the conduction band, the better conductor of electricity it is if the band gap is ~0, then the electrons will be almost as likely to be in the conduction band as the valence band and the material will be a conductor
metals the conductivity of a metal decreases with temperature
if the band gap is small, then a significant number of the electrons will be in the conduction band at normal temperatures and the material will be a semiconductor
graphite the conductivity of a semiconductor increases with temperature
if the band gap is large, then effectively no electrons will be in the conduction band at normal temperatures and the material will be an insulator
12
Doping Semiconductors
doping is adding impurities to the semiconductors crystal to increase its conductivity goal is to increase the number of electrons in the conduction band n-type semiconductors do not have enough electrons themselves to add to the conduction band, so they are doped by adding electron rich impurities p-type semiconductors are doped with an electron deficient impurity, resulting in electron holes in the valence band. Electrons can jump between these holes in the valence band, allowing conduction of electricity
Diodes
when a p-type semiconductor adjoins an ntype semiconductor, the result is an p-n junction electricity can flow across the p-n junction in only one direction this is called a diode this also allows the accumulation of electrical energy called an amplifier
Metal Alloys
Substitutional Alloy some of the host metal atoms are replaced by other metal atoms of similar size Interstitial Alloy some of the holes in the closest packed metal structure are occupied by small atoms
Two Types of Alloys
Figure 10.21
Chapter 10 | Slide 51 Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter 10 | Slide 52 Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
13
Vaporization
molecules in the liquid are constantly in motion the average kinetic energy is proportional to the temperature however, some molecules have more kinetic energy than the average if these molecules are at the surface, they may have enough energy to overcome the attractive forces the larger the surface area, the faster the rate of evaporation this will allow them to escape the liquid and become a vapor
53
Distribution of Thermal Energy

only a small fraction of the molecules in a liquid have enough energy to escape as the temperature increases, the fraction of the molecules with escape energy increases the higher the temperature, the faster the rate of evaporation
Figure 10.41
54
Condensation
some molecules of the vapor will lose energy through molecular collisions the result will be that some of the molecules will get captured back into the liquid when they collide with it also some may stick and gather together to form droplets of liquid
particularly on surrounding surfaces
Evaporation vs. Condensation

in an open container, the vapor molecules generally spread out faster than they can condense the net result is that the rate of vaporization is greater than the rate of condensation, and there is a net loss of liquid however, in a closed container, the vapor is not allowed to spread out indefinitely the net result in a closed container is that at some time the rates of vaporization and condensation will be equal
we call this process condensation

55 56
14
Effect of Intermolecular Attraction on Evaporation and Condensation

the weaker the attractive forces between molecules, the less energy they will need to vaporize also, weaker attractive forces means that more energy will need to be removed from the vapor molecules before they can condense the net result will be more molecules in the vapor phase, and a liquid that evaporates faster the weaker the attractive forces, the faster the rate of evaporation liquids that evaporate easily are said to be volatile e.g., gasoline, fingernail polish remover liquids that do not evaporate easily are called nonvolatile
e.g., motor oil
Energetics of Vaporization
when the high energy molecules are lost from the liquid, it lowers the average kinetic energy if energy is not drawn back into the liquid, its temperature will decrease therefore, vaporization is an endothermic process
and condensation is an exothermic process
57
58
Heat of Vaporization
the amount of heat energy required to vaporize one mole of the liquid is called the Heat of Vaporization, Hvap
sometimes called the enthalpy of vaporization
Calculate the mass of water that can be vaporized with 155 kJ of heat at 100C
Given: Find: Concept Plan: kJ Relationships: 1 mol H2O = 40.7 kJ 1 mol = 18.02 g 155 kJ g H2O
1 mol 40.7 kJ
18.02 g 1 mol
always endothermic, therefore Hvap is + Hcondensation = Hvaporization

mol H2O
g H2O
Examples; Hvap of water = 44.0kJ/mol Hvap of isopropanol = 45.4kJ/mol Hvap of acetone = 29.1kJ/mol
Solution:
155 kJ !
Check:
1 mol H 2 O 18.02 g ! = 68.6 g H 2 O 40.7 kJ 1 mol
since the given amount of heat is almost 4x the Hvap, the amount of water makes sense
59
15
Dynamic Equilibrium
once the rates of vaporization and condensation are equal, the total amount of vapor and liquid will not change evaporation and condensation are still occurring, but because they are opposite processes, there is no net gain or loss or either vapor or liquid when two opposite processes reach the same rate we call it a dynamic equilibrium
this does not mean there are equal amounts of vapor and liquid it means that they are changing by equal amounts
The Rates of Condensation and Evaporation
Figure 10.39
61 Chapter 10 | Slide 62 Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
Dynamic Equilibrium
Vapor Pressure
the pressure exerted by the vapor at equilibrium is called the vapor pressure the weaker the attractive forces between the molecules, the more molecules will be in the vapor therefore, the weaker the attractive forces, the higher the vapor pressure the higher the vapor pressure, the more volatile the liquid
Figure 10.38
63
64
16
Vapor Pressure
Dynamic Equilibrium
a system can respond to changes in the conditions while at equilibrium the system shifts its position to relieve or reduce the effects of the change
Figure 10.40
66
Vapor Pressure vs. Temperature

increasing the temperature increases the number of molecules able to escape the liquid the net result is that as the temperature increases, the vapor pressure increases small changes in temperature can make big changes in vapor pressure
Vapor Pressure vs. Temperature
Figure 10.42
67 Chapter 10 | Slide 68 Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
17
Boiling Point
when the temperature of a liquid reaches a point where its vapor pressure is the same as the external pressure then bubbles form (not just at the surface) called boiling and the temperature required to have the vapor pressure = external pressure is the boiling point
Boiling Point
the normal boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid = 1 atm the lower the external pressure, the lower the boiling point of the liquid
69
70
Concept Check
What is the vapor pressure of water at 100C? How do you know?
Superheating
Liquid can be heated to a temperature higher than its boiling point without actually boiling Surface tension suppresses the formation of bubbles
18
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
the graph of vapor pressure vs. temperature is an exponential growth curve
the logarithm of the vapor pressure vs. inverse absolute temperature is a linear function
) (H ' $ ln(Pvap ) = ln% ! e RT " % " & # ) (H ' $ ln(Pvap ) = ln ( ! ) + ln% e RT " % " & # ' ) (H vap $ % " ln(Pvap ) = ln ( ! ) + % " & RT # ' ) (H vap $ 1 ln(Pvap ) = % % R " " T + ln ( ! ) & #
vap vap
" !H vap
Pvap = # e
RT
Figure 10.42
73 74
Figure 10.42
if you know the heat of vaporization and the vapor pressure at one temp, then we can calculate the vapor pressure at another temp
remember: the vapor pressure at the normal boiling point is 760 torr
ln) = constant C (H vap (H vap ln(P1 ) + = C = ln(P2 ) + RT1 RT2 ln(P1 ) ' ln(P2 ) = (H vap 1 1 ( ' ) R1 T2 T1
Calculate the vapor pressure of methanol at 12.0C

Given: Find: Concept Plan: T1= =BP BP 64.6C P1 =torr 760 torr = 35.2 T2 = 12.0C T1 == 337.8K P1 = 760 Hvap = Hvap 35.2 kJ/mol T2 kJ/mol = 285.2KC
P2, P2 torr
P1, T1, T2, Hvap

" P % (H vap " 1 1 % ln$ 1 ' = $ ) ' R # T2 T1 & # P2 &
P2
Relationships:
!
T(K) = T(C) + 273.15 Solution:
torr K %1 %% +( "J=760 % 2.31 1 % " T1"= 64.6 273.15 H vap mol " P P 1 "337.8 35,200 1 1= e = 10.090 1P 1 ln$ = 2.31 $ '= ln 2 ln = $ P) ' $ ' $ '( 337.8 K ' J T2 = 12.0 273.15 = 285.2 K P22 & & P 285.2 K R mol#K T T1 P# torr # P#2 & & +8.314 & 22= 75.3
& P1 # (H vap & 1 1# ! $ ! ln$ $P != R $T ' T ! 1" % 2" % 2

75
Check:
! ! !
the units are correct, the size makes sense since the vapor pressure is lower at lower temperatures
19
Sublimation and Deposition

Solids also have vapor pressure surface molecules with sufficient energy may break free from the surface and become a gas this process is called sublimation the capturing of vapor molecules into a solid is called deposition the solid and vapor phases exist in dynamic equilibrium in a closed container
sublimation solid deposition gas
Melting = Fusion
as a solid is heated, its temperature rises and the molecules vibrate more vigorously once the temperature reaches the melting point, the molecules have sufficient energy to overcome some of the attractions that hold them in position and the solid melts (or fuses) melting is an endothermic process the opposite of melting is freezing
77
78
Heat of Fusion
the amount of heat energy required to melt one mole of the solid is called the Heat of Fusion, Hfus
sometimes called the enthalpy of fusion
Concept Check
Which would you predict should be larger for a given substance: Hvap or Hfus? Explain why.
always endothermic, therefore Hfus is + generally much less than Hvap Hsublimation = Hfusion + Hvaporization
79
20
Phase Diagrams Phase Diagrams

melting
Fusion Curve critical point
Pressure
A convenient way of representing the phases of a substance as a function of temperature and pressure: Triple point (temperature/pressure condition where all
three states exist simultaneously curve)
freezing
Solid
normal melting pt.
Sublimation Curve
Liquid
normal boiling pt.
Critical point (furthest point on the vapor pressure for most substances, freezing point increases as pressure increases
1 atm triple point

vaporization condensation sublimation deposition
Vapor Pressure Curve
Gas Temperature
82
Phase Diagram Navigation

Pressure
Phase Diagram of Water

critical point 374.1C 217.7 atm
Ice
Pressure
Water
Ice
Water
normal melting pt. 0C normal boiling pt. 100C
1 atm
1 atm triple point
Steam
0.01C 0.006 atm
Steam
83
Temperature
84
Temperature
21
Phase Diagram of CO2

critical point 31.0C 72.9 atm
The Critical Point

the temperature required to produce a supercritical fluid is called the critical temperature the pressure at the critical temperature is called the critical pressure at the critical temperature or higher temperatures, the gas cannot be condensed to a liquid, no matter how high the pressure gets
86
Pressure
Solid
Liquid
-56.7C 5.1 atm normal sublimation pt. -78.5C
triple point
Gas
1 atm
85
Temperature
Supercritical Fluid
as a liquid is heated in a sealed container, more vapor collects causing the pressure inside the container to rise and the density of the vapor to increase and the density of the liquid to decrease at some temperature, the meniscus between the liquid and vapor disappears and the states commingle to form a supercritical fluid supercritical fluid have properties of both gas and liquid states
Considering the following phase diagram for UF6, which of the following conditions is true?
A. B. C. D. At 1 atm, UF6 boils. UF6 melts at 1 atm. At 1 atm, UF6 sublimes. UF6 does not boil until it reaches the critical temperature. P (atm) Solid Liquid
Atmospheric pressure Gas
Temp (F)
87
22
Considering the following phase diagram for UF6, which of the following conditions is true?
A. B. C. D. At 1 atm, UF6 boils. UF6 melts at 1 atm. At 1 atm, UF6 sublimes. UF6 does not boil until it reaches the critical temperature. P (atm) Solid
Concept Check
As intermolecular forces increase, what happens to each of the following? Why? Boiling point Viscosity Surface tension Enthalpy of fusion Freezing point Vapor pressure Heat of vaporization
Liquid Atmospheric pressure Gas
Temp (F)
Practice Problem
Oxygen has a Tt = 54.3K, Pt = 1.14mm Hg, T c = 154.6K and Pc = 49.77atm. The density of the liquid is 1.14/cm3, and the density of the solid is 1.33g/cm3 . (small t stands for triple point and c for critical point) A) Sketch a phase diagram (pressure (atm) versus temp (C )) for oxygen, and label all the points of interest. B) Using the phase diagram that you drew, tell what the physical state is under the following conditions: i) ii) T = - 210C, P = 1.5atm T = -100C, P = 66atm
C) On your phase diagram above, trace a path starting from 0.0011atm and -225C. First, increase P to 35atm while keeping the T constant. Next, increase T to -150 C while keeping P constant. Then, decrease P to 1.0atm while keeping T constant. Finally, decrease T to -215 C while keeping P constant. What is your starting phase and what is your final phase?
23

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Simple Cubic

Three Cubic Unit Cells and the Corresponding Lattices

Cubic Unit Cells Simple Cubic

Cubic Unit Cells Body-Centered Cubic

Cubic Unit Cells Face-Centered Cubic

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

# atoms x mass 1 atom

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Another way to envision crystal structures is to think of atoms stacking in layers.

Closest-Packed Structures Third Layer with Offset 2nd Layer

or the second layer can sit over the holes in the

or the third layer can sit over the uncovered

Cubic Closest-Packed Face-Centered Cubic

Hexagonal Closest Packing

Cubic Closest-Packed Structures

The Indicated Sphere Has 12 Nearest Neighbors

Classifying Crystalline Solids

CsCl coordination number = 8 Cs+ = 167 pm Cl = 181 pm

NaCl coordination number = 6 Na+ = 97 pm Cl = 181 pm

Cesium Chloride Structures

Cs:Cl = 1: (8 x ), therefore the formula is CsCl

Rock Salt Structures

Zinc Blende Structures

each Zn2+ in holes between S 2

Zn:S = (4 x 1) : ( x 8) + ( x 6) = 4:4 = 1:1, therefore the formula is ZnS

Nonbonding Atomic Solids (Group 8)

Metallic Atomic Solids

tend to arrange atoms in closestpacked structure

Network Covalent Solids

dimensionality of the network affects other physical properties

The Diamond Structure: a 3-Dimensional Network

electrical insulator thermal conductor

chemically very nonreactive

The Graphite Structure: a 2-Dimensional Network

trigonal-planar geometry each sheet a giant molecule

glass is the amorphous form

Classification of Solids- Summary

Bonding Models for Metals

Band Model (MO Model)

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

The Electron Sea Model

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

The Band Model for Magnesium

Band Gap and Conductivity

Two Types of Alloys

Distribution of Thermal Energy

Evaporation vs. Condensation

we call this process condensation

Effect of Intermolecular Attraction on Evaporation and Condensation

always endothermic, therefore Hvap is + Hcondensation = Hvaporization

1 mol H 2 O 18.02 g ! = 68.6 g H 2 O 40.7 kJ 1 mol

The Rates of Condensation and Evaporation

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Vapor Pressure vs. Temperature

Vapor Pressure vs. Temperature

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Calculate the vapor pressure of methanol at 12.0C

P1, T1, T2, Hvap

T(K) = T(C) + 273.15 Solution:

& P1 # (H vap & 1 1# ! $ ! ln$ $P != R $T ' T ! 1" % 2" % 2

Sublimation and Deposition