1

The Dot Product

Spherical Coordinates

15

Lagrange Multipliers

The dot product is defined as: A B = |A||B| cos This can be used to find the angle between two lines. Two vectors are perpendicular if their dot product is 0.

x = sin cos , y = sin sin , z = cos , EXAMPLE: Find the minimum of x2 + y2 + z2 r = sin on the surface 2x + y + 2z = 9. , = = x2 + y2 + z2 , = arccos x y r arctan y v g(x, y, z) = 2x + y + 2z 9 = 0 The Jacobian is 2 sin .

Curvature

f (x, y, z) = x2 + y2 + z2 f = g 2x = 2 2y = 2z = 2 x 2x + + 2x = 9 2 Solve for each variable and insert into f for minimum.

2 The Cross Product Given a vector r, where the derivative is v The cross product is an operation that pro- (velocity), several things can be found. duces a vector perpendicular to two other vec = |v| tors. Additionally, it is the area of the parallelogram formed by the two vectors it is used on. v T = a b = |a||b|n sin
The volume of a parallelopiped composed of vectors a,b, and c is: |(a b) c| a = T + N H =va=r r H = | 3| N =BT Here, N is the unit normal, T is the unit tangent, and B is the unit binormal. If the binormal is constant, the curve lies in a plane. For the tangential component of acceleration: at = = |v a| The normal component of acceleration is: an = a T
2

Planes

16

Double Integrals

The definition of a plane through vector r0 =< x0 , y0 , z0 > with normal n is: n (r r0 ) = 0 Two planes are parallel if their normals are equal. The angle between two planes is defined as the angle between their normals. The angle between a line (b) and a plane with normal n can be found using: n b = |n||b| sin

Double integrals may be reversed by Fubinis theorem. Additionally, you may use a change of variable. This requires multiplication by the absolute value of the Jacobian. The Jacobian is the ratio of partial derivatives between the variables used in the change. (x, y) x y y x = (u, v) u v u v

10

Unit Normal
ru rv |ru rv |

17 18

Triple Integrals Surface Area

Basically super-double integrals.

Projection

A projection is when a line is dropped on another. The projection of vector w on v can be found using: vw P rojw v = w |w||w|

This can be used to find tangent planes.

11

Grad, Div, and Curl

|ru rv | dA
R

Quadratic Surfaces

A quadratic surface takes the form ax2 + by2 + cz2 = 1. If a,b, and c are positive, the surface is an ellipsoid. If one coefficient is negative, its a hyperboloid of one sheet. If two terms are negative, its a hyperboloid of two sheets. If the constant at the end (1 in this case) is 0, its a cone. If one term is missing, its a cylinder. If one term is missing a degree and there is one negative, its an elliptic paraboloid. In the same case with two negatives, its a hyperbolic paraboloid.

The gradient of a function is f =< fx , fy , fz >. The Divergence of a function is f = fx + fy + fz . The curl of a function is f . The divergence of curl is always 0. The divergence of the gradiant is the laplacian.

2 2 fx + fy + 1 dx dy R

f |g|
R

12

Linear Approximation 19
L(x) = f (a) + f (a) (x a)

dx dy gz

Vector Fields

13

Critical Points

Arc Length for Vector Functions

Given the vector r(t) =< f1 (t), f2 (t), f3 (t) > the arclength is:
b

A critical point is where (f ) = 0. A point is 2 a maximum if the laplacian (fxx fxy fxy ) is positive and fxx is negative. If the laplacian is positive but fxx is greater than zero, its a minimum. If the laplacian is less than zero, its a saddle point.

A vector field is said to be conservative if F = f for some function f . A vector field cannot be conservative if curl F = 0. A path must additionally be piecewise smooth. If the partial derivatives are continuous, it can be shown that F dr = F (B) F (A)
C

14
f1 (t)2 + f2 (t)2 + f3 (t)2 dt

Directional Derivatives
Dv = f v |v|

20

Greens Theorem

Polar Coordinates

P dx + Q dy =
C D

(Qx Py ) dA

x = r cos , y = r sin , z = z y r = x2 + y2 , = arctan x The Jacobian is r.

Note: The direction of maximum increase is the direction of the gradient. Minimum increase is the opposite of the gradient.

This can only be used on positively oriented fields. ALWAYS parametrize.

21

Uses of Greens Theorem

Many results can be deduced using the theorem.

Here dS is g|| where is the fundamental differential. = dx dy dy dz dz dx = = gz gx gy

Now we have a single formula for all cases: f (x, y, z) dS =

S D

f |(g)| |g |.

1. If P dx + Qdy is closed, meaning Qx Py = 0, then C P dx + Qdy = 0. Thus, it proves 23 Surface Integrals. the result about the conservative vector If a surface S is given in parametric form fields without finding the potential function. r =< x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v) > where 2. For example the area inside the ellipse (u, v) D, we define the integral of a function r(t) =< a cos(t), b sin(t) > is easily found f (x, y, z) on S by the formula: by 1 a cos(t)(b cos(t) (xdyydx) = 1 2 C 2 C b sin(t)(a sin(t)) dt = 1 abdt = ab. 2 0 Note how the third formula made the work easier! 3. Changing the path without changing the integral. Suppose that we have Py = Qx in a region D around the origin. Then for any simple closed positively oriented piecewise smooth curve C going around the origin the integral C P dx + Qdy is the same. The idea of the proof is to make consider some small circle totally contained inside C and apply the Greens theorem to the region between the two curves, using a mild generalization of the theorem.
2

Orientable Surface. We note that (g) defines a normal to our surface at all smooth points (points where (g) is defined and non zero.) Also, it varies continuously if g is continuous. Then such a surface has a well defined unit normal vector field at all smooth points, (g) . namely n = | (g)| If our surface encloses a bounded solid (like f (x, y, z) dS = f (r(u, v))|ru rv | dA. a sphere, then we can even make sense out of S D an outward or inward normal. However, surfaces dont usually come with We now define the surface integral of a a ready parametrization and it is useful to vector field F on the surface S by defining it (g) have a more general formula handy. as the integral of the function F n = F | . (g)| Let the surface S be described by an equa- Our formula becomes tion g(x, y, z) = 0, so that we have the basic relation gx dx + gy dy + gz dz = 0. F n|(g)| |g | = F (g) |g |. Thus, our integral reduces to
S D

f (x, y, z) dS =
S

dx dy . f |(g)| |gz | D

For a parametric surface, the formula becomes:

22

Stokes Theorem

F dr =
C S

curl F dS

It is easy to see that a similar formula holds f (r(u, v)) ru rv dA. when gy = 0 and we take x, z as parameters D and when gx = 0 we take y, z as parameters. We define the Fundamental differential Note that the above formula presumes on S to be: a certain direction of the unit normal as determined by (g) or ru rv . We multiply dx dy dy dz dz dx = = . g = by 1 if we wish to change the direction. gz gx gy