Bridge Repair Manual

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering
Bridge Repair Manual RC 4300

Issue A, Revision 1 March 2006
Issue A Revision 1 March 2006
Australian Rail Track Corporation This document is uncontrolled when printed Page 1 of 245
Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual
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Contents
Part 1 General ................................................................................................................. 8 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 9
1.1. The purpose of this manual ...................................................................................... 9 1.2. Nature of the repair procedure.................................................................................. 9 1.3. Who should use this manual?................................................................................... 9 1.4. Aims of repair procedures....................................................................................... 10 1.5. The structure of this manual ................................................................................... 10 1.6. Format for repair procedures .................................................................................. 10 2. Selecting repair actions ....................................................................................... 11
2.1. Introduction............................................................................................................. 11 2.2. Procedure for selecting repair action ...................................................................... 12 2.3. Testing for and measuring defects.......................................................................... 14 2.4. Engineering assessments....................................................................................... 15 2.5. Avoiding recurrence of defects ............................................................................... 16 2.6. Steel repair issues .................................................................................................. 16 2.7. Concrete repair issues............................................................................................ 18 2.8. Masonry repair issues ............................................................................................ 18 3. Health and Safety ................................................................................................. 18
3.1. General .................................................................................................................. 18 3.2. Work Safety............................................................................................................ 19 3.3. Public safety ........................................................................................................... 20 3.4. Health..................................................................................................................... 20 3.5. First aid .................................................................................................................. 21 3.6. Cleaning up ............................................................................................................ 21 3.7. Removal of lead based paints ................................................................................ 22 Part 2 Steel Repairs ....................................................................................................... 23 4. Introduction to standard steel repairs ................................................................ 24
4.1. Introduction............................................................................................................. 24 4.2. Selecting the appropriate repair procedure ............................................................. 24 4.3. Sub-procedures...................................................................................................... 24 4.4. Avoid welding ......................................................................................................... 24 4.5. Drawings ................................................................................................................ 25 4.6. Repair materials ..................................................................................................... 25 4.7. Health and safety.................................................................................................... 25
Issue A Revision 1 March 2006 Australian Rail Track Corporation This document is uncontrolled when printed Page 2 of 245
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4.8. References ............................................................................................................. 25 5. Sub-procedures .................................................................................................... 26
5.1. Arresting corrosion (Sub-Procedure) ...................................................................... 26 5.2. Removing rivets and replacing with bolts (Sub-procedure) ..................................... 27 5.3. Patch painting (including surface preparation) ........................................................ 30 5.4. Filling voids (Sub-procedure).................................................................................. 33 5.5. Sealing interfaces (Sub-procedure) ........................................................................ 35 6. Repairing corroded flanges and webs of girders............................................ 35
6.1. Repairing flange corrosion in riveted girders........................................................... 35 6.2. Repairing flange corrosion in rolled or welded girders ............................................ 39 6.3. Repairing web corrosion near bottom flange angles in riveted girders .................... 41 6.4. Repairing webs with localised corrosion ................................................................. 45 6.5. Repairing corroded bottom flanges of jack arch bridges ......................................... 47 7. Repairing stiffeners, bracing connections and bearings .................................. 51
7.1. Relief of corrosion site at the base of intermediate web stiffeners........................... 51 7.2. Repairing intermediate and bearing web stiffeners with localised corrosion............ 55 7.3. Repairing bearing web stiffeners with localised corrosion at base of outstand leg of stiffener .................................................................................................................. 61 7.4. Relief of corrosion site at the base of splayed angle bearing end stiffeners ............ 62 7.5. Repairing corrosion at bottom flange bracing connection........................................ 64 7.6. Replacing bearing plates ........................................................................................ 68 7.7. Repairing cracked and broken wind brace welded connections .............................. 73 8. Repairing fatigue damage.................................................................................... 74
8.1. Intercepting fatigue cracks...................................................................................... 74 8.2. Repairing fatigue cracks at connections of coped I-sections................................... 76 9. Repairing impact damage .................................................................................... 78
9.1. Description of Defect .............................................................................................. 78 9.2. Engineering Discussion .......................................................................................... 79 9.3. Sub-procedures required ........................................................................................ 79 9.4. Procedure outline ................................................................................................... 80 10. Repairing stepways and footways structures .................................................... 87
10.1. Repairing steel risers and stringers in stepways ..................................................... 87 10.2. Repairing corroded angle colums ........................................................................... 93 10.3. Repairing corroded 4-angle colums ........................................................................ 96 11. Complete replacement of members .................................................................. 102
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11.1. Replacing members or elements of riveted members ........................................... 102 12. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 105
12.1. General ................................................................................................................ 105 12.2. Health and safety.................................................................................................. 105 12.3. References ........................................................................................................... 105 13. Deterioration of concrete ................................................................................... 105
13.1. Factors affecting deterioration .............................................................................. 105 13.2. Causes of deterioration ........................................................................................ 106 14. Types of defects ................................................................................................. 113
14.1. Introduction........................................................................................................... 113 14.2. Cracking ............................................................................................................... 113 14.3. Spalling ................................................................................................................ 116 14.4. Scaling ................................................................................................................. 117 14.5. Delamination ........................................................................................................ 118 14.6. Leaching............................................................................................................... 118 14.7. Rust stains............................................................................................................ 119 14.8. Honeycombing ..................................................................................................... 119 14.9. Dampness ............................................................................................................ 120 14.10. 14.11. 15. Leaking joints................................................................................................... 120 Breaking up of repairs...................................................................................... 120
Assessment of deterioration ............................................................................. 120
15.1. General ................................................................................................................ 121 15.2. Assessment procedures ....................................................................................... 121 15.3. Other detection methods ...................................................................................... 123 16. Repair materials.................................................................................................. 123
16.1. Introduction........................................................................................................... 123 16.2. Material properties................................................................................................ 124 16.3. Types of Repairs .................................................................................................. 124 16.4. Questions to consider before choosing a repair material ...................................... 137 17. Repair options .................................................................................................... 139
17.1. Establish need for repairs ..................................................................................... 139 17.2. Repair options ...................................................................................................... 139 17.3. Selection of repair methods .................................................................................. 139 18. Introduction to concrete repair procedures ..................................................... 140
18.1. General ................................................................................................................ 140
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18.2. Repair methods .................................................................................................... 140 18.3. Sub-procedures.................................................................................................... 140 18.4. Steps in repair work.............................................................................................. 140 19. Sub-procedures .................................................................................................. 141
19.1. Removing damaged concrete (sub-procedure)..................................................... 141 19.2. Removing concrete at joints (Sub-procedure)....................................................... 143 19.3. Cleaning concrete substrate for patch repairs and re-casting (sub-procedure) ..... 145 19.4. Cleaning Concrete Surface for Overlays............................................................... 145 19.5. Cleaning reinforcement (Sub-procedure).............................................................. 146 19.6. Adding reinforcement (Sub-procedure)................................................................. 146 19.7. Applying bonding coat to concrete (Sub-procedure) ............................................. 147 19.8. Coating reinforcement (Sub-procedure)................................................................ 148 19.9. Formwork for re-casting concrete (Sub-procedure)............................................... 148 19.10. 19.11. 20. Curing (Sub-procedure) ................................................................................... 149 Surface preparation for external coatings (Sub-procedure) .............................. 150
Repairing cracks................................................................................................. 151
20.1. Types of cracks .................................................................................................... 151 20.2. Repair methods for cracks.................................................................................... 151 20.3. Cracks that should be repaired ............................................................................. 152 20.4. Epoxy injection ..................................................................................................... 153 20.5. Grouting ............................................................................................................... 154 20.6. Routing and sealing.............................................................................................. 155 20.7. Drilling and plugging ............................................................................................. 156 20.8. Stitching ............................................................................................................... 157 20.9. Adding reinforcement ........................................................................................... 158 20.10. 20.11. 21. Surface treatments........................................................................................... 160 Flexible sealants for live cracks........................................................................ 161
Patch repairs....................................................................................................... 163
21.1. Engineering discussion......................................................................................... 163 21.2. Repair procedure with cement-sand mortars ........................................................ 163 21.3. Repair procedure with polymer modified cementitious mortars ............................. 164 21.4. Repair procedure with epoxy mortars ................................................................... 164 22. Recasting with concrete .................................................................................... 165
22.1. Engineering discussion......................................................................................... 165 22.2. Concrete mix design............................................................................................. 166 22.3. Repair procedures ................................................................................................ 168
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22.4. Replacing bearing pads ........................................................................................ 169 23. 24. Repairs for corrosion ......................................................................................... 170 Sprayed concrete ............................................................................................... 170
24.1. Repair procedure.................................................................................................. 171 25. Protective coatings ............................................................................................ 172
25.1. Engineering Discussion ........................................................................................ 172 25.2. Repair procedure for chloride build up .................................................................. 173 25.3. Repair procedure for carbonation ......................................................................... 174 26. 27. References .......................................................................................................... 175 Introduction to masonry repairs........................................................................ 179
27.1. General ................................................................................................................ 179 27.2. Health and safety.................................................................................................. 179 27.3. Acknowledgements .............................................................................................. 179 28. Deterioration of Masonry ................................................................................... 179
28.1. Causes of deterioration ........................................................................................ 179 29. Types of defects ................................................................................................. 182
29.1. Cracks .................................................................................................................. 182 29.2. Fretting ................................................................................................................. 183 29.3. Spalling ................................................................................................................ 183 30. Assessment of deterioration ............................................................................. 183
30.1. General ................................................................................................................ 183 30.2. Assessment procedure......................................................................................... 183 31. Repair materials.................................................................................................. 185
31.1. General ................................................................................................................ 185 31.2. Function of mortar ................................................................................................ 185 31.3. Problems with strong mortars ............................................................................... 185 31.4. Importance of lime in mortars ............................................................................... 186 31.5. Basic principles .................................................................................................... 186 32. Methods of repair ............................................................................................... 186
32.1. General ................................................................................................................ 186 32.2. Steps in repair work.............................................................................................. 187 32.3. Strength and stability ............................................................................................ 187 32.4. Repairs of cracks.................................................................................................. 187 32.5. Fretting ................................................................................................................. 189
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32.6. Impact damage..................................................................................................... 191 32.7. Corrosion of embedded iron or steel..................................................................... 191 32.8. Miscellaneous repairs........................................................................................... 191 Appendix A Repair materials ...................................................................................... 193 Appendix B Guidelines for Management of Lead Paint on Steel Structures ........... 196 Appendix C Guidelines for welding old steels .......................................................... 231 Appendix D Techniques for removing rivets using oxy-fuel equipment ................. 244
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Bridge Repair Manual
Part 1 General
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1.
Introduction
1.1. The purpose of this manual The purpose of this manual is to describe and detail standard repair procedures for defects commonly found in bridges owned and maintained by ARTC. Both new procedures and those that have been previously used successfully on ARTC's bridges are included. Several advantages result from standardising repair procedures: The standard repair procedures included have been developed to be both structurally sound and practically achievable. Adherence to standard repair procedures reduces the incidence of inappropriate and ineffective repairs and repairs that have adverse effects on the bridge. Repairs will be undertaken in a consistent fashion throughout ARTC, whether carried out by day labour or under contract. The engineering input into detailing sound repairs is minimised and duplication of effort in developing repair procedures is avoided. The cumulative knowledge and experience gained in carrying out repairs can be incorporated into the repair procedures and details. This is an effective means of passing on the knowledge. Relevant engineering information about the repair procedures is included in the manual to assist those responsible for selecting appropriate repair action.
1.2. Nature of the repair procedure The repair procedures given are generic in nature; that is, they apply to a range of similar solutions, with varying member size, position and arrangement. As such it is not possible to completely detail the repair. Additional information such as the size and connections of strengthening elements and their precise position needs to be supplied to enable the repair to be completed. Notwithstanding the above, guidelines for the selection of size, position and connections of strengthening elements etc, are given wherever possible to minimise the amount of engineering input required. Such guidelines are often conservative and savings may be made in materials and labour requirements for the repair if the engineering details of the repair are determined by design for the specific case at hand. The savings may be significant and worthwhile if the extent of repair is great. 1.3. Who should use this manual? This manual should be used by those responsible for:
selecting repair actions for bridges; implementing repairs either using day labour or under contract; inspecting repair work carried out by either day labour or
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contractors; carrying out routine or special maintenance on bridges that have been repaired.
1.4. Aims of repair procedures The aim of the repair procedures is to restore the strength and serviceability of the bridge structure, either to the "as new" condition, or to the condition that is required for current or envisaged use. In developing repair details the normal design practices, as specified in the Australian Bridge Design Code, are applied. It is reasonable that there will be the same level of confidence in the repaired bridge as in a new structure. For steel structures, the fatigue life of the repaired bridge should not be less than the life that would have remained had the defect not occurred. Some of the repair procedures, such as concrete etching, aim to restore the original integrity of the member. Other repairs, typically when used in steel structures, aim to compensate for the defect by the attachment of additional structural elements. A few procedures that are included are not repairs as such, but rather actions that can be taken to reduce or arrest further deterioration of the structure, or make the structure easier to maintain. 1.5. The structure of this manual The manual is divided into five parts. Part 1 provides an introduction to the manual, discusses the process of selecting repair actions and presents information on environmental safety and occupational health as related to bridge repairs. covers standard repairs to steel bridges. covers standard repairs to concrete bridge superstructures and substructures. covers repairs to masonry. covers repairs to timber bridges. (not yet written)
Part 2 Part 3
Part 4 Part 5
Additional information such as specifications for repair materials and further technical information are included in the Appendices. 1.6. Format for repair procedures Each repair procedure is presented in a consistent format comprising the following parts. 1. 2. Description of defect. Description of repair. = A brief statement describing the form of the repair.
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3.
Engineering discussion. = A discussion of engineering aspects of the repair. Sub-procedures required. Procedure outline. = The main steps in implementing the repair are described. This is to be read in conjunction with drawings detailing the repair. Separate procedure outlines may be given for different cases. Alternative details. = Describes possible alternatives to part, or all, of the repair. Action to avoid recurrence. = Describes action that can be taken to avoid or minimise recurrence of the defect. Special considerations and effects of repair. = Describes special considerations required, such as traffic restrictions, or effects of the repair on the structure. Follow-up inspection and testing. = Indicates requirements for follow-up inspection or testing to confirm the ongoing performance of the repair. Drawing List. = Lists the drawing(s) that describe and detail the repair.
4. 5.
6. 7.
8.
9.
10.
Some of these parts are omitted if they are not relevant.
2.
Selecting repair actions
2.1. Introduction The aim of repairing a bridge is to extend its life. It is most important that the repair actions selected satisfy this aim at a cost commensurate with the benefits derived. Inappropriate repair action may actually reduce the life expectancy of a bridge. It is also possible that money spent on extensive and costly repair will not extend the life of the bridge significantly and would be better put towards a new bridge. Selection of appropriate maintenance, rehabilitation and replacement (MR & R) actions for a bridge is part of the function of a Bridge Management System. The principles of Life Cycle Costing are applied in Bridge Management Systems to determine the optimum MR & R strategy that will result in minimum annual cost of providing a bridge at a site. If a Life Cycle Costing analysis cannot be carried out, the next best thing is to determine the appropriate repair action by applying a process of logical assessment to the bridge as a whole. Section 2.3 below presents a series of questions to be considered in the process of selecting appropriate repair action.
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2.2. Procedure for selecting repair action In determining the appropriate repair action to be carried out on a bridge, the following questions should be answered: 2.2.1 What is the nature, severity, location and extent of each defect? To enable a considered logical assessment of repair actions, full data about each defect must be known and recorded from site inspections, measurements and testing. Clause 2.3 deals with testing for and measurement of defects. 2.2.2 Is a repair to restore full strength necessary? The underbridge, overbridge, footbridge or stepway may have been designed with a load capacity greater than currently required or envisaged. In this case the strength reduction caused by the defect may be acceptable. Even if the full design load capacity is needed, a small overstress say 10% resulting from the defect can usually be accepted. Some elements may be able to tolerate considerable deterioration before repair or strengthening is needed. For example, the full flange area of a rolled girder may not be necessary near the end of a span where the bending moment is small. The necessity for and extent of a repair should be determined, where appropriate, by a full engineering assessment. The time and effort required for such a task may be repaid by minimising the extent of repairs needed or by determining that the repairs are not structurally necessary. Clause 2.5 discusses the role of engineering assessments. If it is found that repair or strengthening is not needed, then the only action requirement is to protect the structure from further deterioration. The serviceability requirements, particularly fatigue in steel, should be considered in a similar manner to strength. Note that a repair may be warranted to improve the appearance of a bridge, even if it is not structurally essential. 2.2.3 Is a standard repair procedure available for each defect? It is not normally appropriate to repair one defect in a bridge if other signifiant defects are left unrepaired because satisfactory or cost effective repair procedures are not available. It should be confirmed that a standard repair procedure envisaged is actually appropriate to the defect. The engineering discussion accompanying each repair procedure will describe where the procedure should and should not be used. 2.2.4 What is the total cost of repairing all defects? The total cost of repairing all defects in a bridge, even if only determined crudely, should be estimated and compared with the expected benefits. The benefits are usually either extending the life of the bridge or eliminating an immediate dangerous situation. The costs of any track possessions etc. that are required should be included. If the costs of repair are substantial and the repairs are non-urgent for safety, then it
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may be better to replace the bridge and divert repair funds to more appropriate cases. The initial cost estimate will be a factor in deciding if a detailed engineering assessment is worthwhile. When the total cost is high say more than 5% to 10% of the bridge replacement cost -a detailed engineering assessment must be carried out. The extent of repair is likely to be minimised as are sizes and numbers of connections for strengthening elements. 2.2.5 How significant will the repair be in extending the life of the bridge? The proposed repair may not provide value for money if the life of the bridge is not extended because of other factors. Most steel bridges have a finite life, governed by fatigue of the steelwork. It may not be appropriate to spend large amounts of money on repairs if the bridge is near the end of its predicted fatigue life. Replacement is probably a better option. In concrete structures, defects such as corrosion of reinforcement may not be apparent at the present time, but the effects may show up in the form of concrete cracking and spalling in the near future. It may not be appropriate to spend money on repairing some localised defects if much more extensive defects are likely to show up in the near future. Investigation by specialists into the complete structure may be warranted prior to undertaking costly repairs of concrete. As another example, the benefits of repairing corroded bottom flanges of jack arch bridges may not be certain because the condition of the remainder of the steel section is usually not known. The effort in repairing the bottom flange would be wasted if the top flange and web were also severely corroded. 2.2.6 Can the cost of the repair be justified on the basis of benefits derived? The answer to this question will normally be evident from the answers to questions 2.2.2 to 2.2.5. For some bridges there may be additional factors that influence the decision on whether to implement a particular repair. Taking advantage of planned track possessions may often be a significant factor in deciding whether to implement a repair or not. In many repairs, particularly smaller ones, the cost of the track possession is the major component. If the repair can be carried out under a possession provided for other reasons, the actual cost of the repair drops significantly for the same benefit. A repair that could not normally be justified on a cost/benefit basis may become cost effective as a result. 2.2.7 Is a detailed engineering assessment needed? The reasons for, and benefits of, an engineering assessment are discussed in Part 2 Section 2.4 of this manual. The decision to undertake an engineering assessment will be based on the cost of the assessment versus the possible benefits. A longer lead time to implement a repair will usually be required if an engineering assessment is to be undertaken. 2.2.8 Has partial replacement of the bridge been considered? As an alternative to repairing defects or strengthening members, consideration should be given to partial replacement of the structure.
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This may involve merely replacement of damaged bracing members, stiffeners, stringers, cross girders etc. up to complete replacement of main girders. The decision will be based on time, cost and effectiveness of the repair compared to that of a complete replacement. If the effectiveness or life expectancy of repairs or strengthening is limited, then complete replacement of an element may be a better option, particularly if the cause of the defect can be eliminated at the same time. 2.2.9 Will the repair have any adverse effects on the structure? Consider any adverse effects that the repair may have on the performance of the bridge. Will traffic clearances be reduced? Will the structure become more vulnerable to damage or deterioration? Will other potential defects be hidden by the repair? 2.3. Testing for and measuring defects 2.3.1 General As stated in 2.2.1 above, it is necessary to determine the nature, severity, extent and location of defects to determine appropriate repair actions. Most defects are initially detected by visual inspection. The severity, extent and location are determined by subsequent measurements and tests. 2.3.2 Measuring section loss in steel In steel structures, corrosion of steel leading to a loss of section is a common defect. Measurements are to be taken to determine the thickness of remaining sound steel for comparison with the original thickness. All loose rust and corrosion product must be removed at the point of measurement to allow an accurate reading. Vernier calipers or preferably a micrometer should be used to obtain accurate measurements to at least an accuracy of 0.25mm. The number and location of measurements required will depend on the defect under consideration. Usually the minimum requirement is to measure the remaining crosssectional area of an element (flange, web, stiffener) at the location of the greatest corrosion loss and location of greatest stress. 2.3.3 Testing for and measuring cracks in steel Although many cracks in steel can be detected by visual inspection, it is usually necessary to use techniques such as magnetic particle testing to determine the exact extent of cracks. This is particularly important in mapping fatigue cracks where the end point must be found. Examination for cracks and other defects in new welds will require the use of nondestructive techniques such as ultrasonic or X-ray examination. Further discussion of N-D examination methods is beyond the scope of this manual, but reference is made to the appropriate Australian Standards.
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2.3.4 Observation under load The severity of some defects is best determined by observing the structure during the passage of a heavy load. Loose rivets and bolts may be detected by this means. The behaviour of girder bearing plates and bed plates under load will aid in determining the necessity for repair or replacement. 2.3.5 Detecting defects in concrete While most defects in concrete, such as cracking, spalling and rust staining are detected by visual examination, the likelihood of further deterioration can be determined using specialist testing techniques. Tests to determine extent of carbonation, chloride penetration, cover to reinforcing etc. can be carried out to determine the life expectancy of concrete. As outlined above, this information is useful in planning the long term maintenance and repair strategy for a concrete structure. Refer to Part 3 of this manual, dealing specifically with concrete repairs, for more information on testing of concrete. 2.4. Engineering assessments An engineering assessment or investigation into a proposed repair must be carried out and is essential to determine the appropriateness of the repair and the repair details. The engineering assessment is based on measured and recorded defects found on the bridge during inspections, the structural drawings of the bridge and the load capacity requirement of the bridge. The aims of an engineering assessment are to: determine the effect of the defects on the strength of the structure, determine the effects of the defects on the serviceability of the bridge, including its fatigue performance, determine or confirm that each proposed standard repair is both necessary and suitable to address the defect, determine the extent of all the required repairs, determine the engineering details of the repairs where required these include plate sizes, fastener sizes and types, new connection details etc.
A detailed engineering assessment is not always required. The repair procedures include, where possible, guidelines for determining the above data, albeit adopting a conservative approach. A detailed engineering assessment is required where the estimated total cost of repairs is more than 5% to 10% of the replacement cost of the structure. In such cases, the cost of the investigation could be more than saved in the reduced extent of repair.
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2.5. Avoiding recurrence of defects In conjunction with carrying out the repairs, action should be taken where possible to avoid recurrence of the defects. This has been considered in devising repair procedures. To protect against recurrence of the defect, the original cause must be known and eliminated where possible. The causes of defects are often built into the structures and are difficult to eliminate. Deterioration of concrete, for example, due to insufficient cover to reinforcing or poor concrete compaction, cannot be easily addressed. Details in steel structures which are prone to corrosion because of collection of water and dirt cannot be readily eliminated without changing the structure significantly. Often the only effective means of avoiding recurrence of the defect is preventive maintenance of the structure to remove dirt and debris and to maintain the integrity of the paint system. Where possible galvanised strengthening or replacement elements should be used to ensure long term corrosion protection with minimum maintenance requirements. The standard repair procedures specify galvanised elements where possible. 2.6. Steel repair issues 2.6.1 Methods of connection In addressing defects in steel bridges resulting from steel corrosion, it is clearly not possible to reinstate the steel to its original condition. Similarly, restoring physically damaged steel to its original condition is often difficult. Most repairs therefore involve fitting new steel elements to compensate for the reduction in strength or serviceability caused by the section loss. The two standard methods of connecting new elements are welding and mechanical fastenings (bolts etc.). Of the two, mechanical fastenings have the least potential problems although welding is usually easier and cheaper. Mechanical fasteners have been adopted as the standard method in all steel repair procedures.
The two main potential problems with field welded connections are: 1. 2. satisfactory welds may be difficult or impossible to achieve in steels of older bridges because of their metallurgical properties; and the fatigue life of the structure may be adversely affected by welding. The effect may be severe.
Refer to 2.6.2 and 2.6.3 below. Connection by welding can only be permitted if satisfactory welds are proven to be achievable and any effects on fatigue life are acceptable. Most standard repairs, detailed with bolted connections, can be readily adapted for welded connections. 2.6.2 Weldability of steel While modern steels can be readily repaired by welding using appropriate procedures, the steels found in older steel bridges are often considered "not
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weldable" or very difficult to weld because of their metallurgical properties. The high sulphur and phosphorous contents largely contribute to difficulty in welding. Unfortunately, it is not possible to classify steels as weldable or "not weldable" based on their age. From the 1940's to the 1960's some imported steels were from plants producing steels designed to be weldable, while others were from plants producing unweldable steels. It is essential that, where a welded repair is proposed on steels of unknown weldability, the steels be tested to determine whether or not they are weldable by normal welding procedures. The necessary tests can be carried out by NATA Accredited Laboratory. It is sometimes technically possible to achieve satisfactory welds in older style (nonweldable) steels, but only by careful adherence to particular welding procedures designed for such steels. A high level of operator skill and good welding conditions are required. Unfortunately, most steel repairs must be carried out in conditions which are anything but conducive to good welding. Appendix C provides details of techniques for welding so-called "nonweldable" steels. The information is intended for accredited welders/boilermakers already skilled in normal welding techniques. If such welding is attempted, it is essential to carry out test welds to confirm that acceptable results can be achieved under site conditions. It is also necessary to carry out non-destructive testing of the completed welds to confirm their integrity. Also, careful consideration must be given to the ramifications of a failed attempt at a welded repair on "non-weldable" steels. The cost of undoing the damage may be significantly greater than if a bolted connection repair had been carried out. 2.6.3 Effect on fatigue life As in the design of new steel bridges, the details of welded connections used in steel repairs may have an effect on the fatigue life of a bridge. Although the remaining life of a bridge that has been in service for many years is not expected to be as great as a new bridge, it is best to avoid any repair actions that would adversely affect fatigue life. This is particularly so if viable bolted connection alternatives are available. Properly maintained riveted girder bridges with low stress levels may never fail by fatigue. Repairs involving welded connections on such bridges often set a finite fatigue life and so should be avoided. If a welded repair is proposed, it should always be accompanied by an engineering assessment of the effect on the fatigue life of the weldment. The AREA Manual for Railway Engineering should be used to assess the effects. The proposed welded repair should only be implemented if the effects on fatigue life are acceptable. 2.6.4 Redundancy of riveted girders Riveted girders, comprising multiple elements for flanges, have beneficial redundancy that should not be removed by the repair process. Redundancy means that if one of the plate or angle elements of a flange fails, say by a fatigue crack, the whole girder will not immediately fail as the fatigue crack cannot propagate to other elements. Inspection can detect the failed component for repair prior to complete
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failure of the girder. The stress levels in the uncracked elements obviously increase, causing overstress and reducing the overall fatigue life, but the situation is better than in welded or rolled girders where a crack in a flange can quickly propogate all the way through the section, leading to collapse. The elements of riveted girder flanges must not be joined by welding as this would create paths to allow fatigue cracks to propagate from one element to another. Redundancy is of particular benefit in bridges of a considerable age because it provides a degree of protection against sudden failure. The redundancy must be preserved. 2.7. Concrete repair issues The most important issue in the repair of any structure is to ensure adequate strength and stability at all times. This is particularly relevant in repair to reinforced concrete elements where significant areas of concrete are to be removed. In such cases the strength or stability of the structure with the concrete removed should be checked by a structural engineer before commencing repairs. Also, load restrictions should be applied and the structure temporarily supported as necessary. The repair of concrete structures requires a knowledge of the following issues: 1. Types of defects which can occur due to deterioration, e.g. cracks, spalls, delamination, scaling, honeycombing etc. 2. Causes of deterioration, e.g. chloride penetration, carbonation, alkali aggregate reaction, shrinkage and thermal effects, foundation movements etc. 3. Test methods for assessing the severity of deterioration. 4. Selection of appropriate repair materials, from ordinary Portland cement to synthetic polymers, resins and acrylics according to particular requirements of a repair project. 5. Selection of appropriate repair procedure. Part 3, Concrete repairs, contains detailed discussion of all the above issues. However, it does not include complex and advanced repair methods such as cathodic protection, re-alkalisation etc., which should only be entrusted to organisations specialising in this work. Also, the repair methods are for reinforced and plain concrete only, not prestressed concrete. 2.8. Masonry repair issues The repairs of masonry structures generally involve the same issues as for concrete structures. Methods and materials for masonry repairs are included in Part 4.
3.
Health and Safety
3.1. General For the protection and safety of workmen, public and environment, safe work practices are essential on every work site. The following safety aspects are
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common to most types of ARTC work and must be considered prior to commencement of any construction or repair project: Work safety Public safety Environmental safety Health
Health and safety have a high priority at all times during field operations. All statutory rules and regulations under various Occupational Health and Safety Acts a n ds a f e t yp r a c t i c e sd e t a i l e di nA R T C sS a f e t y Ma n a g e me n tS y s t e m a r ef o r guidance in planning for safety at all the worksites. Commonsense should be used in anticipating the particular safety requirements for each and every project to be undertaken. 3.2. Work Safety Work safety must be planned ahead. needs to attend to the following: 1. Before commencing work the supervisor
Familiarise yourself with full requirements of the repair work including formwork, falsework, demolition, repair materials, repair method, and safety requirements of handling repair materials and equipment. Arrange personnel who are skilled in the particular type of repair. Ensure that all tools, plant and equipment are available and in good working order. Arrange all repair materials including materials necessary for cleaning tools and plant after completion of work. Arrange safety harnesses, clothing, footwear, gloves, ear muffs, eye protection glasses, masks, helmets, welding shields, and any other items necessary for personal safety of the workers. Supply washing soap, towels and barrier creams for worker hygiene. Identify and locate all the utilities existing at site, such as water, sewerage, electricity, signals, communications, gas etc. If any utilities are affected by work take measures in advance to protect them or get them relocated as necessary through appropriate authorities. If any risk is foreseen, inform the authorities to stand by for any emergencies. Ensure that first aid equipment is available at site and that at least one of the personnel at site holds a valid qualification for giving first aid. If necessary, plan and arrange for standby oxygen administering equipment and fire-extinguishers. Under such circumstances workers should be trained beforehand in how to use them. All work must be carried out in well ventilated and well lit areas. If necessary make prior arrangements for exhaust fans and artificial lighting.
2. 3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
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10.
If scaffolding and falsework are required for supporting the structure, arrange this to be designed by qualified structural engineers. Erection and stability of falsework must be supervised by qualified technical persons. Persons who are not qualified for carrying out a particular task or operating a particular equipment must not be allowed to do that task or operate the equipment. Generally, all the work should be carried out as per industry's normal standards of practice and/or in compliance with the Australian Standards. All repair work using proprietary materials must be carried out strictly according to the manufacturer's printed instructions. The manufacturer's product data sheets for health and safety precautions must be carefully read and followed.
11.
12.
13.
3.3. Public safety There are legal obligations to take all necessary precautions and adequate measures for safety of public in and around the working area. The following steps should be taken to safeguard the public against any injury, loss of life or property: 1. Attend immediately to any damage and deterioration which may cause loss of strength and stability of a structure and thereby may result in injury, loss of life or property to public. Take steps to support the structure against instability and collapse, as well as protect the adjacent properties, plant and utilities from possible damage. Until the structure is made safe, close off access to it and prohibit its use by the public by setting up suitable fences and barriers. With the assistance of police and Road and Traffic Authority arrange to divert the pedestrian and vehicular traffic by alternative routes. Provide warning signs and hazard lights as necessary to caution the public of danger. During progress of the work, take all necessary precautions to safeguard the public from suffering excessive hardship and inconvenience which may be caused by equipment, materials and procedures. Minimise noise, dust, flooding, blowing of sand and grit in blasting operations, toxic fumes, debris and so on. At the completion of the repairs, clean up all dirt and debris, remove all plant, equipment and materials and restore the facility to public.
2. 3.
4.
5.
Caution: In construction and repair work on railway sites, use is frequently made of explosives, detonators and hazardous materials. The issue and use of such materials must be strictly controlled. Particularly, all explosives and detonators must be accounted for in order to prevent their falling into hands of children and undesirable elements. Many a loss of life and limb has been caused by detonators picked up by children and adolescents and used for "fun". 3.4. Health All personnel engaged at a work site must be protected against sickness and personal injury caused by work conditions, repair materials and methods of repair. Accidents, injury and sickness can be minimised by taking the following precautions:
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1.
2.
3. 4. 5. 6.
Do not work in unventilated or poorly ventilated areas. Many repair materials and procedures give off unpleasant vapours or toxic fumes that can cause nausea or breathing difficulties. If necessary, wear respirator masks. Do not smoke while working, as you may inhale vapours and fumes too. Handling of polymers, epoxies, acrylics and other cementitious materials often causes skin and eye irritations. Before mixing and using these materials, read all label warnings on the packages as well as the ma n u f a c t u r e r s p r o d u c tl i t e r a t u r ea n df o l l o w t h eh a n d l i n gi n s t r u c t i o n s carefully. Avoid physical contact with the materials by wearing protective clothing, shoes, gloves and protective eye wear at all times. Apply protective barrier cream on exposed skin. (However, do not use barrier creams as substitute for protective clothing). If any material comes into contact with skin or enters the eyes, give first aid immediately, as described herein later. If overalls or inside of shoes and gloves become contaminated, remove them as soon as practicable and replace them with clean ones. Wash thoroughly with warm soapy water before eating, drinking or smoking and after finishing work.
3.5. First aid The following first aid procedures should be followed: Eyes If any material enters the eyes or irritation persists, hold eyes open, flush with low pressure water for at least 10 minutes and seek immediate medical aid. Skin If skin contact occurs, remove contaminated clothing and wash skin thoroughly with warm soapy water. If irritation persists or skin rashes or allergic responses such as wheezing and swelling occur, seek immediate medical aid. Inhalation Personnel affected by inhalation of vapour etc. should be removed from the contaminated area into fresh air. Apply artificial respiration if not breathing and seek immediate medical aid. Ingestion Immediately rinse the mouth repeatedly with water. If swallowing occurs, do not induce vomiting. Drink plenty of water and seek immediate medical aid. Fire Use a fire extinguisher appropriate to the type of burning material. Avoid breathing products of combustion. 3.6. Cleaning up All leaks or spillages should be cleaned up as they occur and before they set. The material should be soaked up in suitable absorbents such as dry sand or sawdust, or swept up if it is powdered material. The material should be disposed of quickly and safely into waste drums.
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Tools and equipment can be cleaned with proprietary solvents or warm water and detergent before the adhesive has had time to set. 3.7. Removal of lead based paints The large majority of rail bridges are primed with red lead primer. Lead in any form is toxic to humans and animals when ingested or inhaled. Particular attention therefore must be paid to environmental safety and worker and public health and safety in the process of removing lead based paints. Reference is made to Appendix B containing the "Guidelines for Management of Red Lead Paint on Steel
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Part 2 Steel Repairs
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4.
Introduction to standard steel repairs
4.1. Introduction Part 2 of this manual gives details of standard repair procedures for defects commonly occurring in steel bridges and other structures within the ARTC system. Documenting standard repair procedures assists in ensuring that common defects are repaired in a consistent and structurally satisfactory manner by both ARTC staff and sub-contractors. It must be emphasised that the information given on each repair is not a full specification (in the contractual sense) but a description of the form of the repair and the steps required to implement the repair for each generic type of defect. Additional information, such as size and thickness of plates, numbers and arrangement of new bolts, extent of repair etc. must be determined by an engineering assessment and provided to the repairer in conjunction with information in this manual. Guidelines for determining this additional information are given with the procedure, where possible. 4.2. Selecting the appropriate repair procedure Chapter 2 of Part 1 deals with selecting the appropriate repair actions or strategies for the bridge, looking at it as a whole. Reference is made to that section. Because of the generic nature of some of the repair procedures given, it is also necessary to ensure that the procedure proposed is appropriate and applicable for the particular defect. Careful engineering assessment of the defects, on a case by case basis, is strongly recommended to assist in ensuring that the appropriate repair procedure is selected. Discussion of the engineering considerations of each repair is given within the procedure. Where appropriate, the discussion includes guidelines for determining the necessity for the repair based on the severity of the defect. 4.3. Sub-procedures Some actions in the repair process are common to more than one repair procedure. For example, the process of replacing a rivet with a high strength bolt is to be carried out in many of the repair procedures. These actions or sub-procedures are described and detailed in Chapter 5.2. Required sub-procedures are referred to in the main repair procedures. 4.4. Avoid welding The repair procedures presented generally use bolted connections instead of site welding for the following reasons: High quality site welds are difficult to achieve. Many of the repairs are to be carried out on old bridges in which the steels are considered unweldable. The addition of weldments to members with calculable stresses can often reduce the fatigue life significantly.
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Welded repairs can remove or reduce the inherent structural redundancy of built up riveted sections. Alternative connection details involving site welding may be possible but should only be implemented after: carrying out a full engineering investigation of the effects on strength, fatigue life and degree of redundancy; and determining by analysis and tests that site welding the existing steels is achievable and practicable.
Refer to Chapter 2 of Part 1 for more information on the suitability of site welded repairs. 4.5. Drawings Each repair procedure is detailed on one or more drawings. It is envisaged that these drawings, together with the text of the procedure outline and the additional information from the engineering assessment referred to in 4.1, will provide all the engineering detail required by site personnel to implement the repair. As the drawings often include several alternative details, instructions on which alternative to use may also be required. 4.6. Repair materials In the repair procedures, repair materials are referred to by their generic name. Specific brand and material names of epoxies, paints etc. are usually avoided as availability may vary from time to time and new, superior materials may become more appropriate. Lists of suitable brand and material names are given in Appendix A, together with the specifications for standard repair materials such as steel and high strength bolts. Where new steel parts are to be fitted as part of the repair, it is generally recommended that those parts be galvanised. Use of galvanised steel can reduce long term maintenance requirements and minimise the amount of on-site painting required. Where the appearance of galvanised steel is not acceptable, and painting over galvanised surfaces is impractical, the steel parts may be painted instead using one of the high quality paint systems used in bridge repainting. Refer to subprocedure 5.3 for further information. 4.7. Health and safety Attention is drawn to Chapter 3 of Part 1 on "Health and Safety" which highlights the precautions required when handling specialised and hazardous materials during maintenance and repair work. 4.8. References The following references were used in the preparation of Part 2 -Steel Repairs. 1. Australian Bridge Design Code 2. AREA Manual for Railway Engineering
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3. AS4100-1990 Steel Structures 4. AS1252-1983 High Strength Steel Bolts with Associated Nuts and Washers for Structural Engineering. 5. Bridge Fatigue Guide - Dr J W Fisher - AISC New York 1977 6. Guidelines for Evaluation and Repair of Damaged Steel Bridge Members - National Co-operative Highway Research Program Report 271. 7. Importance of Redundancy in Bridge - Fracture Control. R R P Sweeny - Canadian National Railways.
5.
Sub-procedures
5.1. Arresting corrosion (Sub-Procedure) 5.1.1 Description of action Any action that will prevent further deterioration and loss of section in steel due to corrosion. 5.1.2 Engineering discussion Arresting of corrosion may be the only repair action that is required or possible for a bridge, or it may be required in conjunction with other repair actions. The most effective method of arresting corrosion is abrasive blast cleaning followed by the correct application of a high quality paint system and its ongoing maintenance. If that form of corrosion arrest is appropriate, refer to sub-procedure 5.3, patch painting, for information on preparing for and carrying out patch painting. Note that the use of so called "rust converters" prior to painting is not permitted. In addition to painting, action can be taken to avoid conditions which promote corrosion. Action to avoid collection and entrapment of water may be worthwhile. In some locations, holes may be drilled to allow water to drain away. Voids and depressions which catch water may be filled with epoxy. Epoxy fillers may also be used to profile a surface to promote free drainage of water. Advice on appropriate epoxies should be sought from the recognised manufacturers. Epoxies should be durable, paintable, and should bond adequately to the substrate. Epoxy with some flexibility may be appropriate for the purpose described. Denso Tape covering of steel elements may be a suitable alternative to painting. Denso tape could be used at the interface between concrete and steel or timber and steel. These locations are typically difficult to protect by painting. The interface between steel beams and other metal elements such as steel decking may be treated similarly. One advantage of Denso tape is that the amount of surface preparation required is minimal. All that is usually required is the removal of loose rust, dirt, paint etc. from the surfaces. The primers and fillers can then be applied.
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Guidance on the appropriate Denso Tape treatment and its correct application should be sought from the manufacturer. Caution: Corrosion protection systems such as Denso Tape wrapping and epoxy filling may hide critical defects such as fatigue cracks. Such defects may be difficult to detect during normal inspections and may result in collapse of the structure. Corrosion protection systems such as these should not be used on fatigue-critical elements unless appropriate procedures to regularly check for and detect cracks are implemented. 5.1.3 Procedure Prepare for and apply Denso Tape, epoxy fillers etc. in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations. Where patch painting is to be used for corrosion arrest, refer to sub-procedure 5.3. 5.1.4 Materials Refer to the manufacturers of Denso Tape systems and epoxy resins for advice on suitable materials for each particular case. 5.1.5 Alternative details None 5.2. Removing rivets and replacing with bolts (Sub-procedure) 5.2.1 Description of action This sub-procedure covers the removal of existing rivets and replacement with high strength friction grip bolts and also installation of new high strength bolts. Often the bolts also attach new steel elements. 5.2.2 Procedure:
5.2.2.1 Remove one head of the rivet: To remove rivet heads, one of three methods are usually used: cutting using oxy-fuel equipment; grinding off all or part of the head; or drilling through the centre of the rivet head.
Oxy-fuel cutting: Because of the possibility of creating heat affected zones in tension regions of main members and adversely affecting their fatigue life, avoid using oxy-fuel cutting to remove the head except where it is adjacent to: 1. 2.
any steel that is to be removed and discarded as part of the repair process; intermediate web stiffeners; or
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3.
minor bracing members that are not subject to dynamic or cyclic loading.
Do not allow the oxy flame or molten steel to touch any other steel element except those listed above. In cases 2) and 3) above, where the steel adjacent to the rivet head is to remain in place, take care to avoid or minimise flame effects on that steel, to leave a neat hole for installation of the bolts. If the use of oxy-fuel cutting cannot be avoided in cases other than those above, take great care to avoid flame effects on the adjacent steel. Any flame affected steel around the hole must be completely removed by reaming prior to installing the bolt. Grinding: If removing the head by grinding, it is only necessary to remove the portion of the head outside the shank diameter. Take care to avoid creating grooves and indentations in steel that is to remain in place. If such indentations and grooves occur, remove them by grinding the surface smooth after removing the rivet. Where large numbers of rivets are to be removed, consideration should be given to procuring a grinding bit such as a broaching bit which, when positioned centrally on the domed head will grind away material outside the shank diameter. Drilling: Rivet heads may be removed by drilling along the axis of the rivet with a drilling bit larger in diameter than the shank. 5.2.2.2 Remove the rivet
After the head of the rivet has been removed, force the remaining part out of the hole by punching or using hydraulic rams etc. The rivets are often not easily removed by punching because of deformation of the shaft in slightly misaligned holes. Alternatively, remove the rivet head and shank and prepare the hole to accept the new bolt in one operation by drilling all the way through the rivet. The drill bit size must be slightly larger than the rivet hole size and must be of a size to suit installation of a high strength bolt. First drill a small hole through the rivet. Where the remainder of the rivet cannot be removed by the above means, it is permissible to burn a hole through the centre of the shank using oxy-fuel equipment to assist in the removal process. As stated above, extreme care is required to avoid any flame effects on the surrounding steel. This operation is only to be carried out by experienced operators. Any flame-affected areas of steel must be completely removed by reaming the hole prior to installing the bolt. Refer to Appendix D for further information on techniques and equipment for safe removal of rivets using oxy-fuel and other equipment.
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5.2.2.3
Prepare the hole for the bolt:
Prepare the hole to accept the bolt by reaming out the hole to the required diameter, then removing burrs etc. at the edge of the hole and creating a smooth, level surface on both sides for bedding the washer and bolt head. Grinding, wire brushing and scraping may be used. The hole diameter after reaming must be no more than 2 mm larger than the diameter of the bolt to be installed unless a plate washer is to be installed in accordance with detail A on Fig 5.2.1. In the latter case the hole diameter may be up to 10 mm greater than the bolt diameter. Use reaming to remove any areas of steel around the hole that have been flame affected during the removal of the rivet. The minimum and maximum edge distances and spacings for new bolt-holes in existing or new steel are to comply with the requirements of the Australian Bridge Design Code. 5.2.2.4 Install the bolt:
Install the replacement bolt in accordance with the following specification. Table 5.2.1 specifies minimum replacement bolt sizes. The arrangement for oversize holes is shown in Detail A of Fig 5.2.1. Specification for New or Replacement Bolts 1. All bolts are to be high strength structural bolts of grade 8.8 to AS 1252, fully tensioned to AS 4100 as a friction joint. Tension is to be controlled by load indicating washers or turn of nut method. Swage bolts installed in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions, may be used as an alternative. All bolts, nuts and washers are to be galvanized. Swage bolts, pins and washers are to be galvanised and the steel surface exposed after separation of the pintail is to be painted. Nominal maximum hole diameter to be the diameter of the fastener +2mm unless plate washers, as illustrated in Detail A are used, unless otherwise specified for swage bolts. For each standard rivet size the minimum size of replacement bolt to give equivalent shear capacity is given in Table 5.1. Larger bolts may be used. For Huck BOM blind fasteners, sufficient room must be available on the blind side to accommodate the expanded head. Refer to Detail B. Rivet size Bolt size 8.8 T/F 3 / 4 7 / 8 1 M20 M24 M27 Huck Bolt C50L 3 / 4 7 / 8 1 Huck-Fit Grade 10.9 20mm 22mm 27mm Huck BOM 3 / 4 -
2. 3. 4. 5.
6. 7.
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Table 5.1 Minimum replacement bolt sizes If Huck bolts are used, the HUCK-FIT fastening system is recommended as the pins are available in standard metric sizes including non-preferred sizes (M20, M22, M24, M27 etc.). The HUCK-FIT system allows fit up and snug tightening of bolts prior to tensioning. Huck bolts are to be installed in accordance with the ma n u f a c t u r e r s i n s t r u c t i o n s .
5.2.3 Alternative details If there is only access to one side of plates to be bolted, use Huck BOM blind f a s t e n e r s , i n s t a l l e di na c c o r d a n c ew i t hma n u f a c t u r e r si n s t r u c t i o n s .U se galvanised BOM fasteners. Make sure there is adequate room for the enlargement of the blind side head. Refer to detail B in Fig 5.1. Note that Huck BOM fasteners are not friction grip connectors and may not be suitable for all situations. Bolt slip may occur to the limit of the hole clearance. Slip c a nb emi n i mi s e db yd r i l l i n gc l o s et o l e r a n c eh o l e s( 1 9t o2 0 mm f o r a ss h o w ni n Fig 5.1. A similar blind fastener for high strength friction grip applications is available from Huck on special order. It is known as the USBB (Ultra Strength Blind Bolt). Use these fasteners when blind friction grip connections are essential. 5.3. Patch painting (including surface preparation) (Sub-procedure) 5.3.1 Description of action Patch painting is required in conjunction with steel repair as a corrosion protection system for new and existing steel in the vicinity of the repair, and to restore a uniform appearance to the bridge.
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Patch painting to arrest corrosion may be the only form of repair required. This sub procedure only covers painting to small areas where hand and power tool preparation is the only feasible method. Large areas, where the cost of abrasive blast cleaning can be justified, should be p a i n t e di na c c o r d a n c ew i t hA R T C s s t a n d a r dp r a c t i c e s . 5.3.2 Engineering discussion Paint systems for patch painting should ideally have the following characteristics: Formulated to provide good adhesion and protection to poorly prepared steel surfaces (hand or power tool preparation). Formulated to bond to sound existing paints of the types typically found on bridges. High build, single coat systems to minimise total painting time (i.e. adequate film thickness applied in one coat). Available in a large range of colours to blend with colour of existing paint and avoid the necessity for a colour matched top coat. Able to bond adequately to galvanised steel. Suitable for top coating where a top coat is required.
Leading paint manufacturers have paint systems with most of the above characteristics. One system specifically developed for this application is a two part surface tolerant epoxy mastic. ALKYD systems are not suitable for application to galvanised surfaces because the long term bond cannot be guaranteed. Where galvanised parts have been fitted as part of the repair and the selected patch paint system is not suitable for galvanised surfaces, the following options exist: 1. Leave the galvanised surface unpainted. Painting is normally only necessary to achieve a uniform appearance with the rest of the steel.
Or
2. Use different single coat systems for galvanised and ungalvanised surfaces. Systems for galvanised surfaces are readily available. Galvanised parts can be painted prior to installation. Or Apply the standard single coat patch paint to ungalvanised surfaces then apply a suitable top coat to both galvanised and patch painted surfaces. Top coat systems suitable for such situations are available. Or Paint new steel parts instead of galvanising them. Use the patch paint system on site or, where parts can be prepainted, use the paint system adopted for repainting of bridges. Abrasive blast cleaning is required for the latter.
3.
4.
The minimum surface preparation for small areas is usually specified by paint manufacturers as hand or power tool cleaning to AS 1627.7 or 1627.2 Class 2. The Australian Standard referred to provides a full description of the methods and equipment to be used and the quality of surface finish required. For rough surfaces, such as the surface of site fillet welds, special preparation and application procedures are required. Unless precautions are taken, the paint
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thickness on sharp ridges will be considerably less than the minimum required and premature breakdown of the paint system may occur. 5.3.3 Procedure 5.3.3.1 Prepare the surface For normal steel surfaces Prepare the surfaces for painting in accordance with the recommendations of the paint manufacturer for the paint system to be applied. Hand or power tool cleaning to AS1627.7 or AS1627.2 Class 2 is the minimum requirement. For rough surfaces Remove sharp ridges and deep narrow grooves or pits from the steel surface by power grinding. Alternatively, for the surface of site fillet welds, fill the surface to a smooth even finish using epoxy resin fillers such as those used for void filling described in 5.4. Where the depth of the roughness is less than 0.5mm, an adequate and durable paint system can be achieved without the above surface levelling by applying multiple coats of the paint. Each coat is to be no more than the maximum film thickness recommended by the manufacturer. Enough coats are to be applied so that the minimum required dry film thickness (typically 150 microns) is achieved at all sharp ridges. For galvanised surfaces Prepare the galvanised surface for painting in accordance with the paint ma n u f a c t u r e r s r e c o mme n d a t i o n s . C o a t i n g ma n u f a c t u r e r s u s u a l l y recommend degreasing and abrasion, acid etching or pretreatment with etch (wash) primers prior to painting. Light abrasive blast cleaning (brush blasting) is the most reliable means of achieving satisfactory coating adhesion. However, where light abrasive blast cleaning is impractical due to the small areas involved, power wire brushing/hard scouring with aluminium oxide impregnated nylon pads to remove the shiny patina on new galvanised steelwork and the white soluble zinc salts on old (weathered) galvanised steelwork is preferred to acid etching or pretreatment with etch primer. 5.3.3.2 Apply the paint Mix the paint components and apply in accorda n c ew i t ht h e ma n u f a c t u r e r s instructions. The paint should be applied immediately after surface preparation, preferably within 4 hours, and certainly on the same day. The minimum total dry film thickness of the system should not be less than 125 micrometres. 5.3.4 Repair materials Paint systems suitable for patch painting are listed in Appendix A. They are typically 2 part epoxy based, high build systems. 5.3.5 Alternative details
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None. 5.4. Filling voids (Sub-procedure) 5.4.1 Description of action When new steel plates or sections are fitted to existing steel as part of repair procedures, voids may be created, usually as a result of the existing steel being heavily corroded or pitted. The voids may need to be filled with epoxy resin for one or both of the following reasons. 1. To preclude the ingress of air and moisture which would lead to further corrosion, and/or To provide a smooth, level surface on to which the new steel elements can be fitted. Engineering discussion
2.
5.4.2 Engineering discussion Where the latter is the reason for void filling, the epoxy filler is often structural. It may be required to resist the compressive forces created by the tensioning of bolts or, in the case of bearing plates, transfer bearing forces. The necessity for void filling depends on the severity of corrosion and uniformity and general profile of the corroded surface (after preparation). If the surface is uniformly pitted so that the surface remains generally flat and steel attachments would not distort when fixed by tensioned bolts, void filling is not necessary. The steel surface would still be able to transfer forces described above. (Sealing the steel to steel interfaces, however, may be required refer to sub-procedure 5.5.) On the other hand, severely corroded surfaces that are uneven normally require filling prior to covering with new steel parts to prevent distortion of those parts. Notwithstanding the above, it may be worthwhile applying epoxy fillers to any deeply corroded surface prior to attaching new parts. As well as filling voids, the epoxy acts like a primer paint and also seals the interface between new and existing steel ready for painting. The requirement for sealing interfaces prior to painting is discussed in sub-procedure 5.5. The adhesive quality of epoxies may also be useful in some repairs. Two alternative procedures for applying filling epoxies are described below. In the first, the covering steel member is fitted before the epoxy has hardened and excess epoxy is squeezed out during bolt tightening. Squeezing out excess epoxy ensures the void is completely filled. In the second procedure, the epoxy is trowelled or screeded smooth and flat and allowed to harden prior to fitting the steel member. Select the procedure which best suits the repair being carried out. Consider particularly the hardening time for the epoxy. 5.4.3 Procedure 5.4.3.1 Alternative 1 New steel elements fitted before epoxy hardens
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1.
2.
3.
4. 5.
6.
Prepare the existing steel surface by abrasive blast cleaning to Class 2 in accordance with AS 1627.4. If abrasive blast cleaning is impractical due to small areas involved power tool clean to Class 2 in accordance with AS 1627.2. Mi xt h ee p o x ya c c o r d i n gt ot h ema n u f a c t u r e r sd i r e c t i o n sa n da p p l yt ot h e steel surface. Trowel and screed into position to the approximate surface required. Ensure that there is a slight excess of epoxy that can be squeezed out when the steel part is fitted. Make sure there is an adequate escape path for excess epoxy. While the epoxy is still plastic, position the new steel part and install the fixing bolts. Use the tightening of the bolts to bring the steel part into the correct position and squeeze out excess epoxy. Bolts may only be fully tensioned prior to curing if the member would not distort and be forced out of position by such action. If in doubt about the effects of bolt tensioning, wait until the epoxy has cured Clean away excess epoxy and make sure all steel to steel interfaces are effectively sealed at the perimeters ready for painting. (Refer to subprocedure 5.5 for sealing requirements). Tension the bolts after the epoxy has cured. Alternative 2 New steel elements fitted after epoxy hardens
5.4.3.2 1.
2.
3. 4. 5.
Prepare the existing steel surface by abrasive blast cleaning to Class 2 in accordance with AS 1627.4. If abrasive blast cleaning is impractical due to small areas involved power tool clean to Class 2 in accordance with AS 1627.2. Mi xt h ee p o x ya c c o r d i n gt h ema n u f a c t u r e r sd i r e c t i o n sa n da p p l yt ot h e steel surfaces. Screed the epoxy to the smooth, flat surface required using a straight edge screed. If necessary to achieve a flat surface, apply the epoxy in two or more coats with each successive coat filling any valleys until the required flatness is achieved. Clean away excess epoxy. Ensure that empty bolt holes are not obstructed by epoxy. After the epoxy has cured, fit the steel part and fully tension any bolts. Seal any remaining gaps at interfaces in accordance with sub-procedure
5.4.4 Repair materials Use high strength, two part epoxy fillers or adhesives. Epoxies should have high strength and non-sag properties if they are to be applied to overhead or vertical surfaces. Select an epoxy with a work time appropriate to the repair being carried out. Refer to Appendix A for suggested products. When application procedure 2 is to be used, choose an epoxy which is suitable for working and screeding. Seek advice from recognised manufacturers to select the best epoxy and application procedure for the particular repair. 5.4.5 Alternative details Where the thickness of epoxy filler to be applied is significant, a combination of both procedures described above may be used. Use procedure 2 to apply the bulk of the filler, and leave the surface at or below that required, and approximately even. Then use procedure 1 to fill the remaining dips and valleys in the surface.
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5.5. Sealing interfaces (Sub-procedure) 5.5.1 Description of action In repairing steel, gaps may occur at the interface between new and existing steel, often as a result of the existing steel being corroded. In these and similar situations the gaps are to be sealed with a single component polyurethane sealant prior to painting when they are greater than a specified width. 5.5.2 Engineering discussion Paint manufacturers recommend against painting over large gaps. While the applied paint may initially span these gaps, it may subsequently crack due to drying shrinkage or it may not cure properly because of the excess film thickness. Gaps of width more than twice the maximum recommended film thickness or 0.5mm are to be sealed as described. 5.5.3 Procedure 1. Prior to fitting new steel elements, prepare existing steel surfaces by abrasive blast cleaning to Class 2 in accordance with AS 1627.4. If abrasive blast cleaning is impractical due to small areas involved power tool clean to Class 2 in accordance with AS 1627.2. Identify areas to be sealed. Interfaces where the gap exceeds 0.5mm or twice the maximum recommended dry film thickness are to be sealed with a single component polyurethane sealant. Sealing is required whether the concealed steel surfaces are painted or bare steel. Break inner seal at extrusion end of cartridge, affix nozzle, cut tip to suit joint size, install in caulking gun and apply in accordance with the manufacturers instructions.
2.
3.
5.5.4 Materials Use a single component polyurethane sealant suitable for being painted over with solvent-based paints. Refer to Appendix A for use of appropriate products. 5.5.5 Alternative details Where voids between steel elements are to be filled (refer sub-procedure 5.4), extending the void filling epoxy to the edges of the steel will generally avoid the necessity to seal interfaces as a separate operation. Refer to sub-procedure 5.4.
6.
Repairing corroded flanges and webs of
girders
6.1. Repairing flange corrosion in riveted girders 6.1.1 Description of defect Loss of cross-sectional area of top or bottom flange plates in a riveted plate web girder resulting from significant corrosion.
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This repair is also to be used where loss of cross-sectional area of flange angles has occurred. 6.1.2 Description of repair Fit a galvanised cover plate, sufficient in nett area to compensate for the lost crosssectional area. 6.1.3 Engineering discussion It will be necessary to carry out an engineering assessment to determine the necessity for, and extent of, cover plating required. The assessment should determine the cover plate section size and the number and location of rivets that are to be replaced by bolts. As a guide, up to 10% section loss is permissible before the repair is necessary. The nett cross-sectional area of the cover plate should be at least twice the maximum area of corrosion loss. The minimum plate thickness is to be 10 mm. If a significant proportion of the section loss has also occurred in the flange angle(s), the engineering assessment should determine if the angle(s) is capable of transferring shear force to the flanges. If not, the corrosion of the flange angle(s) should first be considered as a separate defect. Consideration could be given to replacement of the continuous flange angle(s) by flange angle segments between web stiffeners. In this case the nett area of the cover plate must be sufficient to also compensate for the discontinuity of flange angle(s). In determining the extent of cover plating, the transfer of load (development of stress) into the plate must be considered. Conservative guidelines for the number of fasteners required to develop maximum permissible stress in the plate are detailed below. 1. The number of bolts in the cover plate must be sufficient to develop the maximum permissible strength in the cover plate The number of bolts to achieve the above requirement is given in Table 6.1, based on the nett area of the cover plate (Can) and the bolt size
2.
Bolt size M20 M22 M24 M27
No. of bolts 5.4 x Can 1000 4.4 x Can 1000 3.7 x Can 1000 2.9 x Can 1000
Table 6.1 Number of bolts in cover plate Because only a few fasteners are removed at any one time, theoretically the girder remains at near full strength throughout the repair. Nearly all existing rivets can be replaced by bolts if necessary. Bracing connected by flange rivets must remain adequately connected.
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To avoid unnecessary work however, only the minimum number of rivets, as shown by engineering assessment, should be replaced by bolts. The maximum edge distance and fastener spacing given in sub-procedure 5.2 should be observed so that the interface to the cover plate is tight and crevice corrosion is avoided. 6.1.4 Sub-procedures required Ref 5.2 Removing Rivets and Replacing with Bolts Ref 5.3 Patch Painting (including surface preparation) Ref 5.4 Filling Voids Ref 5.5 Sealing Interfaces 6.1.5 Procedure outline 1. Remove heads of rivets that are to be replaced by bolts. Remove the under side heads for bottom flanges and the top side heads for top flanges. For top flange rivet removal, fit clamps to the under side to prevent rivets falling out. Removal of rivets is to be in accordance with sub-procedure 5.2 Prepare the flange surface for cover plating by removing all loose rust and dirt and by grinding where necessary to create a smooth surface. Fill any deep pitting (>1mm deep) or any area of unevenness in accordance with sub-procedure 5.4 to create a flat surface for seating the cover plate. Position the pack plates and cover plate, holding them in place with clamps. Progressively remove rivets to be replaced and fit and tension replacement bolts, all in accordance with sub-procedure 5.2. No more than 10% of rivets, evenly distributed along member, are to be removed at any one time. Seal open interfaces to new steel where required in accordance with subprocedure 5.5. Fill exposed rivet head holes on the top flange in accordance with sub-procedure 5.4 to prevent collection of water. Prepare for and paint new steelwork and areas of existing steelwork to the extent directed, in accordance with sub-procedure 5.3.
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3. 4.
5.
6.
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6.1.6 Action to avoid or minimise recurrence 1. 2. Routine maintenance to remove built-up dirt and debris on the upper surfaces. Routine maintenance to the paint system.
6.1.7 Alternative details None 6.1.8 Special considerations and effects of repair. The engineering assessment may determine that speed restrictions or a track possession is required while this repair is being carried out.
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6.1.9 Follow-up inspections and testing Programmed inspections only. Pay particular attention to new steel to steel interfaces to detect early signs of paint system breakdown and steel corrosion.
6.1.10 Drawings List Figure 6.1 6.2. Repairing flange corrosion in rolled or welded girders 6.2.1 Description of defect Loss of cross-sectional area of top or bottom flange plates in a welded or rolled girder resulting from significant corrosion. 6.2.2 Description of repair Fit a galvanised cover plate sufficient in nett area to compensate for the lost crosssectional area. 6.2.3 Engineering discussion It is usually necessary to carry out an engineering assessment to determine the necessity for and extent of cover plating required. The assessment should determine the cover plate section size and the number, size and location of connection bolts required. As a guide, up to 10% section loss is permissible before the repair is necessary. The nett cross-sectional area of the cover plate should be at least twice the maximum area of corrosion loss. The minimum plate thickness is to be 10 mm. The nett area of cover plate must also compensate for the existing flange area lost in drilled holes. In determining the extent of cover plating, the transfer of load (development of stress) into the plate must be considered. Conservative guidelines for the number of fasteners required to develop maximum permissible stress in the plate are detailed below. The number of bolts in the cover plate must be sufficient to develop the maximum permissible strength in the cover plate The number of bolts to achieve the above requirement is given in Table 6.2, based on the nett area of the cover plate (Can) and the bolt size. Bolt size M20 M22 M24 M27 No. of bolts 5.4 x Can 1000 4.4 x Can 1000 3.7 x Can 1000 2.9 x Can 1000
Table 6.2 Number of bolts in cover plate

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The strength of the girder is reduced during the repair because of the holes drilled in flange. Appropriate load and/or speed restrictions must be applied. The maximum edge distance and fastener spacing given in sub-procedure 5.2 should be observed so that the interface to the cover plate is tight and crevice corrosion is minimised. 6.2.4 Sub-procedures required Ref 5.2 Removing Rivets and Replacing with Bolts Ref 5.3 Patch Painting (including surface preparation) Ref 5.4 Filling Voids Ref 5.5 Sealing Interfaces 6.2.5 Procedure outline 1. 2. Mark and drill holes in the flange to suit the cover plate Prepare the flange surface for cover plating by removing all loose rust and dirt and by grinding where necessary to create a smooth surface fill any deep pitting (>1mm deep) or any area of unevenness in accordance with sub-procedure 5.4 to create a flat surface for seating the cover plate. Position the cover plate, holding it in place with clamps. Fit and tension all bolts. Seal open interfaces to new steel where required in accordance with subprocedure 5.5. Prepare for and paint new steelwork and areas of existing steelwork to the extent directed in accorance with sub-procedure 5.3.
3. 4. 5.
6.
6.2.6 Alternative details 6.2.7 Action to avoid or minimise recurrence None. Routine maintenance to remove built-up dirt and debris on the upper surfaces. Routine maintenance to the paint system. 6.2.8 Special considerations and effects of repair The engineering assessment may determine that speed restrictions or a track possession is required while this repair is being carried out. 6.2.9 Follow-up Inspections and testing Programmed inspections only.
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Pay particular attention to new steel to steel interfaces to detect early signs of paint system breakdown and steel corrosion. 6.2.10 Drawings Figure 6.2.
6.3. Repairing web corrosion near bottom flange angles in riveted girders 6.3.1 Description of defect Severe Corrosion of the web of a riveted girder at the junction of the upper toe of the bottom flange angle(s). Loss of web section in plan view results. 6.3.2 Description of repair Fit galvanised cover plates over the region of corrosion loss. The cover plates are to be in discrete lengths between web stiffeners. 6.3.3 Engineering discussion It is recommended in most cases that an engineering assessment be carried out to determine the necessity of repair and the locations where cover plate segments are required.
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In the absence of engineering assessment, the following guidelines should be applied: Cover plate the segment of web between stiffeners where the average loss of web area in the panel in plan view exceeds 15%. In the engineering assessment, the necessity for a cover plate should be based on the ability of the remaining web area (plan view) to transfer the shear stresses to the flange. This repair may not be satisfactory at the girder bearing location where stresses additional to shear stresses occur. It should be recognised that the shear transfer stresses are often low, particularly in the middle half of the span, so considerable section loss may be tolerable. Corrosion arrest may be all that is required. Irrespective of shear transfer stress levels, the web panel should be repaired where section loss exceeds 40%. Alternative repair details involving site welded cover plates are not normally acceptable because of the significant reduction in fatigue life that results from welding fitments in this tensile zone. If a detailed engineering assessment is not carried out the cover plate should incorporate all rivets through the vertical leg of the flange angle. The upper part of the cover plate should be attached by bolts of the same number and size as the lower part. An engineering assessment may determine that a reduced number of bolts is adequate for a particular web panel. 6.3.4 Sub-procedures required Ref 5.1 Arresting Corrosion Ref 5.2 Removing Rivets and Replacing with Bolts Ref 5.3 Patch Painting (including surface preparation) Ref 5.4 Filling Voids
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6.3.5 Procedure outline 1. Remove all loose rust from the surface to be plated by mechanical wire brushing and scraping. Scrape or grind smooth the vertical face of flange angles. Working on only one panel of web at a time: 2. Drill holes in the web above flange angle to match the holes in the prefabricated, galvanised cover plate and pack plate. Remove the rivets through vertical legs of angles in accordance with Subprocedure 5.2. Position the pack plate and fill the void between the pack and the flange angle in accordance with sub-procedure 5.4. Fit the cover plate and install and tension all bolts. Repeat steps 2, 3, 4 and 5 for each web panel requiring plating, then Prepare for and patch paint new steelwork and areas of existing steelwork to the extent directed, including the region of corrosion on the unplated side. Patch painting to be in accordance with sub-procedure 5.3.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Caution: Rivets must NOT be removed from more than one panel of web at any one time. 6.3.6 Alternative details Cover plates may be fitted to both sides of web to improve appearance by covering the area of web corrosion. 6.3.7 Action to avoid or minimise recurrence Routine maintenance of paint system particularly at crevices and steel to steel interfaces. The repair detail presents a similar situation to the original corrosion prone details so proper maintenance of paint system is essential to avoid recurrence of the defect. 6.3.8 Special considerations and effects of repair The engineering assessment may determine that speed restrictions or a track possession is required while this repair is being carried out. 6.3.9 Follow-up inspections and testing Programmed inspections only. Pay particular attention to new steel to steel interfaces to detect early signs of paint system breakdown and steel corrosion.
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6.3.10 Drawings Figure 6.3 6.4. Repairing webs with localised corrosion 6.4.1 Description of defect Localised severe corrosion of a web leading to significant loss of web section in plan view. Typically this defect occurs where concrete ballast troughs have been in direct contact with the girder web. 6.4.2 Description of repair Fit galvanised cover plates over the regions of web where the section loss has occurred. The cover plates are to be in discrete lengths between web stiffeners. 6.4.3 Engineering discussion It is recommended that an engineering assessment be carried out to determine the effect of the section loss on the girder shear capacity and hence the necessity of repair and the location, size and bolt arrangement of cover plates. In the absence of an engineering assessment, the following guidelines may be applied: Segments of web between stiffeners are to be cover plated where the loss of area in sectional view exceeds 10% of the total web area or where the loss of area in plan view exceeds 15%. Guidelines for the size and spacing of attachment bolts are given in Figure 6.4 It should be recognised that, where the web thickness is constant for the girder, there is often an excess of shear capacity, particularly near mid span. A considerable loss of section may be tolerable at these locations before the repair is required. The assessment may show that only corrosion arrest is required in some panels where section loss exceeds the above guideline figures. The engineering check on the reduced shear capacity of the web must, of course, consider web buckling as well as shear stresses. Alternative repair details involving welded cover plates may be permissible if testing indicates that the steel is weldable and welding does not reduce the fatigue life unacceptably. Corrosion loss, localised near the mid-height of the girder in panels near mid-span, may be repairable by using welded cover plates, as tensile stresses in these areas are low. Do not weld to web stiffeners. It is important to note that significant principal tensile stresses occur at mid-height of girders near the span ends as a result of shear forces. Welded cover plates are not normally permitted here because of the adverse effect on fatigue life. 6.4.4 Sub-procedures required Ref 5.2 Removing Rivets and Replacing with Bolts Ref 5.3 Patch Painting (including surface preparation)
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Ref 5.4 Filling Voids Ref 5.5 Sealing Interfaces
6.4.5 Procedure outline 1. 2.

Cut back reinforced concrete etc. that is causing corrosion as directed. Remove all rust, dirt, adhering concrete, old paint etc. from the area to be plated by mechanical wire brushing and scraping.
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3.
Mark and drill bolt holes in the web to match the holes in prefabricated, galvanised cover plates. Fill voids and surface pitting with epoxy resin filler over area of web to be covered in accordance with sub-procedure 5.4 Position cover plates and fit and tension bolts. Seal with epoxy any open interfaces around the perimeter of the cover plates in accordance with subprocedure 5.5. Prepare for and patch paint new steelwork and areas of existing steelwork to the extent directed.
4.
5.
6.
6.4.6 Alternative details None. 6.4.7 Action to avoid or minimise recurrence Remove concrete cast directly against or in close proximity to web. Reconstruct accessways etc. to approved details, e.g. using gridmesh. Routine maintenance of paint system, particularly at crevices and steel to steel interfaces. 6.4.8 Special considerations and effects of repair None 6.4.9 Follow-up inspections and testing Programmed inspections only. Pay particular attention to new steel to steel interfaces to detect early signs of paint system breakdown and steel corrosion. 6.4.10 Drawings Figure 6.4 6.5. Repairing corroded bottom flanges of jack arch bridges 6.5.1 Description of defect Severe corrosion of the bottom flange of jack arch bridge girders resulting in a significant loss of cross-sectional area. 6.5.2 Description of repair Fit a galvanised cover plate to the bottom flange sufficient in cross-sectional area to compensate for the loss of cross-sectional area. If the existing steel is weldable, connect the cover plate by welding (Case B). Otherwise use Huck BOM blind fasteners. (Case A) 6.5.3 Engineering discussion T h i sr e p a i r i so n l ye f f e c t i v ei nr e s t o r i n gf u l l s t r e n g t hi f t h er e ma i n d e r o f t h e -section is in good condition. It is difficult to determine the condition of the girders in a jack
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arch bridge as only the underside of the bottom flange can be readily inspected for loss of section. An engineering assessment should be carried out to determine: the necessity of the repair; if the repair is likely to be effective in restoring full strength; if the steel is weldable; the size and extent of the cover plate and, if bolted connections are to be used, the arrangement of connection bolts.
Use bolted connections if the steel is not weldable or the existing flange edge is severely feathered, precluding welding. Feathered edge to be ground to provide minimum 5mm thickness. As a guide, the repair should be carried out if loss of bottom flange cross section exceeds 15%. The nett area of the cover plate should be at least twice the maximum area of cross-sectional loss, plus the area removed by drilling for fixing bolts. The minimum plate thickness is to be 10mm and the width selected to suit the bolt gauge and edge distance or weld details. Extend the cover plate as close to the bearings as possible (within span/10) so the termination weld is in a region of low stress. An engineering assessment may show that other details are acceptable. Where bolted fixings are used, the spacing and edge distances must comply with the requirements of the Australian Bridge Design Code. Refer to sub-procedure 5.2. 6.5.4 Sub-procedures required
Ref 5.2 Removing Rivets and Replacing with Bolts Ref 5.3 Patch Painting (including surface preparation) Ref 5.4 Filling Voids Ref 5.5 Sealing Interfaces
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6.5.5 Procedure outline 6.5.5.1 Case A Bolted Cover Plate 1. Prepare the flange surface for cover plating by removing all loose rust and dirt and by grinding where necessary to create a smooth surface. Fill any deep pitting (>1mm deep) or any area of uneveness in accordance with sub-procedure 5.4 to create a flat surface for seating the cover plate. Mark and drill holes in the bottom flange to suit the cover plate. For each hole, excavate a small pocket in the concrete or masonry on the blind side to accommodate the expanded blind side head of the Huck BOM fastener. A suitable grinding bit on power drill can be used. Refer to Figure 5.1. Fit the galvanised cover plate and attach with Huck BOM blind fasteners all in accordance with sub-procedure 5.2. Seal open interfaces to the cover plate where required in accordance with sub-procedure 5.5. Prepare for and paint new steelwork and areas of existing steelwork to the extent directed, in accordance with sub-procedure 5.3.
2.
3. 4. 5.
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6.5.5.2 Case B Welded Cover Plate 1. Prepare the flange surface for cover plating by removing all loose rust and dirt and by grinding where necessary to create a smooth surface. Fill any deep pitting (> 1mm deep) or any area of uneveness in accordance with sub-procedure 5.4 to create a flat surface for seating the cover plate. Fit the cover plate and hold in place. Weld longitudinally in accordance with the details on Figure 6.5. Note the alternative welding arrangements detailed one permitting overhand welding but requiring good access, the other requiring down hand welding, but with restricted access. Epoxy seal transverse joint, no weld. Prepare the surface of the fillet weld for painting in accordance with subprocedure 5.3. Prepare for and paint new steelwork and areas of existing steelwork to the extent directed, in accordance with sub-procedure 5.3.
2.
3. 4.
6.5.6 Alternative details Bolted and welded cover plate alternatives are detailed. For welded cover plate, alternative arrangements for the welding are detailed. 6.5.7 Action to avoid or minimise recurrence Routine maintenance. Check for debris build up and corrosion of cover plate overhangs. Special consideration and effects of repair Traffic restrictions may be required if drilling holes removes a significant amount of cross-sectional area. 6.5.8 Follow-up inspections and testing None 6.5.9 Drawings list Figure 6.5a and Figure 6.5b.
7.
Repairing stiffeners, bracing connections and bearings
7.1. Relief of corrosion site at the base of intermediate web stiffeners 7.1.1 Description of defect Severe corrosion at the base of riveted angle type intermediate web stiffeners and in the adjacent bottom flange where the local corrosion of the web stiffener is not structurally significant, but
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corrosion and loss of section of the flange is significant or potentially significant. Corrosion of bearing stiffeners and stiffeners at connections of cross-girders and bracing are not covered by this procedure.
7.1.2 Description of repair The repair involves removal of the unnecessary portion of stiffener to result in a detail that can be readily cleaned, painted and maintained to prevent further corrosion but is structurally satisfactory. Intermediate web stiffeners may be terminated 50 to 100 mm from the bottom flange and still perform their required function. 7.1.3 Engineering discussion The removal of the lower portion of true intermediate web stiffeners is normally structurally acceptable. It is often not acceptable for stiffeners that form part of the connection or force transfer system of cross-girders or bracing. If the stiffener is to be cut using oxy-fuel equipment, extreme care is required to ensure that there are no flame effects on the web, flange or flange angles. Even small flame strikes can create fatigue initiation sites. The recommended locations for cutting stiffeners have been chosen to minimise the chances of oxy flame effects on the girder. Where necessary, an angle grinder should be used to cut the segment of stiffener closest to the girder. If corrosion at the base of the stiffener has already resulted in significant corrosion loss in the flange or flange angle, repair the flange using repair procedure 6.1 if necessary and appropriate. 7.1.4 Sub-procedures required Ref 5.1 Arresting corrosion Ref 5.2 Removing rivets and replacing with bolts Ref 5.3 Patch painting (including surface preparation) 7.1.5 Procedure outline 1. Remove any rivets securing the lower portion of the web stiffener that is to be removed in accordance with sub-procedure 5.2. Cut off the lower portion of the stiffener to the extent shown on Figure 7.1a or Figure 7.1b by flame cutting and/or with an angle grinder. Several possible arrangements of web stiffeners are shown on the drawing. The appropriate location for the cut is shown in each case. To avoid accidental creation of heat affected zones (fatigue sites) in the adjacent web and flange, do not use flame cutting to remove portions of intermediate web stiffeners in direct contact with the web or flange. Use an angle grinder to cut these portions. Take care to avoid grinding a groove into the web or flange.
2.
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Dress any flame cut edge to the stiffener by grinding smooth and fit and tension bolts to any holes formerly occupied by rivets. Prepare for and patch paint the exposed steel of the web stiffener and the local area of bottom flange and flange angle now exposed in accordance with sub-procedure 5.3.
4.
7.1.6 Alternative details None. 7.1.7 Action to avoid or minimise recurrence Not applicable. 7.1.8 Special considerations and effects of repair The removal of the lower portion of web stiffeners as detailed is only permissible in true intermediate web stiffeners performing no other structural functions. Some stiffeners also form part of the connection of cross-girders or bracing. Similarly, the procedure must not be applied to bearing stiffeners. 7.1.9 Follow-up inspection and testing Programmed inspections only. 7.1.10 Drawing list Figure 7.1a and Figure 7.1b.
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7.2. Repairing intermediate and bearing web stiffeners with localised corrosion 7.2.1 Description of defect Severe corrosion of web stiffeners over a limited area leading to loss of crosssectional area in plan view. The repair procedure is intended to cover riveted angle stiffeners but may be adapted to other situations. 7.2.2 Description of repair Two cases are covered by this repair procedure: Case A Corrosion away from end of stiffeners If the region of severe corrosion loss is away from both ends of the stiffener, the repair procedure involves lap splicing a new segment of stiffener angle, connected to the existing stiffener above and below by bolting. A sufficient length of uncorroded stiffener must be available above and below to effect the bolted connection. Case B Corrosion near end of intermediate stiffener If the region of severe corrosion loss is at one end of the stiffener only, the repair procedure involves removing the corroded segment of stiffener, fitting a replacement segment and splicing it to the existing stiffener in a similar manner to Case A. A sufficient length of uncorroded stiffener must be available at one end to effect the bolted connection. 7.2.3 Engineering discussion Corrosion may occur at the bottom end of web stiffeners because of entrapment of water by the detail. It may occur away from the ends where concrete or timber elements are in close contact with the steel (crevice corrosion). When repairs are carried out, the cause of the corrosion should be eliminated if possible.
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The repair procedure addresses corrosion of stiffeners over a localised area. If the web stiffener is severely corroded over its entire length, it can be completely replaced as described in Section 11.1 If the corrosion is limited to a small non-essential part of the stiffener at the base, the procedure described in 7.1 may be appropriate. Isolated Web Stiffeners: Isolated web stiffeners (ie. Those not associated with the connection of bracing or cross-girders etc.) can sustain substantial loss of cross-section before repair is required. As a guide, the repair should be carried out if the loss of section exceeds 30% (evenly spread). If the loss is localised to the outer edge, the repair should be carried out if the section loss exceeds 15%. An engineering assessment may be carried out to determine if greater section losses are acceptable without repair. If corrosion loss is acceptable, sub-procedure 5.1 for arresting corrosion should be carried out and the cause of corrosion should be eliminated if possible. Web Stiffeners at Bracing Connections: Web stiffeners, located at the connections of bracing members, are often an integral part of the system of transferring bracing forces. In such cases the amount of section loss that can be accepted is less. Unless otherwise shown by an engineering assessment, the repair should be carried out if the section loss exceeds 10%. The repair details require an adequate length of existing stiffener to remain to effect the bolted connection. These remaining sections must have no more than 10% loss of section. Guidelines for the number of bolts to connect the stiffener are given in Table 7.1 below. Size of outstand leg of No. of connecting Size of connecting stiffener bolts bolts Up to 75 x 10 2 M20 Up to 100 x 10 3 M20 Up to 125 x 10 3 M24 Up to 150 x 6 4 M24 Table 7.1 Bolt details for stiffener repair In Case A, the segment of stiffener with excessive corrosion may remain in place provided the corrosion is arrested. Feathered edges to be ground to 5mm minimum thickness. Connection of the replacement stiffener piece by bolting rather than welding is proposed as the standard repair. Steels of stiffeners are often not weldable and, even if weldable, the welding process may create fatigue initiation sites in the web at the new butt welds in the stiffener angle. Where it can be shown by engineering assessment that the effects on the web of welding the stiffener do not result in an inadequate fatigue life, the welded splice detail shown in Figure 7.2b may be adopted. Where there is a pack plate between
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the stiffener and the web, the web is adequately protected and the welded splice detail may be adopted. The stiffener steel must be weldable, as determined by appropriate tests. Note that the mid-height region of webs is not an area of low tensile stress if there is significant shear stress at the section (resulting in principal tensile stress, e.g. near bearings). 7.2.4 Sub-procedures required Ref 5.1 Arresting Corrosion Ref 5.2 Removing Rivets and Replacing with Bolts Ref 5.3 Patch Painting (including surface preparation) Ref 5.4 Filling Voids Ref 5.5 Sealing Interfaces
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7.2.5 Procedure outline Case A - Corrosion away from end of stiffener 1. Mark and drill holes in the existing stiffener and web to suit the prefabricated splicing angle. Refer to Figure 7.2a. 2. If directed, cut away the severely corroded portion of stiffener by flame cutting and by using an angle grinder. Avoid flame effects and grinding of grooves in the web plate. Dress any flame cut edges. Clean existing steelwork where new steel is to abut. Fill pitting and depressions in the surface in accordance with sub-procedure 5.4 so there is no void between the web and the new stiffener segment. Bolt in place the new galvanised stiffener segment, installing new bolts in accordance with the appropriate part of sub-procedure 5.2. Seal any gaps at the interface between new and existing steel in accordance with sub-procedure 5.5. Prepare for and patch paint new and existing steel to the extent directed in accordance with sub-procedure 5.3.
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4.
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6.
Case B - Corrosion near end of stiffener 1. Remove rivets connecting the part of web stiffener to be removed in accordance with sub-procedure 5.2. Cut away the corroded portion of stiffener by flame cutting and by using an angle grinder. Avoid flame effects and grinding grooves in the web plate. Dress any flame cut edges. Clean existing steelwork where new steel is to abut. Fill pitting and depressions in the surface in accordance with sub-procedure 5.4 so there is no void between the web and the new stiffener segment. Fit the prefabricated, galvanised replacement segment of stiffener in accordance with the details in Figure 7.2b and sub-procedure 5.2. Fit only for "bracing connection" stiffeners, otherwise just remove. Mark and drill bolt holes in the web to match the holes in the splicing angle. Fit the prefabricated galvanised splicing angle in accordance with details on the drawing and sub-procedure 5.2. Seal any gaps at the interface between new and existing steel in accordance with sub-procedure 5.5. Prepare for and patch paint new and existing steel to the extent directed in accordance with sub-procedure 5.3.
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3.
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5. 6.
7.
8.
7.2.6 Alternative details None.

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7.2.7 Action to avoid or minimise recurrence Corrosion at the base of stiffeners can be addressed by stopping the new stiffener segment above the bottom flange (if structurally acceptable) (Case B only). Refer also to sub-procedure 5.1 Arresting Corrosion. 7.2.8 Special considerations and effects of repair None. 7.2.9 Follow-up inspection and testing Programmed inspections only. 7.2.10 Drawing list Figure. 7.2a and Figure 7.2b. 7.3. Repairing bearing web stiffeners with localised corrosion at base of outstand leg of stiffener 7.3.1 Description of defect Severe corrosion and perforation to the outstand leg of riveted angle bearing stiffeners at base, where the remaining leg is in good condition. 7.3.2 Description of repair The repair involves the removal of the severely corroded and perforated portion of the outstand leg of bearing stiffener and bolting a new plate to the outstand leg. The new plate must bear hard on bottom flange. 7.3.3 Engineering discussion See 7.1.3. 7.3.4 Procedure outline 1. Cut away the corroded portion of outstand leg of stiffener by flame cutting and by using an angle grinder. Avoid flame effects in the remaining leg of stiffener. Dress any flame cut edges. Clamp new plate with holes drilled to outstand leg. New plate must bear hard on bottom flange. Drill existing stiffener and grind smooth all burrs. Bolt new plate to existing stiffener. Prepare for and patch paint new and existing steelwork.
2.
3. 4. 5.
7.3.5 Sub-procedure required Ref 5.1 Arresting corrosion. Ref 5.2.2.1 Oxy-fuel cutting.
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Ref 5.2.2.3 Preparing the hole for the bolt. Ref 5.2.2.4 Install the bolt Ref 5.3 Patch painting. 7.4. Relief of corrosion site at the base of splayed angle bearing end stiffeners 7.4.1 Description of defect Severe corrosion or conditions conducive to corrosion at the base of a splayed angle bearing stiffener in riveted girders. Refer to Figure 7.4. 7.4.2 Description of repair The "repair" involves a modification to the stiffener so that the area can be readily cleaned, painted and maintained to prevent further corrosion. The modification is to remove a triangular section of the splayed segment of the bearing stiffener. 7.4.3 Engineering discussion While the removal of the section of stiffener theoretically reduces the girder's bearing capacity, the reduction is usually only marginal. However, engineering input should be sought before undertaking this repair. Note that the splayed section of stiffener is usually connected by only one rivet. This gives an indication of the small upper limit to the compression load in the stiffener. The splayed angle bearing stiffeners are significantly less effective than end bearing type stiffeners used in modern practice. If the bearing detail is performing poorly under live load (eg excessive flexing of bearing or bed plates etc.) then consideration should be given to replacing the splayed angle bearing stiffener with an end bearing type stiffener. 7.4.4 Sub-procedures required
Ref 5.3 Patch Painting (including surface preparation) 7.4.5 Procedure outline 1. Remove the section of stiffener as illustrated in Figure 7.4 by oxy-fuel cutting. Avoid or minimise flame effects on the steel of the girder section. Dress the flame cut steel edges by grinding. Clean the area at the base of the stiffener of dirt and debris by power wire brushing, grinding etc. Prepare for and patch paint the area in accordance with sub-procedure 5.3.
2.
3.
7.4.6 Alternative details None
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7.4.7 Action to avoid or minimise recurrence Corrosion at the base of stiffeners can be addressed by: Applying epoxy filler to the area to produce a contour that will readily drain water away, or
Protecting areas vulnerable to corrosion with denso tape. Refer to sub-procedure 5.1 - Arresting Corrosion.
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7.4.8 Special considerations and effects of repair None. 7.4.9 Follow-up inspection and testing Programmed inspections only. Pay particular attention to maintenance of the paint system in the vicinity of the bearing. 7.4.10 Drawing list Figure 7.4 7.5. Repairing corrosion at bottom flange bracing connection 7.5.1 Description of defect Severe corrosion in riveted girders at the intersection of bracing, web stiffeners and the bottom flange leading to significant loss of section in one or more of the components. 7.5.2 Description of repair The repair involves a replacement of severely corroded elements and possibly adjustment of the detail, in a structurally acceptable manner, to avoid recurrence of the defect. The repair procedure in 7.2 may be appropriate for the repair of web stiffeners. Bracing members, damaged by corrosion, can be replaced in accordance with repair procedure 11.1. Where significant corrosion of the bottom flange has occurred, the repair procedure in 6.1 may be required. Where the loss of section due to corrosion is less than that at which repair is required, sub-procedure 5.1 for arresting corrosion may be appropriate. 7.5.3 Engineering discussion At the location under consideration, all the elements - the bottom flange, the web stiffeners and web, the braces and connection gusset may be active parts of the bracing system.
It should be noted that in a sway bracing system, a bending moment will be applied to the web stiffeners if the intersection of the centroids of the horizontal and diagonal braces is not on the web centreline. As a consequence, changes to the details to avoid further corrosion should not be made in conjunction with the repair without an engineering assessment to determine if the resulting detail will be structurally satisfactory. The standard repair procedure involves reinstatement of the detail, arrest of corrosion and protection against corrosion by an appropriate means.
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To assess the necessity for component repair or replacement, the following guideline should be used: Repair or replace a component if the section loss, uniformly spread, exceeds 10%. Notwithstanding the need for an engineering assessment, details of a possible modification of a typical connection are shown in Figure 7.5. The modification to the detail involves cutting back of the horizontal leg of the brace angle to eliminate the horizontal interface with the flange. If no rivets are removed by this modification it is likely to be structurally acceptable. If the degree of corrosion requires, the web stiffener is to be repaired in accordance with procedure 7.2 and the gusset plate replaced in accordance with procedure 11.1. If the engineering assessment for the particular case indicates that the proposed modification is not structurally satisfactory, consideration should be given to compensating for the cut away leg of the brace angle by increasing the size and thickness or steel grade of the gusset plate and the number of connecting bolts.
Warning: Bracing should be removed at only one location at a time and temporary bracing to compensate must be installed if suitable load restrictions are not placed on the structure.
7.5.4 Sub-procedures required Ref 5.1 Arresting Corrosion Ref 5.2 Removing Rivets and Replacing with Bolts Ref 5.3 Patch Painting (including surface preparation) Ref 5.4 Filling Voids Ref 5.5 Sealing Interfaces 7.5.5 Procedure outline 1. Install temporary braces as required to compensate for the braces that are to be disconnected. 2. Remove rivets as necessary and remove the gusset plate. 3. If structurally acceptable, modify members as detailed by flame cutting or with an angle grinder. Avoid flame effects and grinding grooves on the flange and web of main girder. Completely remove the brace if necessary to avoid these effects. Dress any flame cut edges by grinding. 4. Repair the web stiffener if required in accordance with procedure 7.2. 5. Clean all steel surfaces of loose rust and paint by scraping and power wire brushing.
6. Reassemble the connection with a new prefabricated galvanised gusset plate if required. In the process fill voids, including surface pitting, as required by the
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detail in accordance with sub-procedure 5.4. Install new bolts in accordance with sub-procedure 5.2. 7. Prepare for and patch paint new and existing steel to the extent directed in accordance with sub-procedure 5.3. 7.5.6 Alternative details Consider complete replacement of connected bracing members. 7.5.7 Action to avoid or minimise recurrence Included in procedure 7.5.8 Special considerations and effects of repair As stated in 7.4.3, 7.5.3, 7.6.3, modification to the detail should only be made if an engineering assessment shows that it is structurally satisfactory. 7.5.9 Follow-up inspection and testing Programmed inspections only. 7.5.10 Drawing list Figure 7.5.
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7.6. Replacing bearing plates (See 22.4 for bearing pad replacement) 7.6.1 Description of defect Severe corrosion of bearing plates and attachment bolts in riveted girder bridges. 7.6.2 Description of repair The method of repair is to replace the bearing plate with a new galvanised equivalent. The repair procedure describes methods of installing the new bearing plate with a minimum lift of the girder. 7.6.3 Engineering discussion Weather conditions, in particular, buckling of track in hot weather must be considered before disturbing the bridge. A severely corroded bearing plate should be replaced. It may be prudent to replace a severely corroded bearing plate, even if it appears to function properly, to ensure the ongoing performance of the bridge. Girder attachment bolts should be replaced if they are corroded to the extent that they are unable to restrain the girder against upward movement and/or if they prevent longitudinal movement at the expansion end. Restore the capacity of the girder to move longitudinally at the expansion end if severe corrosion and obstructions have removed this capacity. If the repair is to be carried out with the bridge open to traffic, temporary support to the girder including jacks, brackets, struts etc. are to be designed or selected to suit the load that will be applied. Where screws in tapped holes are used to attach the bearing plate, fabricate the plate from steel of grade 350 or higher. The screws then can be sufficiently tensioned. 7.6.4 Sub-procedures required Ref 5.2 Removing Rivets and Replacing with Bolts Ref 5.3 Patch Painting (including surface preparation) Ref 5.4 Filling Voids Ref 5.5 Sealing Interfaces 7.6.5 Procedure outline 1. Remove existing attachment bolts between girder and bed plate. If necessary drill out the bolt shank to a larger diameter and tap the hole in the bed plate to suit the new attachment bolt. Alternative attachment arrangement 2 or 3 shown in Figure 7.6b is to be adopted, drill and tap new holes in the bed plate to suit.
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2.
Raise the girder(s) by jacking the minimum amount required to enable completion of the replacement operation. Raise all girders at one end, simultaneously if necessary, to avoid overstressing cross-connecting members. Lock jacks or pack under the girders to prevent accidental dropping of the girders. If the bridge is to remain open to traffic, restrain the girders longitudinally by blocking against the abutments, unless they are suitably restrained at the remote end bearings. Remove rivets connecting the bearing plates in accordance with subprocedure 5.2 and remove the bearing plate. Clean the bed plate and underside of the girder flange to remove loose rust, dirt etc. Use wire brushing if possible. Prepare the existing holes for new bolts by reaming, dressing etc. as required by sub-procedure 5.2. If the underside of the flange is severely corroded, pitted or uneven, apply an even coat of epoxy filler to the underside of the flange over the bearing plate contact area. Apply sufficient epoxy to fill any pitting voids on the underside of the flange. Refer to sub-procedure 5.4 - Filling Voids.
3.
4.
5.
Preferred Option 6. a) Fit new prefabricated galvanised bearing plate with holes pre drilled to suit fixed and expansion ends as required. Length of new bearing plate to allow fitting of 3 bolts past bed plate. Weld bearing plate to bottom flange. Weld not to extend past bed plate. Drill bottom flange and grind smooth all burrs. Install new bolts. Plug and weld up rivet holes. Prepare for patch painting.
b) c) d) e) f)
See detail D shown in Figure 7.6c. Alternative Option Fit the new, prefabricated, galvanised bearing plate. Fixing bolts are to be in accordance with one of the alternative details shown in Figure 7.6a. Tighten the fixing bolts. If epoxy filler was applied, use the bolt tightening to squeeze the epoxy into any voids. Ensure that the bearing plate remains precisely parallel to the girder flange so that it will sit evenly on the bed plate when the girder is lowered. Ensure that the bearing plate edges and attachment bolt holes align precisely with the guides and bolt holes of the bed plate. 7. At the expansion end only apply a liberal layer of lithium disulphide grease to the underside of the bearing plate. Lower the girder(s) onto the bed plates, checking for proper fit. If epoxy filler was used, do not lower the girder(s) until the epoxy has cured.
8.
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9.
Fit new attachment bolts in accordance with one of the alternative details shown in Figure 7.6a, Figure 7.6b and Figure 7.6c.
7.6.6 Alternative details Several alternative arrangements for securing the new bearing plate and for the attachment bolts are shown in Figure 7.6a, Figure 7.6b and Figure 7.6c. The use of stainless steel for the new bearing plate and fixing bolts could be considered if the environment is aggressive. Using stainless steel will also avoid the minor problems associated with galvanising zinc entering tapped holes. For 350 grade bearing plate, a long thread engagement in a tapped hole (1.5 x diameter) is required with high strength bolts to develop adequate tension capacity. Where the thickness of the bearing plate is less than the required thread engagement and cannot be increased, use a high strength structural steel such as Bisalloy 80 for the plate. With this material the thread engagement is to be equal to the screw diameter. 7.6.7 Action to avoid or minimise recurrence Routine maintenance to the paint system and to clean dirt and debris from the bearing area. Ensure that longitudinal movement of the expansion end is not prevented. 7.6.8 Special considerations and effects of repair None. 7.6.9 Follow-up inspection and testing Programmed inspections only. Check all bolts for tightness during routine inspections. 7.6.10 Drawing list Figure 7.6a, Figure 7.6b and Figure 7.6c.
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7.7. Repairing cracked and broken wind brace welded connections 7.7.1 Description of defect Cracked and broken wind brace members that have been welded at end and centre (main girder) connections. 7.7.2 Description of repair The repair involves removing welded area of wind brace and connecting new wind brace using gusset plates and bolting. If broken wind brace is in good condition it may be re-used. 7.7.3 Engineering discussion In bridges with flat bar wind braces consideration should be given to replacing flat bars with angles. If flat bars are to be replaced with angles, carry out design check to determine size of angles to be used. Design new gusset plate to suit end connection bolts.
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7.7.4 Procedure outline 1. 2. Prepare new gusset plates. Remove cracked/broken wind brace member by oxy-fuel cutting. Do not allow the cutting flame to damage the main girder flange. Leave cut area proud if necessary. Grind smooth after removing brace member. Mark flange for location of bolts. Drill flange and grind smooth all burrs. Mark and drill new wind brace, grinding smooth all burrs. Install new wind brace. Fill voids and pitting -see sub procedure 5.4. Fit new bolts in accordance with sub procedure 5.2. Prepare for patch paint.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
8.
7.7.5 Sub procedures required Ref 5.2.2.1 Oxy-fuel cutting. Ref 5.2.2.3 Prepare the hole for the bolts. Ref.5.2.2.4 Install the bolt. 7.7.6 Drawing list Figure 7.5 Detail B
8.
Repairing fatigue damage
8.1. Intercepting fatigue cracks 8.1.1 Description of defect Fatigue cracks in any steel element. 8.1.2 Description of action Drill a hole at the tip of a fatigue crack and install a tensioned bolt in the hole. This procedure is not a repair as such, but a course of action that may delay propagation of fatigue cracks. 8.1.3 Engineering discussion Fatigue cracks occur in a properly designed structure when it nears the end of its design life or in poorly designed details where unanticipated high stress levels or fatigue initiation points occur.
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The progress of fatigue cracks is not easily halted other than by changing the structural behaviour of the part to dramatically reduce or eliminate the tensile stresses at the crack location. (Refer to procedure 8.2 for an example.) The precompression of the region near the crack tip by the tensioning of a bolt has been found to inhibit crack propagation. Warning: Procedure 8.1 may be used to delay propagation of a fatigue crack, but is unlikely to be a permanent solution. After carrying out this procedure, the crack site must be regularly monitored to detect new cracks emerging from the hole perimeter. This is particularly important in non-redundant structures where sudden propagation of a crack will lead to collapse. 8.1.4 Sub-procedures required None. 8.1.5 Procedure outline 1. Determine the position of the end of the fatigue crack by magnetic particle testing, close visual inspection or other suitable means. Drill a hole of at least 20mm diameter to intercept the crack. Locate the centre of the hole at the observed crack tip. The preferred hole size is 25 to 26mm to suit an M24 Bolt. Use magnetic particle testing on the inside of the hole to confirm that there are no other cracks around the perimeter of the hole other than the entry crack, i.e. confirm that the tip of the crack has been drilled out. Install and fully tension a high strength galvanised bolt in the hole. The bolt is to have standard washers under both head and nut.
2.
3.
4.
8.1.6 Alternative details None. 8.1.7 Action to avoid or minimise recurrence Not applicable. 8.1.8 Special considerations and effects of repair Do not paint the inside of the hole or the surrounding area as this may hide new cracks forming at the hole edge. 8.1.9 Follow-up inspection and testing As there is no guarantee that the above procedure will be effective in inhibiting the crack propagation, inspections of the defect should continue on the same basis as if the procedure had not been carried out. 8.1.10 Drawing list Refer to detail B in Figure 8.2.
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8.2. Repairing fatigue cracks at connections of coped I-sections 8.2.1 Description of defect F a t i g u ec r a c k si na n -section web, commencing from the tensile edge adjacent to the point where the flange has been stopped. Refer to the detail in Figure 8.2. 8.2.2 Description of repair The repair comprises: 1. Drilling a hole at the end of the fatigue crack and subsequently installing a high strength bolt fully tensioned. Fitting extended connection brackets that bolts to the girder web.
2.
The brackets are to relieve the tensile stresses at the crack and bridge between the connection bolts and the sound portion of the -sections. 8.2.3 Engineering discussion Fatigue cracks occur in a properly designed structure when it nears the end of its design life or in poorly designed details where unanticipated high stress levels or fatigue initiation points occur. A common instance of the latter is the subject of this repair and is illustrated in Figure 8.2. Wh e r et h ef l a n g e so fa n -section are curtailed at a distance from the point of effective pinned support, or where there is rotational restraint to the girder end, the bending moment may be significant. With only the web to resist the moment, high levels of stress result. Furthermore, coping of the web or termination of the flange to web weld may create a fatigue initiation site. Drilling a hole at the fatigue crack tip is only a temporary measure. It may or may not delay further crack propagation. This repair procedure aims to significantly reduce the tensile stress at the crack site by fitting steel brackets to bridge between the end connection and the sound section o f -girder. The procedure described and the details shown in Figure 8.2 are intended to illustrate the principles of the repair rather than any specific case. A thorough engineering design and the detailing of the steel bracket and its connections are required for each particular case. Note that it may not always be possible to devise a suitable bracket. As a general principle, new brackets should be substantial in section to keep stress levels low. The design, fabrication and installation effort required by the repair procedure may be substantial. Close consideration should be given to complete replacement of the -section (in accordance with procedure 11.1) particularly when the member size and/or length is small.
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A bridge possession is normally required to implement this repair as the member is to be disconnected. 8.2.4 Sub-procedures required Only the principles of the repair are given. Any of the sub-procedures may or may not be required, depending on the designed details.
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8.2.5 Procedure outline 1. Determine the position of the end of the fatigue crack by magnetic particle testing, close visual inspection or other suitable means. Drill a hole of at least 20mm diameter to intercept the crack. Locate the centre of the hole at the observed crack tip. The preferred hole size is 25 to 26mm to suit an M24 Bolt. Drill other holes in the member to suit the brackets to be installed. Temporarily support the end of the member under repair. Disconnect the end of the member by removing rivets etc. as required to fit the new brackets. Fit new prefabricated, galvanised brackets in accordance with the design details. Install and fully tension all bolts including the bolt through the hole at the crack tip. Prepare for and patch paint new steelwork and areas of existing steelwork to the extent directed in accordance with sub-procedure 5.3.
2.
3. 4. 5.
6.
7.
8.2.6 Alternative details None. 8.2.7 Action to avoid or minimise recurrence Avoid similar design details in new bridges. 8.2.8 Special considerations and effects of repair Depending on the details of the new bracket(s), the fatigue crack may be hidden, preventing ongoing monitoring. The member should be inspected regularly for adequate performance under load. Note that it may not be possible to design brackets with a long fatigue life. 8.2.9 Follow-up inspection and testing Programmed inspections to monitor the performance of new connection, the progress of the original crack if possible and check for cracks in the new brackets. 8.2.10 Drawing list Figure 8.2.
9.
Repairing impact damage
9.1. Description of Defect Any damage to bridge elements caused by impact from road or rail vehicles.
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9.2. Engineering Discussion The comments of Section 9 are, in the main, drawn directly from the National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 271 -"Guideline for Evaluation and Repair of Damaged Steel Bridge Members". It is recommended that this document be referred to for further detailed comment on the issues and techniques discussed hereunder. Steel bridge elements including major components such as girders or truss members and minor components such as bracing members are frequently damaged by vehicle impact. Once the damage has been detected repair of the damaged components must be undertaken. In order to ensure that the repair method adopted is cost effective and restores the required bridge capacity, the following sequence of actions is required: 1. 2. 3. Inspection of damage Assessment of damage Selection of repair method
A range of repair methods is currently available. These are shown in Table 9.4 that compares appropriateness of repair method with type of impact damage. It can be seen from the table that many of the repair methods are excluded for "Fracture-Critical Members" (FCM's). These are defined as: "(a) ...those tension members or tension components of members whose failure would be expected to result in collapse of the bridge or inability of the bridge to perform its design function. Tension components of steel bridges include all portions of tension members and those portions of flexural members subjected to tension stress. Any attachment having a length in the direction of the tension stress greater than 100mm that is welded to a tension component of a FCM shall be considered part of the tension component and, therefore, shall be considered FractureCritical."
(AREA Chapter 15, Section 1.14.2.)
(b)
The majority of cases of impact damage encountered by ARTC would be to FCM's, i.e. tension flanges of girders and truss tension members. The applicable range of repairs in most cases will therefore be reduced to full or partial replacement of the damaged member, or flame straightening of the member followed by installation of bolted cover plates to fully replace the damaged section. 9.3. Sub-procedures required Repairs to impact damage can involve all of the sub-procedures defined in Chapter 5. Techniques associated with the following procedures may also be appropriate with minor modification, depending on the form of the impact damage: Ref 6.1 Repairing flange corrosion in riveted girders. Ref 6.2 Repairing flange corrosion in rolled or welded girders.
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Ref 6.4 Repairing webs with localised corrosion. Ref 6.5 Repairing corroded bottom flanges of jack arch bridges. Ref 7.2 Repairing intermediate web stiffeners with localised corrosion. Ref 7.5 Repairing corrosion of bottom flange bracing connection. Ref 8.1 Intercepting fatigue cracks. Ref 10.2 Repairing corroded angle columns (temporary support available). Ref 10.3 Repairing corroded 4-angle columns (no temporary support). Ref 11.1 Replacing members or elements of riveted members. Further information on the specific repair techniques relating to impact damage is contained in the previously referenced Report 271. 9.4. Procedure outline 9.4.1 Inspection of damage Initial inspection and action Carry out an initial inspection to ensure safety to the user and to reduce further damage to the bridge. When damage is severe, an experienced structural engineer should make the initial inspection and determine whether to restrict traffic or close the bridge. Preliminary strengthening should be made immediately to prevent further damage. Preliminary strengthening may also be made to allow traffic on the bridge. These preliminary actions are normally based on judgment supplemented by brief calculations. If a severely damaged member is fracture-critical, immediate steps should be taken to prevent bridge collapse. When a member is damaged beyond repair, the engineer may recommend at this time to partially or wholly replace the member. When safety of the user is in question, the bridge should be closed until it is conclusively determined that traffic can be safely restored. Inspection sequence and record Commence inspection with the most critically damaged area first, followed by inspection of other damage in descending order of severity. Inspect the main supporting members first. Tension members should be inspected for indication of cracking. Compression members should be inspected for indications of buckling. When more than one member has been damaged a complete description of damage for each member should be given. Painted surfaces should be visually inspected for cracks. Cracks in paint and rust staining are indications of cracking in the steel. Heavy coatings of ductile paint may bridge over cracks that are tight. When there is any doubt about ability to inspect for cracks, the paint should be removed. Damaged fracture-critical members should be blast cleaned and magnetic particle inspected.
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All areas inspected, including those areas inspected that did not suffer damage, should be recorded. This procedure aids the decision-making process of what, if anything, should be done to repair a member. Monitoring of repairs Follow-up inspection of repairs shall be made on a regular basis. Members that have complete restoration should be inspected with the same frequency as the complete bridge. Member repairs where there is some doubt regarding strength and durability should be inspected at more frequent intervals. Repairs to fracture-critical members should receive close consideration with respect to inspection frequency. 9.4.2 Assessment of damage General Preliminary assessment of damage shall be made during inspection of damage as described under Section 9.4.1. Final assessment of damage shall involve at least one experienced engineer. Strength of damaged member During assessment of damage, a complete evaluation of strength shall be made. This analysis should determine stress levels in the damaged member, and these stresses shall be compared to the design stresses. This analysis shall allow for all damage effects such as reduction of section, member distortion etc. Service load stress should always be computed. Overload, ultimate load, and fatigue stresses should be calculated as appropriate. Calculations should consider the effect of stress range and the fatigue category of the member. All preliminary calculations and decisions made during the inspection phase shall be reviewed. Fracture-Critical Members Fracture-critical members shall receive a more rigorous assessment of damage than non fracture-critical members. Selection of repair procedures for fracture-critical members shall be more conservative than selecting repair procedures for non fracture-critical members. In general, crack repairs shall be made with bolted cover plates. If other methods are used, such as welding or flame straightening, elements shall be fully strengthened by adding new bolted cover plates. Enough new material shall be added so that the damaged material can be neglected in computing strength. Primary members Primary members can be classified as compression or tension members. Primary members in tension shall be considered to be (classified as) Fracture-Critical Members. Tensile areas of members such as tensile portions of girders in bending are treated as tensile members. Many of the limiting restrictions in this manual apply only to tension members. To qualify as a compression member, no combination of loading shall produce tension in the portion of the member being repaired. Compression members are not fatigue critical and, therefore, stress range limitations used for tensile members do not apply. Charpy impact toughness requirements apply to tension members only.
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Most crack repairs and partial replacements in compression areas may be satisfactorily done by welding Secondary members Secondary members are stressed because of deflection of primary members and/or are stressed because of secondary loads such as wind and earthquake. Secondary members that carry compression only shall be assessed and repaired in the same manner as primary compression members. Tension secondary members may be repaired by flame straightening and hot mechanical or cold mechanical straightening. Cracks can be repaired by straightening and welding provided the steel is weldable. No limitation on maximum strain shall be placed on secondary members, provided they can be straightened to allowable alignment. Straightening of FCMs Any primary tension member may be straightened but all affected fatigue-critical areas are to be plated except those areas where straightening has been achieved without mechanical assistance. Edge strain (amount of yielding) can be estimated from table 9.1 Maximum versines (2% yielding on edge) Flange width - mm 300 chord 600 chord 1200 chord 100 4.5 18 72 120 3.8 15 60 140 3.2 13 51 160 2.8 11 45 180 2.5 10 40 200 2.3 9 36 250 1.8 7 29 300 1.5 6 24 350 1.3 5 21 400 1.1 5 18 450 1.0 4 16 500 0.9 4 14 Table 9.1 - Edge strain (amount of yielding) Assuming the measured distortion is a circular curve, the edge strain (percent) is given by
400wv S C2
where w = flange width, v= versine C = chord (all in mm)
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and the radius of curvature by
L2 R 8v
where L = chord length V = versine (gap) Sufficient area is to be added to compensate for the damaged section (in the unlikely event that the damaged member/component happens to fracture). As a minimum, 50% additional area is to be added. This minimum addition is based on the simple premise that if the member is initially designed for a working stress of about 0.5 Fy, the straightened member element could be neglected entirely and the maximum stress would not exceed Fy. Straightening of compression members Compression members are not generally subject to fatigue failure but it is critical to ensure that buckling does not occur. Calculation of damage curvature The assessment of damage to a member and selection of the repair method can best be accomplished from accurate inspection information. A sufficient number of measurements must be made to apply the proposed guidelines. The assessment process should provide information that can be used to select the appropriate repair procedure. The best way to estimate curvature is by measuring versines of short chords. Straight edges (or spirit levels) 600mm or 1200mm long held against the inside of the curvature are more convenient than using string lines. Nicks and Gouges Nicks and gouges shall be carefully described and photographed. Superficial nicks and gouges can be repaired by grinding smooth. More serious damage to weldable steel in compression members and secondary members can be repaired by welding. Other cases can usually be repaired by adding bolted cover plates. Requiring partial replacement due to nicks and gouges is rare. The distinction between superficial and serious shall be made by stress calculations. As a guide, superficial nicks or gouges can be taken as those resulting in less than 10% loss of section of the affected element. Cracks Crack assessment must be preceded by a detailed inspection to locate the cracks and determine their length and width, including visual inspection supplemented with magnetic particle, or dye penetrant testing. Impact cracks are usually surface connected and ultrasonic testing is not generally necessary. The stress and shock of impact will sometimes cause cracking well away from the area of principal damage.
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Look for spalling of paint or scale as an indication that some unusual strain has occurred at such locations and use as a guideline for areas of detailed inspection. Visual examination is not to be limited to these areas, however, since a crack may occur in areas that were shock loaded but were not strained enough to spall the paint or scale. Visual inspection shall be supplemented with magnetic particle inspection in suspect areas. Particular attention should be given to the examination of the toes of butt and fillet welds in areas subjected to damage as this is an area where cracks often occur. Field inspection for cracks is done by magnetic particle, dye penetrant and occasionally ultrasonic inspection. 9.4.3 Selection of repair procedure General Repair solutions can be selected from the following range. A combination of repair procedures may result in the best repair solution. Refer to Table 9.2. Straightening procedures need to done with care to prevent over-straightening (ie creating bending in opposite direction) and damage from straightening forces and devices. Also distortions due to yielding must not be confused with those due to restraints from other members. Flame straightening This repair method does not significantly degrade steel properties, but is not generally effective where yielding has exceeded about 1%. It may be considered for the repair of all bent members with the following exceptions: Do not flame straighten fracture-critical members unless the flamestraightened area is fully supplemented by bolted cover plates. Do not attempt to flame straighten excessively wrinkled plates or plate with excessive kinks. It is nearly impossible to flame straighten this type of damage.
Hot mechanical straightening This is a process where heat is applied to all sides of a bent member, and while the member is still hot it is straightened by applying force. Agencies that use this
o
method restrict the maximum temperature to 640 C. The results of this type of straightening are highly dependent on operator skill. Lack of skill (or care) is frequently indicated by waviness of edges (especially the convex side of the damage) and local indentations due to local hot yielding under jacking loads. It is believed that flame straightening is a superior method and should be used in lieu of hot mechanical straightening for all primary tension members, where practical. Hot mechanical straightening may be used on primary compression members or secondary members provided the operators have the skill to produce results that are free of wrinkles, cracks, bulges, and poor alignment.
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Cold mechanical straightening Cold mechanical straightening is a process where an accidentally bent member is straightened by applying force. No heat is used. It is believed that a bridge member can be cold straightened once without causing significant degradation, provided the plastic strain is limited to 5% nominal strain. Cold mechanical straightening shall not be applied to member areas that have cracks, nicks, or gouges, or to fracture-critical members. Cold mechanical straightening should not be applied to members with low Charpy impact values. It is not recommended that twisted or rotated members be cold straightened. Welding Welding may be used for several types of repair, including defect or crack repair, welding replacement segments into place, and adding straightening plates by welding. Poorly executed weld repairs in tensile areas can be very dangerous and in some instances may do more harm than good. Fracture-critical members shall not be repaired by welding unless fully strengthened by additional bolted material. The steels to be repair welded shall be weldable steels. Do not weld members with low Charpy impact values unless plated in addition. Bolting Bolting may be used as a repair method or as a supplement to other repair methods. Replacement of a damaged element with a new piece of steel fastened with fully tensioned high-strength bolts is regarded as the safest method of repair. Replacing damaged riveted elements with bolted material may not be excessively difficult and should be considered. Fracture-critical members shall be repaired by bolting or repaired by other methods and fully strengthened by adding new bolted material. Partial replacement In some instances damage will be so serious that partial replacement is necessary. This damage includes excessively wrinkled plates, excessive deformation and bends, tears in member elements, and large cracks. Partial replacement will normally consist of removing the damaged area and replacement with either a welded insert or a bolted splice insert. Welded inserts are not recommended for fracture-critical members. Partial replacement by bolting and welding is an acceptable method, provided the longitudinal web weld is located in a compression area. Partial replacements can be used in conjunction with other repair methods, such as flame straightening. For example, a bent member with a crack could be flame straightened and the crack repaired by bolted cover plates.
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Complete replacement Complete replacement of a member is normally the most expensive method of repair. If a member is excessively damaged throughout its full length, replacement may be the only alternative. Other less difficult methods of repair should be carefully studied prior to selecting complete replacement.
Repair Method to Consider Damage Assessment Factors
Partial Replacement Flame Straightening Flame Straightening supplemented by Bolting Full Replacement Field Welding supplemented by Bolting Cold Mechanical Straightening Hot Mechanical Straightening
Welding
Weldable Steel Non-Weldable Steel Low Charpy Impact Values Adequate Charpy Impact Values Fracture-Critical Member Primary Tension Member Secondary Members All Compression Members Tearing and Excessive Wrinkles Primary Tension Member Curvature Strain Meets Guidelines Primary Tension Member Curvature Strain Does Not Meet Guidelines Member Curvature Radius More than Cracks - Weldable Steel Non Weldable Steel
* *
* *
Bolting
Member will return to correct position when adjacent members or joints are straightened
Superficial Nicks and Gouges Nicks and Gouges Weldable Steel * Flame straightening is recommended
Grind Defect Smooth
Table 9.2 - Selection of repair method for impact damage Strength of repair method Fracture-critical members should be repaired by methods that unquestionably restore full strength. These methods may include bolted splices, partial replacement by bolting, and full replacement. All loading capacities, including service load, overload, and ultimate load, should be fully restored, and the service life should be fully regained.
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Non fracture-critical members may be repaired by the same methods used for fracture-critical members. However, other less costly methods should also be considered and used as appropriate. Durability of repair Durability of repair must be given a high priority. All methods of repair should have durability equal to or better than the original member. The accessibility of all parts of a repaired structure for inspection, cleaning, and painting shall be accomplished by the proper proportioning of repairs and the design of their details. Closed sections, and pockets or depressions that will retain water, shall be avoided. Pockets shall be provided with effective drain holes or filled with waterproofing material. 9.4.4 Action to avoid or minimise recurrence Install low clearance warning signs and alternative route signs. Install loading gauges remote from bridge site to warn oversize vehicles. Install crash beams to protect superstructure elements and kerb barriers to protect substructure elements.
9.4.5 Special considerations and effects of repair Refer to Section 9.2. 9.4.6 Follow-up inspection and testing Refer to Section 9.4 Point 3. Check for growth of cracks where cover plates for repair are less than full section requirements.
10. Repairing stepways and footways structures

10.1. Repairing steel risers and stringers in stepways 10.1.1 Description of defect Severe corrosion of steel risers and stringers and their connections leading to a significant loss of cross-sectional area and consequent reduction in strength. 10.1.2 Description of repair Stringers with severe corrosion to flanges should be replaced. Where severe corrosion is limited to the web, a web cover plate may be welded in lieu of complete replacement. Risers with severe corrosion are to be replaced entirely with galvanised steel channels, site welded to stringers. 10.1.3 Engineering discussion Members should be repaired or replaced when loss of section results in a strength or stiffness reduction below 75% of which is required at any particular location.
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A simple design check should be carried out to check the strength loss, but the following guidelines may be applied: Risers: Replace members exhibiting in excess of = 20% loss in cross-sectional area of both flanges combined, or = 40% loss in cross-sectional area of the web. Stringers: Replace members exhibiting in excess of 20% loss in cross-sectional area of both flanges combined or 30% loss in cross-sectional area of web plate. Fit cover plates to webs of members exhibiting between 10% and 30% loss in cross-sectional area of the web.
Consideration should be given to complete replacement of all risers or all risers and stringers in stepways where a significant proportion of individual elements would require replacement. Although bolted connections have generally been used in this manual as the standard for steel repair, site welding is the proposed method of connection of new steel elements in this repair procedure. The locations where welding is required are typically low stress areas in stepways and fatigue is not usually critical as live load stress ranges and cycles are small. Notwithstanding the above, the weldability of the steel is to be checked by appropriate tests or scientific investigations and all completed welds are to be checked for defects. Where stringers are to be replaced, adopt the lower end support arrangement illustrated in detail D of Figure 10.1b to keep the structure clear of the ground. 10.1.4 Sub-procedures required Ref 5.1 Arresting Corrosion Ref 5.2 Removing Rivets and Replacing with Bolts Ref 5.3 Patch Painting (including surface preparation) 10.1.5 Procedure outline Case A - Stringers and risers to be replaced (Only if cost evaluation shows that total stepway renewal is not the cost effective solution). 1. Remove precast treads and handrails etc. 2. Remove stringers and risers. Remove rivets securing stringers in accordance with sub-procedure 5.2. Install new galvanised stringers, fabricated to existing steelwork, except use the lower end support detail as shown in Figure 10.1b. Use galvanised splice plates where required to connect stringer segments. Use galvanised bolts in lieu of rivets.
3.
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Prepare new galvanised risers for installation by cutting and trimming flanges at the ends, all as detailed in Figure 10.1a. Site weld the new risers to the stringers at positions and levels to suit the precast step units to be used. Prepare for and patch paint at the riser connections and other areas of steel to extent directed in accordance with sub-procedure 5.3. Note the special preparation required for rough surfaces such as site fillet welds. Where galvanised surfaces are to be painted, use the appropriate paint system and surface preparation as described in sub-procedure 5.3. Refit precast treads and handrails using new galvanised or stainless steel bolts and fittings.
5.
6.
7.
Case B - Risers only to be replaced 1. 2. Remove precast treads and handrails etc. Remove risers to be replaced by oxy-fuel cutting adjacent to the attachment to the stringers. Do not allow the cutting flame to burn or otherwise affect the stringers that are to remain. Remove other attachments supporting risers. Grind smooth the face of the stringer web and expose the base metal for welding. Prepare new galvanised risers for installation by cutting and trimming flanges at the ends, all as detailed on in Figure 10.1a. Site weld the new risers to the stringers at positions and levels to suit precast step units to be used. Prepare for and patch paint at the riser connections and other areas of steel to extent directed in accordance with sub-procedure 5.3. Note the special preparation required for rough surfaces such as site fillet welds. Where galvanised surfaces are to be painted, use the appropriate paint system and surface preparation as described in sub-procedure 5.3. Refit precast treads and handrails using new galvanised or stainless steel bolts and fittings.
3.
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5.
6.
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Case C - Risers to be replaced and stringer web to be plated 1. 2. Remove precast treads and handrails etc. Remove risers to be replaced by oxy-fuel cutting adjacent to the attachment to the stringers. Do not allow the cutting flame to burn or otherwise affect the stringers that are to remain. Remove other attachments supporting the risers. Grind smooth the inner face of the stringer web to remove any remaining steel from the cross member and any other protrusion that would interfere with the cover plate. Where rivets project through web, provide holes in the cover plate.
3.
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Remove all loose rust from the face of the web to be plated by mechanical wire brushing. Fill all areas of pitting and all depressions with epoxy filler to create a smooth even surface for mounting the cover plate, all in accordance with sub-procedure 5.4. Fit prefabricated, galvanised 8mm web cover plates and fix to the stringers by site welding, all in accordance with the details in Figure 10.1b. Prepare new galvanised risers for installation by cutting and trimming flanges at the ends, all as detailed in Figure 10.1a. Site weld the new risers to the stringers at positions and levels to suit precast step units to be used. Prepare for and patch paint at the riser connections and other areas of steel to extent directed in accordance with sub-procedure 5.3. Note the special preparation required for rough surfaces such as site fillet welds. Where galvanised surfaces are to be painted, use the appropriate paint system and surface preparation as described in sub-procedure 5.3. Refit precast treads and handrails using new galvanised or stainless steel bolts and fittings.
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6.
7.
8.
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10.1.6 Alternative details None. 10.1.7 Action to avoid or minimise recurrence Routine maintenance to remove build up of dirt and debris, particularly at locations of site welds. 10.1.8 Special considerations and effects of repair None. 10.1.9 Follow-up inspection and testing Programmed inspections only. Pay particular attention to inspection for corrosion at site welds. 10.1.10 Drawing List
Figure 10.1a and Figure 10.1b
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10.2. Repairing corroded angle colums (temporary support available) 10.2.1 Description of defect Severe corrosion of multiple angle columns resulting in significant loss of crosssectional area. This procedure covers the case where the structure can be temporarily supported, allowing complete removal of the column. 10.2.2 Description of repair The repair involves complete or partial replacement of the column with a galvanised Universal Column (UC) section that is less prone to corrosion damage. Concrete footings with significant damage are to be repaired or rebuilt in conjunction with this repair. 10.2.3 Engineering discussion An engineering assessment to determine the necessity of the repair and the extent of column replacement should be carried out. In the absence of an engineering assessment, adopt the following guideline. Replace columns or segments of columns where the maximum loss of crosssectional area exceeds 20%. It should be noted that columns comprising 2 and 4 angles often have a much greater axial load capacity than is required, provided they are adequately braced. On the other hand, columns supporting structures that have had concrete overlay decks added may be highly loaded. If severe corrosion has occurred over a significant portion of the existing column, complete replacement is recommended. Partial replacement of the lower part of the column should only be adopted if severe corrosion is limited to the lower quarter, with the remainder in good condition and likely to remain so. The top connection of the replacement column to the supported structure or the remainder of the column must be detailed to ensure proper load transfer. Where concrete footings to columns have deteriorated significantly and are not repairable, they should be rebuilt in reinforced concrete. The ground bearing area is not to be less than that of the existing footing. Temporary support must be provided at adjacent columns that become unbraced during the repair. The axial load capacity of such columns is significantly reduced by the disconnection of braces. Refer to Table 10.1 for replacement column sizes.
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UC size 150 UC 23 150 UC 30 150 UC 37 200 UC 46 200 UC 60 250 UC 73 310 UC 97
To replace angle size 2 Leg 4 Leg 102 x 108 x 8 76 x 76 x 5 127 x 127 x 8 76 x 76 x 8 127 x 127 x 10 76 x 76 x 10 127 x 127 x 16 89 x 89 x 10 152 x 152 x 12 102 x 102 x 12 152 x 152 x 16 102 x 102 x 12 200 x 200 x 16 127 x 127 x 12 Table 10.1 - Replacement UC sizes
10.2.4 Sub-procedures required Ref 5.2 Removing Rivets and Replacing with Bolts Ref 5.3 Patch Painting (including surface preparation) 10.2.5 Procedure Outline 1. 2. Install temporary supports to allow removal of the column. Remove the rivets connecting bracing to the column then remove the column. If the concrete footing is to remain, cut a pocket at the base of the columns to permit oxy-fuel cutting of the steel 50mm below the concrete surface. Repair the existing footing or build a new footing in reinforced concrete if required. Drill holes for hold-down bolts. Install the new column and complete the base detail as shown in Figure 10.2. Connect to structure or remainder of column above Trim bracing members to size and drill new holes for connection to the new bracing cleats. Prepare for and patch paint new and existing steel to the extent directed all in accordance with sub-procedure 5.3.
3.
4.
5.
6.
10.2.6 Alternative details None. 10.2.7 Action to avoid or minimise recurrence The proposed details minimise future corrosion if routine maintenance is carried out. 10.2.8 Special considerations and effects of repair None. 10.2.9 Follow-up inspection and testing Routine inspections only.
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10.2.10 Drawing list Figure 10.2.
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10.3. Repairing corroded 4-angle colums (no temporary support) 10.3.1 Description of defect Severe corrosion of 4-angle column resulting in significant loss of cross-sectional area. This procedure covers the case where the column must continue to carry load during the repair as temporary support of the structure is not possible. 10.3.2 Description of repair The repair involves progressive replacement of each angle of the column, in part or in full. Only one angle is removed from the column at any time. The remaining angles support the dead load of the structure. Partial replacement involves splicing new, galvanised angle segments to the existing steelwork by bolting or, where permissible, welding. 10.3.3 Engineering discussion An engineering assessment to determine the necessity of the repair and the extent of column replacement should be carried out In the absence of an engineering assessment, adopt the following guideline. Replace columns or segments of columns where the maximum loss of crosssectional area exceeds 20%.
It should be noted that columns comprising 2 and 4 angles often have a much greater axial load capacity than is required, provided they are adequately braced. On the other hand, columns supporting structures that have had concrete overlay decks added may be highly loaded. It must be recognised that the bracing system interconnecting columns is often essential to achieve the required axial load capacity in the columns. The repair procedure has been devised to ensure that the column under repair remains braced at all times. Only by an engineering assessment of the particular case can it be determined if bracing can be disconnected during the repair. Where concrete footings to columns have deteriorated significantly and are not repairable, they should be rebuilt in reinforced concrete. The ground bearing area and founding level are not to be less than that of the existing footing. Bolting is the preferred method of connecting new, galvanised angle segments to existing steelwork. Welded splices, involving full penetration butt welding of the angles, may be used where it can be determined by analysis and testing that existing steels are weldable. The preferred location for bolted splices is immediately above or below bracing connection points. 10.3.4 Sub-procedures required Ref 5.1 Arresting Corrosion Ref 5.2 Removing Rivets and Replacing with Bolts
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Ref 5.3 Patch Painting (including surface preparation) Ref 5.4 Filling Voids Ref 5.5 Sealing Interfaces 10.3.5 Procedure outline 1. Cut a pocket in the concrete footing around the base of the column as shown in Figure 10.3b. If welded splices are to be adopted, excavate sufficient to expose an uncorroded section of column. Drill holes for hold-down bolts. Commence the procedure described in detail in Section 10.3.6 to replace the angles (segments) one by one.
2.
As each of the 4 angle segments is positioned, complete the base connection (HD bolt and base plate or welded splice) and the upper splice connection (bolted or welded). The bolts in the bolted splice connection will need to be removed and reinserted as described for bracing and packing bolts during the procedure. Mortar is to be packed under each individual base plate before the next angle is removed to ensure adequate transfer of load. Fill voids at the heel of splice angles as they are installed. Refer to Section D of Figure 10.3a. 3. Seal any open interfaces between individual base plates and at splice angles or at backing bars as required. Refer to sub-procedure 5.5. Apply epoxy filler between the angles at the base, profiled as shown in Figure 10.3c to promote free drainage of water from column base. Prepare for and paint new steelwork and areas of existing steelwork to the extent directed in accordance with Sub-procedure 5.3.
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5.
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10.3.6 Procedure for removing angles one-by-one
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10.3.7 Alternative details Details of bolted and welded splice alternatives have been provided. 10.3.8 Action to avoid or minimise recurrence Routine maintenance to remove built-up dirt and debris between angles, at the base and at packs etc. fitted between angles. Epoxy fill between the angles at the base as illustrated in Figure 10.3c to promote free drainage of water from column base. 10.3.9 Special considerations and effects of repair None. 10.3.10 Follow-up inspection and testing Programmed inspections only. 10.3.11 1 Drawing list Figure 10.3a, Figure 10.3b, Figure 10.3c.
11. Complete replacement of members

11.1. Replacing members or elements of riveted members 11.1.1 Description of defect Any impact damage, severe corrosion or fatigue cracking of a member where complete replacement of the member or, in the case of riveted members, one or more components of that member is feasible. 11.1.2 Description of repair Complete replacement of the member or element of a riveted member. 11.1.3 Engineering discussion An engineering assessment to select the appropriate repair for a defect may determine that the best option is the complete replacement of the members or the element of a riveted member. 11.1.4 Sub-procedures required Ref 5.2 Removing Rivets and Replacing with Bolts Ref 5.3 Patch Painting (including surface preparation) 11.1.5 Procedure outline 1. Determine the size, shape and layout dimension for bolt holes by careful measurement on site.
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2. Fabricate and galvanise the replacement member or elements. 3. Fit any temporary bracing or support members required. 4. Unbolt connecting bolts or remove connecting rivets in accordance with subprocedure 5.2. Remove the member or component. 5. Prepare the area of interface to the new member or element by cleaning, grinding and painting if required. 6. Fit the new member or element and complete the bolted connections in accordance with sub-procedure 5.2. 7. 7. Prepare for and patch paint new and existing steelwork to the extent directed in accordance with sub-procedure 5.3. 11.1.6 Alternative details The new member and its connections may differ in detail from the member it replaces provided it has been designed for the appropriate loads and effects and that the capacity of the structure or part of the structure is not reduced. HUCK BOM blind fasteners may be used where there is access to only one side of the connection. 11.1.7 Action to avoid or minimise recurrence None Special considerations and effects of repair None. 11.1.8 Follow-up inspections and testing Programmed inspections only. 11.1.9 Drawing list None.
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Part 3 Concrete Repairs
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12. Introduction
12.1. General This Section aims to provide a simple guide to understanding the causes and mechanism of concrete deterioration, identification of common types of defects and selection of suitable repair materials and techniques. It is limited to repair methods that can be easily carried out by maintenance personnel and general contractors. Its application is limited to reinforced concrete structures only. The methods given herein should not be used for repairing prestressed concrete structures. Repairs that appear to be difficult and extensive due to severe deterioration and that may require technical investigation and special equipment should be arranged through organisations experienced and skilled in testing and repair of concrete. Almost all concrete structures are subject to some kind of deterioration. The damage caused by the deterioration may be minor, that need not even be repaired, or it may be very significant requiring immediate attention. Some defects may appear minor in the beginning but if left untreated could grow into major repair operations later. It is therefore important to understand the mechanism of deterioration, what types of defects can develop, how to assess whether a defect is minor or significant and then to decide how to repair the defect and what are the most appropriate materials and repair methods. 12.2. Health and safety It must be emphasised that in all types of repair and construction work, health and safety of all personnel is of paramount importance. Attention is therefore drawn to Chapter 3 "Health and Safety" that highlights the procedures for ensuring the safety of workers, and public as well as the environment. 12.3. References The subject matter of concrete repairs has been obtained from a number of sources. These, as well as other references that could be useful for additional and detailed information, are given at the end of the Section. The assistance obtained from the various references is gratefully acknowledged.
13. Deterioration of concrete

13.1. Factors affecting deterioration Deterioration of concrete is affected by the following factors: Quality of the constituent materials (cement, sand, aggregate, admixtures and water used in the manufacture of concrete). Environmental conditions (exposure to air, water, chemicals, industrial pollutants, marine condition, frost etc).
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Physical properties of concrete (permeability, compressive strength, density, cement content, shrinkage characteristics). Standard of workmanship during construction (fixing of formwork and reinforcement, placing, compaction and curing of concrete). Concrete cover to steel reinforcement. Design practice (mix design, detailing of reinforcement and concrete cover, practicality of construction).
13.2. Causes of deterioration The main causes of deterioration of concrete are summarised below: 13.2.1 Corrosion of reinforcement Rusting or corrosion of reinforcement is one of the major causes of deterioration of reinforced concrete. Corrosion involves a combination of processes, mainly carbonation and chloride contamination, leading to de-passivation of steel and its subsequent corrosion by electrolytic reaction. In theory, the steel reinforcement is protected from rusting by a film of oxide that is stable in the alkaline environment of the concrete surrounding it. The alkalinity is provided by the free calcium hydroxide (lime) present in the Portland cement. The process of corrosion is initiated by de-passivation of the steel, i.e., breakdown of the protective oxide layer due to degradation of the alkaline environment. The alkalinity in concrete may be reduced by either of the following causes: Leaching out of the free lime by water if the concrete is porous. Carbonation: Penetration into concrete of carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere. The carbon dioxide dissolves in the pore water of the concrete and reacts with the free calcium hydroxide to form neutral calcium carbonate. This reaction progressively lowers the alkalinity of concrete that results in removal of the passive oxide layer from the steel. The carbonation rate is very dependent on the concrete quality. Concrete with high water/cement and high porosity carbonates very rapidly. Chloride contamination: The chlorides can come from a number of sources including contaminated aggregates, admixtures such as calcium chloride and exposure to sea water, salt spray or saline water. The chlorides in the pore water within the concrete form an electrolyte and the chloride ions locally depassivate the steel reinforcement by breaking down the protective oxide layer even in highly alkaline concrete.
The depassivation of steel creates the environment that leads to corrosion of steel in presence of moisture, oxygen and an electrolyte. An electrolyte can be formed by very small quantities of carbon dioxide, sulphates or chlorides in the pore water. The electrolytes set up an electrolytic cell action between anodic and cathodic
++
regions formed on the steel. The electrons from the Fe

-
ions flow from the anode

++
through the steel to the cathode where OH ions are formed. The OH ions flow from cathode through the concrete to the anode where they combine with the Fe
ions to
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form the complex hydrated iron oxides and hydroxides known as rust. (See Fig. 13.1).
The corrosion process is usually slow but always progressive. The products of corrosion occupy a volume greater than the parent metal. This volume increase generates high internal pressures that cause debonding, cracking and eventually spalling of the concrete. The corrosion is therefore primarily an electrical process that results in formation of rust at the anode regions on the reinforcement bars. (See Fig. 13.2).
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13.2.2 Sulphate Attack Sulphate attack is initiated by sulphates that may be present in ground water or are formed by penetration into concrete of sulphur dioxide from the air, particularly in areas of industrial pollution. The sulphates react with calcium hydroxide to form gypsum (CaSO4) that subsequently reacts with tricalcium aluminate (C3A) of the cement to form a swelling sulphoaluminate substance known as ettringite. Concrete affected by sulphate attack expands, initiating cracking and spalling that provides access to reinforcing steel for the very aggressive sulphate ions resulting in corrosion of steel.
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13.2.3 Alkali aggregate reactivity Certain aggregates can react with the alkali present in cement to form a gel that swells by absorbing moisture and cracks the surrounding concrete. As the reaction advances cracks extend over the surface in a random "mud crack" pattern and popouts, appearing first on the most weathered surfaces. Alkali aggregate reaction (AAR) also manifests as closing up of gaps in concrete and development of cracks along stress lines in the vicinity of concentrated loads such as bearings and prestressed anchorage zones. In the long term the gel exudes through the cracks as white efflorescence and the concrete shatters into small blocks or along stress lines, but may be held together by steel reinforcement. The effects of AAR are unsightly and structurally debilitating. 13.2.4 Shrinkage, thermal and load effects Cracking is induced in concrete structures when free movement due to shrinkage of concrete and thermal expansion and contraction is restrained, even under simple loads. Thermal effects include those occurring during the heat of hydration in fresh concrete poured in restrained locations (eg against "cold" joints). Cracking results when the new concrete cools and shrinks. In continuous structures temperature gradients may also cause flexural cracking due to large sagging moments produced over the supports. Similarly, differential shrinkage between precast girders and cast-in-place deck of continuous bridges may result in cracks in the region of hogging moments. Cracks produced by these effects should have been allowed for in the design, and are most likely to occur due to bad design, poor detailing and poor construction. The structural significance of these cracks should be checked by a structural engineer prior to any treatment that may range from no action to external strengthening. If the concrete is sound such cracks should have little effect on corrosion unless they run along reinforcing steel or are very large. 13.2.5 Frost and salt attack Frost attack is unusual in Australia but salt attack is more common and will occur where concrete is in intimate contact with sea, salt lakes or high salinity soils. Under frost the water in the pores of concrete freezes and expands generating high internal pressures that shatter the concrete surface. Salt in a saturated solution can also seep into concrete pores and crystallise by evaporation of the water. The crystals expand and generate high pressures that spall the surface of the concrete. Both effects are pronounced in poor quality concrete and lead to corrosion of steel.
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13.2.6 Impact forces Impact damage can be caused in bridge structures by: Collision of, or glancing blows from, motor vehicles against piers, abutments and parapets. Derailment of trains. Overheight vehicles striking against the underside of the bridge superstructure. Impact of heavy floating logs carried by rapid flowing streams against the bridge structure.
This type of damage generally causes cracking and spalling of concrete with or without exposure of reinforcing steel. Severe impact may also result in rupture or fracture of members and collapse of the bridge. Impact damage should be repaired promptly before the reinforcement has started to rust and before the damaged surfaces are affected by carbonation or contamination. (See Fig. 13.5).
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13.2.7 Overloading Overloading of bridge structures may occur due to vehicles with above legal limit weight, increase in train loads since the construction of bridges, extremes of temperature causing excessive movements, high temperature differentials within the structure, high winds, excessive build up of road metal or ballast on the deck or build up of flood debris against the structure. Overloading can cause cracking of concrete members. Excessive overloading may result in fracture of members and collapse of bridge. Cracks that have formed as a result of accidental overload will tend to be very fine after the load has been removed and often need no treatment. Cracks wider than 0.3 mm may need to be sealed. For increased train loads, strength of all components of the bridges should be assessed by structural calculations. 13.2.8 Faulty construction Faulty construction is one of the most common causes of early deterioration. Common construction faults include:
14.
Formwork not cleaned out properly (pieces of timber, nails and debris embedded in finished concrete). Formwork not made watertight (honeycombed concrete due to loss of
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cement grout). Inadequate compaction (voids in concrete). (See Fig. 13.6). Over compaction (laitance on top surface leading to scaling).
Lack of sufficient concrete cover to steel either by failure to fix the reinforcement correctly or due to poor design. Inadequate and insufficient curing.
14.1.1 Deterioration at joints Joints in structures are specially vulnerable to deterioration for several reasons: They can be difficult to construct and the concrete at a joint may lack compaction. They may act as paths for the entry of salty water or carbon dioxide. They may fail to work as joints forcing the concrete to crack at an adjacent plane of weakness (eg at the end of dowels or at the fin of a waterstop). They may not be intended to be active joints (eg construction joints) but may subsequently become active without having any provision for sealing.
These faults will eventually result in rusting of reinforcement after the concrete has become carbonated. If repair action is taken quickly, before the reinforcement has
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started to corrode, it is possible to prevent or greatly reduce the extent of damage from these causes.
15. Types of defects

15.1. Introduction Common defects that occur in concrete structures and need repair action are as follows: Cracking Spalling Scaling - Cement rendering breaking away Delamination Leaching Rust stains Honeycombing Fire damage Dampness Leaking joints Breaking up of repairs Shattering - Bearing pads common in all bridges Crushing - Bearing pads common in all bridges
15.2. Cracking Cracking can be an important indicator of deterioration taking place in concrete and possible corrosion of reinforcement steel depending on the size, extent and location of the cracks. Because the significance of each type of crack is different, it is important to distinguish between them. Seven types of cracks generally occur. Longitudinal cracks (formed in hardened concrete) These cracks run directly under or over and parallel to reinforcing bars and are caused by build up of rust on the reinforcement. Eventually they will lead to spalling and complete loss of concrete cover. Longitudinal cracks cannot be treated without removal of the deteriorated concrete and renewing the cover. (See Fig. 14.1). Transverse cracks (formed in hardened concrete) Cracks transverse to the reinforcement are caused by concrete shrinkage, thermal contraction or structural loading. The width and distribution of these cracks is controlled by the amount and disposition of the reinforcement.
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Where there is no secondary reinforcement (as in beams), these cracks will only be transverse to the main reinforcement and are harmless unless they are very wide or the environment is exceptionally aggressive. (See Fig. 14.2). Where reinforcement runs in two directions at right angles (as in slabs), cracks that are transverse to secondary bars will tend to coincide with the main bars because reinforcement of the larger size tends to act as a crack inducer. Unless these cracks are treated soon after they appear they could cause rusting of reinforcement and further deterioration.
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Shear cracks (formed in hardened concrete) Shear cracks are caused by structural loading or movement of supports (eg due to foundation settlement) or lateral displacement of frames and columns. Occurrence of shear cracks will result in reduced strength of a member. They may also cause rusting if left untreated. Plastic shrinkage cracks (formed in unhardened concrete) In the construction of concrete surfaces such as floor slabs or decks, loss of moisture from the surface due to rapid evaporation causes cracks on the surface. These cracks are harmless unless the concrete slab will later be exposed to salt or other contamination that would result in deterioration. (See Fig. 14.3).
Plastic settlement cracks (formed in unhardened concrete) These cracks develop during construction when high slump concrete is used, resulting in settlement of the solids and bleeding of water to the top especially in deep sections. Settlement cracks form at the top where the reinforcement has supported the aggregate and stopped it from settling, while water collects under the reinforcement displacing the cement grout and leaves the steel unprotected. The cracks form longitudinally over the reinforcement and are a common cause of serious corrosion. (See Fig. 14.4). Map cracks Map cracking is caused by alkali-aggregate reaction over an extended period of time. The cracks are internal in origin and result in breaking up of concrete and loss of strength. Surface crazing Craze cracks are fine, random cracks or fissures that develop on concrete surfaces. They result from shrinkage of the concrete surface during or after hardening and are
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caused by insufficient curing, excessive finishing or casting against formwork. Their significance is mainly aesthetic. (See Fig. 14.5).
15.3. Spalling Spalling is defined as a depression resulting from detachment of a fragment of concrete from the larger mass by impact, by action of weather, by overstress or by expansion within the larger mass. The major cause of spalling is expansion resulting from corrosion of reinforcement. Spalling caused by impact can weaken the structure locally and expose the reinforcement to corrosion. (See Figs. 14.6 and 14.7).
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15.4. Scaling Scaling of concrete surfaces is defined as local flaking or peeling away of portions of concrete or mortar near surface. As the deterioration continues, coarse aggregate particles are exposed and eventually become loose and are dislodged. (See Fig. 14.8). Scaling occurs where the surface layers of concrete are not finished dense and homogenous. Poor finishing practices result in weak layers of grout at the top of concrete surfaces that easily peel away by weathering or abrasion. Light scaling refers to the loss of surface mortar only without exposing coarse aggregate. Medium and severe scaling involves loss of mortar with increasing exposure of aggregate. Very severe scaling refers to loss of coarse aggregate together with the mortar.
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15.5. Delamination Delamination refers to separation of layers of concrete from bridge decks, beams or walls at or near the level of the top or outermost layer of reinforcing steel and generally parallel to the surface of the concrete member. The delamination is not possible to identify visually as the concrete surface appears intact on the outside. It can, however, be detected by tapping the surface with a heavy rod or hammer when a hollow or drumming sound is given off indicating the separation of concrete from the reinforcement. With practice, this sound can be identified accurately enough to mark the affected area on the surface of the concrete. The major cause of delaminations is the expansion resulting from corrosion of reinforcing steel. As soon as delamination is detected steps should be taken to ascertain the cause of corrosion including laboratory testing of concrete samples and appropriate repair action initiated. If a successful repair is not made, concrete above the delamination interface will eventually become dislodged and a spall will result. 15.6. Leaching Leaching or efflorescence is the white deposit of salts or lime powder formed commonly on the underside of deck slabs or vertical faces of abutments, piers and wingwalls. It is caused by surface or subsoil water leaching through the cracks and pores in the concrete. The water dissolves the lime and other salts in concrete (or, may already be contaminated with salts from the subsoil). The dissolved substances are deposited as white powder on concrete surface after the evaporation of water. (See Fig. 14.9).
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15.7. Rust stains Brown or rust coloured stains on concrete surface indicate corrosion of steel reinforcement. (See Fig. 14.10).
15.8. Honeycombing Honeycombing is lack of mortar in the spaces between coarse aggregate particles. It is caused by insufficient compaction or vibration during placement of concrete and results in porous and weak concrete. The voids also provide channels for ingress of water, oxygen and corrosive agents such as carbon dioxide, chlorides and sulphates that will eventually cause corrosion of steel reinforcement. (See Fig. 14.11).
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15.9. Dampness Moderately wet or moist areas of concrete indicate penetration of moisture and will eventually lead to corrosion of reinforcement and deterioration of concrete. The source of moisture is often from ponding or improper drainage over or in the vicinity of the structure. This should be investigated and remedial measures taken as appropriate. 15.10. Leaking joints Deterioration or loss of sealants and jointing materials from the joints and/or deterioration or lack of waterproofing membranes results in penetration of water through the joints. Apart from being a nuisance, it causes ugly stains and growth of algae around the joints. The penetrating water along with dissolved contaminants will also find a way into porous or weak concrete leading to deterioration of the structure. 15.11. Breaking up of repairs Past repairs are indicative of problems in the structure. The repairs should be monitored during inspections. The condition of the repair or patch will usually indicate whether the underlying problem has been solved or is still continuing. Cracking, delamination, spalling or rust stains in or around the repair indicate that the problem still exists and further investigation and repair are needed.
16. Assessment of deterioration
IMPORTANT NOTE: The most important matter in any assessment of damage is to establish if the strength and stability of the structure are adversely affected. Where safety of a structure is in question, professional advice should be sought immediately for the protection of the structure as well as its users against further damage, collapse or injury. (See Fig. 15.1).
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Warning Even the most basic joint depends on the concrete cover for its strength. Before removing any concrete from a load bearing structure consider carefully whether the concrete you propose to remove is providing essential support for the structure. If it could be, support the structure first. 16.1. General To successfully repair a deteriorated concrete structure it is essential to identify the cause, extent and rate of deterioration of concrete and whether or not the cause is still active. A step by step procedure for assessing deterioration is given below. This procedure includes a number of simple tests that can be easily carried out on site. It is not essential to carry out all the tests and judgement should be used in applying the tests according to the severity of the problem at hand. It is also recognised that resources for carrying out these tests may not be available and detailed investigation may have to be entrusted to specialist firms or consulting engineers who have appropriate expertise to establish the causes of deterioration and advise on what repair action should be taken. 16.2. Assessment procedures 1. Before proceeding, assess if detailed examination of the damage or deterioration will require track closure, power outage, pedestrian and traffic restrictions, assistance from police and utility authorities (Gas, Electricity, Telecom, Water Board), worksite protection, special equipment (ladders, cherry pickers) and any special safety measures. Study previous investigation and repair reports available, if any. Examine the condition of the past repairs to determine whether they have been successful or if the deterioration is growing worse.
2.
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3.
Carry out a visual inspection of the structure and, if necessary, use hand magnifiers, binoculars and telephoto photography to record the type and extent of deterioration. Estimate the crack widths. If possible, ascertain the obvious causes of deterioration such as reinforcement corrosion, poor drainage, environmental conditions, accidental damage etc. Examine for hollowness and delaminations by tapping with a hammer, medium size spanner or a steel rod. Use chain-drags on slabs. Assess and mark out suspected areas of hollowness and delaminations. Ascertain if the cracks are "live", that is, their width changes under thermal or structural loading. This can be detected with a mechanical strain gauge held on gauge discs glued to the concrete surface. Cracks that are due to applied load will move immediately the load is changed (eg. under traffic passing over the bridge). Cracks due to thermal movement move when the temperature of the element alters. Measurements made three or four times a day should establish whether a crack is live or not. Estimate the concrete cover to reinforcement using electromagnetic cover meters or by actual measurement where concrete is broken and reinforcement is exposed. Check if the cover provided is adequate for the exposure conditions, or is as per drawings (if the drawings are available). Testing for carbonation: Break off small pieces of concrete from different areas of the structure using hammer and cold chisel and test freshly exposed concrete surfaces by spraying with 2 percent solution of phenolphthalein in alcohol. This pH indicator solution will change colour according to the alkalinity of the concrete. The solution remains pink and is easily visible on concrete that has retained its alkalinity but becomes colourless on concrete that has lost its alkalinity by carbonation. The test will thus indicate the depth to that the concrete has been carbonated from the surface. Testing for chloride contamination: To determine the chloride content of concrete, samples are obtained by drilling holes in the concrete and collecting the dust produced. (If there is any surface salt built up, it must be removed before drilling). The dust samples are collected at a range of different depths, eg. 0-10 mm, 10-25 mm, 25-50 mm and so on to determine how the chloride content changes with depth from the surface. It also helps to establish whether the chloride was present in the concrete when it was cast, or whether it penetrated the concrete from the surroundings. (See Fig. 15.2).
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The concrete samples are treated with acid to dissolve the cement and the chloride content is determined by titration against silver nitrate.
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16.3. Other detection methods Listed below are additional tests that require special equipment and significant skills and experience to obtain usable results. Such testing methods would have to be undertaken by specialist personnel skilled in the field of diagnostic testing. Half-cell potential measurements to assess corrosive activity in concrete and the probability of corrosion in steel reinforcement. Ultrasonic pulse velocity measurements to locate areas of delaminations and honeycombed concrete. Electrical resistivity measurements to assess qualitatively the rate of corrosion. Permeability tests to measure the water absorption of concrete. In-situ compressive strength measurements using Schmidt Hammer. Core sample testing for strength, permeability, contamination, composition and density. Measuring deflection of structural members under known applied loads.
17. Repair materials

17.1. Introduction No matter how carefully a repair procedure is carried out, using the wrong material will most likely lead to early repair failure. Therefore, selection of appropriate materials is an absolute requirement for obtaining durable repairs. The basic criterion for selecting a repair material is that its material properties match the properties of the base concrete and a good bond is achieved and maintained at the repair interface.
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17.2. Material properties 17.2.1 Factors affecting repairs The material properties that affect the quality of a repair are: Dimensional stability Bond failure between new and old concrete is usually caused by relatively large shrinkage of the new concrete (or mortar) while the old concrete does not shrink further. Therefore, the repair material must be either shrinkage free or else be able to shrink without losing bond. Coefficient of thermal expansion When a composite of two materials of widely varying thermal coefficients undergoes a significant temperature change, differences in volume changes can cause failure either at the bond line or within the section of the lower strength. Therefore, when making large or thick patches or when placing an overlay, it is important to use a material with a coefficient of thermal expansion similar to that of the concrete being repaired. Modulus of elasticity The modulus of elasticity of a material is a measure of its stiffness. High modulus materials do not deform under load as much as the low modulus materials. Consequently, when materials with widely differing moduli are in contact with each other and subjected to a common load, the lower modulus material would tend to yield or bulge transferring the load to the stronger material that if overloaded may then fracture. For this reason, a wall or section made of relatively flexible (low modulus) material should not be patched with a stiff (high modulus) material. Permeability Permeability refers to the capability of a material to transmit liquids or vapours. Good quality concrete is relatively impermeable to liquids but freely transmits vapours. If impermeable materials (such as epoxies) are used for large patches, overlays or coatings, moisture vapour that passes up through the base concrete can be entrapped between the concrete and the topping. Entrapped moisture can cause a failure either at the bond line or within the weaker of the two sections. Impermeable materials should also generally be avoided in patching concrete that has been damaged due to corrosion of reinforcing bars as it may accelerate the rate of corrosion. For the above reasons, whenever possible cementitious materials should be used for repairing concrete structures due to their compatible physical properties with the parent concrete. Cementitious mortars and concretes may be modified by the addition of polymers but are always preferable to resin mortars if circumstances make it practical to use them. 17.3. Types of Repairs 17.3.1 General A large variety of materials are used in the repair of concrete structures. These materials may be used singly or in combination to achieve the best results according to the circumstances of a particular repair job. It is therefore essential to know the
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characteristics and application requirements of different materials so that an appropriate selection can be made for the repair in hand. The materials commonly used for concrete repairs are: Polymers (synthetic latexes) and polymer modified cement mortars and concretes. Synthetic resins and resin based material. Unmodified cement based mortars and concretes. Steel reinforcement coatings. Substrate bonding coats. Acrylic concretes. Non-shrink hydraulic cement mortars. Sprayed concrete. Protective coatings. Flexible joint sealants.
17.3.2 Polymers (synthetic latexes) and polymer modified cement mortars and concretes Synthetic latexes are made by dispersing polymer particles in water to form a polymer emulsion. When these emulsions are added to Portland cement concrete/mortar, the spheres of polymer coalesce to form a film that coats the aggregate particles and hydrating cement grains and seals off the voids. The polymer modified cementitious mortars and concretes are high performance repair materials that work monolithically with parent concrete due to their similar physical properties such as modulus of elasticity and coefficient of thermal expansion. Their other good attributes are:
increased workability (therefore, less water-cement ratio), excellent bond to existing concrete and steel in dry, damp or wet conditions, low shrinkage, high impermeability to water, higher resistance to chloride ion and carbon dioxide penetration, inherent alkalinity to passivate the steel reinforcement, higher strength, increased resistance to freeze-thaw damage and chemical attack,
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higher abrasion resistance.
The three basic polymers used as latex modifiers for concrete are: polyvinyl acetates (PVA) acrylics styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR).
PVAs are not recommended for use in wet environments because some types may hydrolyse and break down. SBR latexes develop a brownish coat after being exposed to sunlight and this may make them unsuitable for patching applications where colour matching is important. 16.3.2.1 Limitations
The working life of polymer modified mixes is relatively short. Therefore, the quantity of mix for a particular job should be limited according to the placing and finishing time - about 20 minutes. If the mortar or concrete is manipulated after the latex has coalesced, cracking may occur on drying. Application of polymers is also sensitive to temperature. At low temperatures the polymer spheres will not coalesce to form a durable film around cement and aggregate particles. At high temperatures their working time is too short allowing little time to finish the repair. Manufacturers' instructions in this regard should be carefully followed. 16.3.2.2 Bonding coat To obtain a high bond between the latex concrete overlay or mortar patch and the base concrete, a bond coat is brushed or broomed onto the prepared concrete surface. This bond coat can be the mixture used for the overlay or patch, or made by mixing undiluted latex with Portland cement. The surface is first thoroughly wetted with clean water for not less than one hour prior to placement. After removing all free water but with the surface still damp, sufficient mixed material to coat all bonding surfaces is then placed and vigorously broomed to assure maximum contact with the old concrete. The rate of application of bonding material should be limited so that the bond coat does not dry before being covered with repair mortar or concrete. 16.3.2.3 Curing The curing procedure of polymer modified concrete is different from normal concrete. Wax or resin found in most curing compounds are incompatible with latex and should not be used without prior evaluation. The polymer film formed in polymer modified concrete helps to maintain high levels of internal moisture in the concrete. Because of this, prolonged curing is neither necessary nor recommended. To prevent shrinkage cracking before the film has formed, however, all finishing operations must be completed and the surface covered with a single layer of wet burlap as soon as the surface will support it. The curing cover is completed by placing a layer of polyethylene film
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over the wet burlap. This is left in place for 24 hours after that the burlap and polyethylene are removed and the surface is permitted to dry for 3 to 5 days. 17.3.3 Synthetic resins and resin based materials Epoxies are frequently used as repair materials because they bond well to almost all materials, cure rapidly, are high in both tensile and compressive strengths, exhibit good chemical resistance, and they shrink very little during curing. Applications include use in bonding concrete (hardened to hardened, and hardened to fresh) and in patches, overlays and protective coatings. However, there are significant differences between the physical properties of resins and concrete. In particular, resins have an elastic modulus that is about one-tenth that of the concrete and coefficient of thermal expansion 5 to 8 times higher than that of concrete. The strength of resin based materials in compression is usually higher than the strength of concrete, in tension it is much higher. These differences result in excessive stresses at the bond interface so that delamination of the epoxy repair is likely to occur either at the interface or just within the concrete substrate. As a result, epoxy mortar repairs are more suitable for thin and small volume repairs. Further, in contrast to the cementitious materials that re-passivate the steel reinforcing bar, epoxy resin materials do not passivate the bar but rather arrest corrosion only by excluding the oxygen due to their low permeability to moisture and gases. In fact, in marine environments epoxy repair materials are likely to trap chloride spray against reinforcement and introduce in-built potential chloride attack on the steel. Epoxy resins offer excellent repairs in the following situations: Repairs of cracks up to 6 mm width by injection with low viscosity unfilled epoxy resin that has the potential to penetrate and seal cracks down to 0.02 mm width. Crack injection is normally associated with dead cracks that are basically inactive and do not move. (If the cracks are live and continue to move with changing loads or temperatures, they cannot be repaired with resins. In such cases, cracks are treated as expansion joints and sealed with flexible materials). Bonding of new concrete to old concrete. Epoxy resin formulations provide excellent adhesives and can give long drying times prior to placing of repair materials. This is particularly useful where complicated formwork has to be assembled. Bonding of steel, brick, concrete blocks and other materials to existing concrete (i.e., use as adhesive). Epoxy resin grouts, mortar and concretes for reinstating deteriorated concrete or patching in thin layer applications without problems of drying shrinkage associated with cementitious repairs. Resin mixtures can be made fluid enough to flow into places by gravity so that inaccessible places can be filled with them and compaction is
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unnecessary. This is valuable for packing bearings, machine bases and so on. Epoxy compounds consist of a resin, a curing agent (hardener) and modifiers that make them suitable for specific end uses. Modifiers include accelerators that make the rate of cure depend less on temperature, dilutents that reduce viscosity and improve workability, and fillers such as sand and aggregate that lower cost, decrease shrinkage and reduce the volume change due to thermal expansion. The resin generally consists of two components that are batched by volume and thoroughly mixed before the incorporation of aggregate. Chemical reactions start as soon as the resin components are combined and the working time will depend on the system, the temperature and the handling procedure. Accurate batching and proper mixing of the components is crucial for attaining maximum strength and other properties of the epoxy materials. For this reason they should be mixed in whole batches that are obtained pre-proportioned from the supplier. If formwork is used with epoxy materials or epoxy modified concrete, the form surfaces should be coated with a release agent compatible with the epoxy. Surfaces of base concrete and steel should be primed with neat resin. Placement and consolidation should be done in layers of limited thickness as recommended by the epoxy formulator. Considerable skill and experience are needed for the successful application of epoxy resin materials. They have to be applied within a very limited time before they harden and have to be handled cleanly to avoid contamination of both the resin mixture and the people working with them. Therefore, it is advisable to employ specialists to supply them as well as apply them. 17.3.4 Unmodified cement based mortars and concretes To match properties of the base concrete as closely as possible Portland cement mortar and concrete are frequently the best choices for the repair material. However, if there is a difference in aggregate source, maximum aggregate size or water content, properties will differ. Also, the in-place concrete probably will have undergone considerable drying shrinkage so that differential volume changes between a repair and the in-place concrete will almost certainly occur. Effects of differential volume change can generally be minimised by maximising aggregate size, minimising the water content and by following good curing procedures. The concrete mix used for repairs must be capable of producing highly impermeable concrete. Additives such as ground granulated blast furnace slag, pulverised fuel ash or microsilica can be used in repair mixes to increase impermeability in the same way as in new concrete. The use of accelerating admixtures may be advantageous but the admixture itself should not contain more than 1 percent chloride ion by weight and the resulting total concrete should not contain more than 0.1 percent chloride ion by weight of cement. The nominal maximum size of the coarse aggregate should be less than of the patch or overlay depth, but not more than 10 mm, bearing in mind that the concrete may have to get into fairly tight locations.
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The water-cement ratio should not exceed 0.4 by weight, lower ratios being preferred. Slump of mixes for shallow patches and overlays should not exceed 25 mm. The slump of mixes that are to be consolidated around reinforcing steel by internal vibration should not exceed 75 mm. Accurately batched and properly mixed concrete is essential to the success of repairs. To avoid variability in site mixed concrete due to difficulty of accurate proportioning, pre-packaging at the maintenance shop or other suitable location should be considered. If the aggregate cannot be completely dried it must be packaged separately from cement. A number of proprietary pre-packaged cement based mortars and grouts incorporating special cements, chemical additives and admixtures, specially formulated to exhibit high bond, high strength and non-shrink properties are also available in the market. Prior to using any proprietary material its suitability for a particular job must be verified from the manufacturer's printed literature. Cement based unmodified materials do not always adhere successfully to old concrete and it is important that the old concrete be kept wet for a period of 12 to 24 hours prior to repair to ensure that the old concrete does not suck away water from the new concrete thus preventing full hydration of the cement at the critical interface. However, prior to placing the new concrete the surface of the parent concrete must be dry and without free water so that the water-cement ratio at the interface is not increased. The other alternative is to prime the repair areas with Portland cement or latex modified Portland cement grout or an epoxy system. A bonding agent must be applied for low slump mixes. The Portland cement grout should consist of a mixture of 1 part cement to or 1 part fine aggregate and sufficient water to make a heavy cream consistency. Polymer-modified bonding grouts have a short drying time (normally less than 30 minutes) and cannot be used if there is much form fixing to be done before the concrete can be cast. Epoxy bonding coats have two special advantages. Firstly, they can be formulated to have long open times, that makes them suitable for use in hot climates, or when formwork has to be fixed after the bonding coat has been applied. Secondly, they may provide a more effective barrier than cement grouts against the migration of chlorides. Note: Although they are water compatible, epoxy bonding coats are applied to a dry concrete surface. However, specially formulated resins are available for application to damp surfaces also. 16.3.4.1 Curing With low water-cement ratio repair concrete, a continuous water cure is the preferred method for strength development. Curing compounds may be used, however, they neither furnish desirable external water to low water-cement ratio mixes nor do they provide any cooling effect. They should not be used if additional material is to be later bonded to the surface
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being cured. Curing compounds should be applied at twice their usual rate to shotcrete and to other rough textured surfaces. It is essential that freshly placed surfaces be kept moist until curing is initiated. A fog spray or a film should be used if there is to be any delay in application of curing compounds. 17.3.5 Steel reinforcement coatings The purpose of using reinforcement primers and coatings is to ensure: Adequate bond between steel and repair material. Protection of steel in the repair zone against further corrosion. Prevention of corrosion progressing under the primer.
The following types of coatings can be applied to steel reinforcement: Cement slurry. Cement slurry modified with polymer or latex emulsion. Epoxy resin (with or without alkaline admixture). Inhibitive primers (such as zinc chromate primer). Zinc rich epoxy primers.
Alternatively, the cement paste from a well designed cementitious repair mix may protect the reinforcement better than any separately applied coating. Caution: A coating is not an alternative to removing chloride contamination from the reinforcement nor will it prevent corrosion from being caused by chlorides that are already present on the reinforcement. It is therefore essential to remove the rust and chlorides from corroded steel before applying any primer. Where the repair is cement based, coating of cement slurry (or the cement paste in the repair mortar or concrete itself) would create a lasting alkaline environment on the surface of the steel and offer a high degree of impermeability to water, carbon dioxide and chloride ions. Polymer modified cement slurries may dry too quickly to be effective in repairs where forms have to be fixed after the coating is done, but they are suitable where the delay is short. Use of epoxy resins, inhibitive primers and zinc rich primers should only be made after consultation with concrete repair experts, as in certain circumstances these coatings may do more harm than good. Epoxy resin coatings act as an impermeable barrier against external moisture and gases, but if any chlorides are trapped under the coating the corrosion of steel could still continue. Use of zinc rich paint: Where corrosion is due to a local flaw in generally sound concrete, the grit blasted bar may be coated with zinc rich paint. Where there is
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generally poor quality concrete but the environmental attack is such that corrosion has occurred in a limited area (i.e. there may be a large number of cathodes compared with the anodic corrosion sites), the anodic zinc coating may be rapidly used up and steel re-attacked. In this case zinc rich paint should not be used. Where there is generally poor concrete and corrosion is very widespread (that is, there are many anodic as well as cathodic sites) zinc rich paint may be used. 17.3.6 Substrate bonding coats Provided that the surface of the parent concrete has been properly roughened and all loose material removed, it is not essential to have a bonding layer. There is a widespread opinion that it is helpful, and whether one is used depends primarily on the practicality of applying it. Independent advice should be sought as to that product to use, remembering some bonding agents intended for use inside buildings actually break down eventually in the presence of moisture. The practical difficulty lies in the requirement for the agent to be applied so that it is tacky at the time of placement of the repair material. The bonding coat will prevent bonding if it is allowed to become dry. For epoxy materials the bonding coat consists of the same resin as used for the repair material. For cementitious mortar and concrete, it is possible to use Portland cement grout, latex modified Portland cement grout or an epoxy system according to the practicality of the situation. Detailed description of bonding coats has already been included with relevant repair materials. 17.3.7 Acrylic concretes Note: Description of this material is given as a matter of interest only. Its use requires training and special skills and repairs should best be entrusted to experts. Unlike normal Portland cement concrete, acrylic concrete contains no water and no Portland cement. It is made by mixing aggregates with acrylic monomers that polymerise during curing to form hard, tough concrete. Two types of monomers are available for making acrylic concrete: methyl methacrylate (MMA) and high molecular weight methacrylate (HMWM). Acrylic concrete is expensive, so obviously it cannot be used everywhere. However, because it develops compressive strength of 35 MPa to 70 MPa in 1 to 2 hours, it has been used to repair pavements, bridge decks, parking decks and warehouse and factory floors that cannot be closed to traffic for several hours or days. Acrylic concrete has few voids making it dense and impermeable. It resists intrusion of water, chlorides and most other corrosive chemicals. It develops high bond strength with Portland cement concrete. Therefore, it is often used as an overlay, 6mm to 50mm thick, on top of Portland cement concrete. A primer of catalysed acrylic monomer is usually brushed on the base concrete first. Because of its low viscosity, the acrylic penetrates into the pores of Portland cement concrete to produce a mechanical bond with the substrate.
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The aggregate for making acrylic concrete should be bone dry, with a maximum moisture content of 0.5 percent. Normally, these products are sold as pre-packaged systems and manufacturer's instructions should be followed for mixing and application. Both methyl methacrylate (MMA) and high molecular weight methacrylate (HMWM) gain strength in a matter of hours, but they are different in a few important ways. MMA has a low flash point, therefore, it is easily flammable, produces a non-toxic but disagreeable odour, and has a short pot life. HMWM, on the other hand, has a high flash point and its odour is not strong. HMWM is easier and safer to use than MMA but it also costs significantly more. Because of its low viscosity, low volatility and relatively good bond strength, HMWM has been used without aggregate to weld together inactive cracks in Portland cement concrete. After mixing with a catalyst HMWM is poured onto the concrete surface and distributed with a squeegee. Material must be applied within 15 minutes after mixing. If cracks are blown clean and dry beforehand, the monomer can penetrate the full depth of the cracks. However, monomers should not be used to repair active cracks. Caution: Personnel handling and mixing monomers should use eye-protection and impervious gloves and aprons; respirators with chemical filters should be available for those who wish to use them. Mixing of monomers should be carried out in a shaded, well-ventilated area, free of ignition sources. Storage and handling of all materials must be done in accordance with manufacturer's recommendations. 17.3.8 Non-shrink hydraulic cement mortars A number of proprietary Portland cement based products are available as nonshrink repair materials. Most of these products contain components that cause the mortar or concrete to expand after it has hardened. The expansion is intended to overcome or compensate for the expected drying shrinkage and to maintain a tight bond to the material with that it is in contact. Then, when it undergoes subsequent drying, the loss of moisture simply relieves the compressive stress instead of causing shrinkage. Non-shrink cement mortars and grouts can be used in the following applications: Repairing honeycombing, shrinkage cracks and spalls Filling holes left by tie wires Making watertight seals around penetrations Stopping leaks Patching precast concrete Providing mortar beds under bearings and base plates Anchoring bolts, dowels and rods.
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It is best to purchase the non-shrink mortar in standard packages rather than in bulk. Proportioning with standard packages is simple: all the user needs to do is mix the package contents with the recommended amount of water and aggregates. 17.3.9 Protective coatings Surface coatings are used on concrete structures to provide additional protection against ingress of water, water soluble salts and atmospheric gases. In addition, they enhance the aesthetic appearance and help in hiding the patchy appearance of concrete that has been repaired in different places. It should be noted however that when concrete is already showing signs of deterioration and tests show that enough salt is present at the reinforcement to make it rust, adding a protective coating will not help in reducing such deterioration. In such circumstances it is essential that the concrete be repaired first, and then, if the environment warrants, protected against further deterioration by application of suitable surface treatment. For whatever reason the coatings are applied it must be accepted that they will not last as long as a durable concrete surface and re-coating will be needed from time to time. Basically, there are two types of protective coatings: 1. 2. Film forming - relying on adhesion to concrete. Non-film forming - that penetrate into the concrete surface.
Film forming coatings are made from: polyurethane resins epoxy resins coal tar epoxy chlorinated rubber acrylics bituminous materials polymer modified cement
Penetration type coatings are formulated with Silane/Siloxane. Generally, film-forming coatings are highly efficient against ingress of moisture, water soluble salts (chlorides) and gases and vapours (carbon dioxide). However, build up of water vapour pressure behind them especially if water can get into the concrete from another face can cause the coating to blister and peel off unless the adhesion of the film to concrete is very good. Also, if the film lacks elasticity and fails to bridge across active cracks or subsequently formed shrinkage cracks, pollutants will find easy ingress into the concrete at the site of cracked coating and will eventually cause deterioration in concrete.
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Film forming coatings require significant amount of surface preparation. The surface of concrete must be free of oils, grease, loose surface layers, dust and surface defects such as blow holes and shrinkage cracks. The surface is either sandblasted or grit/water blasted and steam cleaned and imperfections filled with suitable levelling or fairing coats prior to the application of the coating system. Most proprietary coating systems consist of a separate primer that improves the adhesion of the coating to the concrete and resists peeling or blistering. Also, pigmented coatings give much better protection and are more durable than unpigmented coatings. Protective coating systems based on silane/siloxane are penetrating type sealers that impregnate concrete and react with the moisture and silicates present in the cement thus modifying the concrete surface to form a water repellant but vapour permeable barrier. Silane/Siloxane coatings, therefore, prevent contamination against water soluble chlorides but being vapour permeable are not effective against carbonation. Penetration type coatings require less surface preparation. However, a dry concrete surface is essential for successful application. They generally impregnate the outer 2 to 5mm of the concrete surface and effectively seal blow holes, cracks up to 0.3mm and other minor irregularities. All proprietary coatings perform differently from each other in regard to ease of application, adhesion to concrete, resistance against ingress of moisture, soluble salts and gases, durability, ability to stretch and bridge cracks and other characteristics. Their selection therefore should be made with care according to the requirements of the repair job in hand. 17.3.10 Sprayed concrete (Source: Concrete Institute of Australia, Recommended Practice Sprayed Concrete, 1987) Note: Sprayed Concrete is a specialised work that requires skilled operators. Only an engineer with the knowledge of, and experience with, the material should decide where and how it should be used. Sprayed concrete consists of a mixture of cement, aggregate and water (it may also contain fibres and/or other admixtures) forcefully projected onto a surface through a hose and nozzle by means of compressed air. Sprayed concrete develops excellent bond, is homogeneous and compact and does not sag in wall and overhead applications. It is thus suited to a wide range of coating and lining operations. There are two different techniques for applying sprayed concrete: Dry-mix process In the dry-mix process cement and aggregate are mixed together and metered into a regulated high-pressure hose. The compressed air carries the mixture to a special nozzle equipped with a controlled water spray that dampens the mixture and dispenses it on to the receiving surface. The volume of the water added is controlled by the nozzle operator.
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Wet-mix process In the wet-mix process a mixture of cement and aggregate mixed with water is metered into the delivery hose and conveyed towards the nozzle where compressed air is injected that then projects the mixture into place. Concrete sprayed by wet process has lower impact velocity than with the dry process because of inertia. Moreover, the extra workability required for pumping wet concrete dictates the use of higher water content. Strict control is required in the wet-mix process to ensure pumpable concrete at all times, otherwise if the delivery hose is blocked spraying has to be disrupted till the pipes can be cleared. In the dry-mix process the quality of mix delivered on the surface relies heavily on the operator's competence as the rate at that water is added has to be controlled manually. But with a skilled operator it does give better control and adjustment and thereby better quality. Dry-mix process is often the preferred technique. In addition to suitability, the economics of the use of sprayed concrete must also be considered. For some applications, sprayed concrete may be more economical than conventional in-situ concrete because it needs little or no formwork nor any compaction, and the equipment for placing and mixing is small, portable type. 16.3.10.1 Limitations Sprayed concrete also has some limitations that should be kept in mind. These are: The finished product is largely dependent on the operator skill. Quality control, supervision and testing are difficult. Correct batching of powdered admixtures in dry-mix is very difficult. Some admixtures can be hazardous to handle also. Sprayed concrete must be reinforced with small mesh, small diameter reinforcement (or fibre reinforcement added to the mix) to prevent drying shrinkage. Dust from the dry-mix process can be objectionable. Protection must be provided for adjacent buildings, materials, trees and gardens. Curing in sprayed concrete is more critical than in ordinary work because of the small thickness usually applied. If curing compounds are used, they should be applied at twice their usual rate. Sprayed concrete may have shrinkage and thermal properties different from the concrete it is being applied to. (To minimise the effect of differential shrinkage and thermal expansion latex admixtures and/or latex based coatings to substrate may be used, but keeping in mind the limited working time available with latex based products). Sprayed concrete can have relatively high porosity and permeability. Poor weather conditions such as wind, rain and cold can severely affect the application of sprayed concrete.
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The overall thickness of horizontal and vertical work is virtually unlimited (though for practical and economic reasons it is kept to less than 200mm). However, overhead work is generally limited to about 80mm thickness in one day. Except for thin sections, the cost per cubic metre is generally higher than for in-situ work. Sprayed concrete is difficult to finish. It is probably best not to trowel or float it.
17.3.11 Flexible joint sealants Flexible joint sealants are required in repairing live cracks that are subject to movement due to applied loads, shrinkage and temperature. Such cracks cannot be sealed with rigid repair materials, such as epoxies, as failure would occur either in the repair material or a new crack will develop elsewhere in the concrete. There are three types of sealants in general use. Their properties are given below: Mastics 1. 2. 3. 4. generally viscous liquids of non-drying oils or low melting asphalts movement capability not exceeding 15% sealant recess depth/width ratio up to 2:1 extrude at high ambient temperatures
Thermoplastics 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. include asphalts, rubber modified asphalts, pitches and coal tar liquid or semi-viscous when heated
o
pouring temperatures are usually above 100 C sealant recess depth/width ratio of 1:1 movement capability up to 25% susceptible to ultra violet light, lose elasticity extrude at high ambient temperatures
Elastomers 1. 2. 3. 4. polysulphides, epoxy polysulphides, polyurethanes, silicones and acrylics one part or two part materials superior to other sealants excellent adhesion to concrete
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5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
not susceptible to softening within normal range of ambient temperatures higher movement capability: up to 50% to 100% sealant recess depth/width up to 1:2 Choice of a sealant generally depends on the following factors: Movement capability of the sealant Resistance to environmental exposure (weather, ultra violet radiation, water penetration, chemicals, etc.) Adhesive properties, curing rate and paintability Service temperature range Sealant width/depth ratio (modulus characteristics) Trafficability Applicability in horizontal and vertical situations. A large number of proprietary sealants are available. Choice for any repair application should be made according to the particular requirements of the job. Manufacturer's printed instructions should be strictly followed.
11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
17.4. Questions to consider before choosing a repair material (Source: Concrete Construction October 1984) Concrete repair materials can be formulated to provide a wide variety of properties. Because the properties affect performance of the repair, choosing the right product requires careful study. Suppliers of repair materials can help repair contractors choose the right product but they need to know the anticipated service conditions and the conditions under that the product will be applied. If you have not told the supplier the answers to the following questions, you probably have not told him enough about the repair conditions for him to help you choose the best repair material. 17.4.1 Application conditions How thick is the repair section? In thick sections, heat generated during curing of the repair material may build up and produce unacceptable thermal stresses. Some materials may shrink too much when placed in thick layers and some materials will spall if placed in thin layers. Others can be feather edged. When aggregates are used as an inexpensive filler or extender, the maximum size of aggregate that can be used will be dictated by the minimum thickness of the repair. Will the substrate be moist? Some polymer materials will not cure properly in the presence of moisture. Others are moisture insensitive. Heat generated during initial curing of some repair
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materials may create steam in a moist environment and the steam may cause failure of the repair. At what temperature will the repair material be placed? Portland cement hydration ceases at or near freezing temperatures and cement
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modifier emulsions won't coalesce to form films at temperatures below about 5 C. Other repair materials can be used at temperatures well below freezing, although setting time may be increased. High temperatures will make many repair materials set faster, decreasing the working life or precluding their use entirely. Will repairs be carried out in poorly ventilated areas or in areas where use of flammable materials is not permitted? Components of some repair materials are volatile and combustible. Odour can also be a problem. Is the repair section on a vertical surface or on the underside of a horizontal member? For unformed wall or soffit patches, repair materials must adhere to the substrate without sagging. 16.4.2 Service conditions How soon does the repair have to be put into service? If repairs are subject to early loading, rapid strength gain characteristics are essential. Will the material be exposed to chemicals such as acids, sulphates, chlorides or strong solvents? Acids and sulphates will attack Portland cement-based materials, and chlorides may cause corrosion of reinforcing steel. Strong solvents may soften some materials. Will the repair bear heavy traffic? Perhaps a material with good abrasion resistance and good skid resistance is necessary. Must the material bond to steel as well as to the concrete substrate? What are the maximum and minimum temperatures that the material will be subjected to in service? Because thermal movements can cause stresses in the repair material or at the bond line, the range of service temperatures must be considered. Will the finished repair be exposed to vibration? For applications such as machinery pedestals, vibration can cause distress in brittle repair materials. Is appearance of the repair important? If colour matching or duplication of original concrete texture is needed, many repair materials will be unsuitable. How long must the repair last? If the repair is only temporary, perhaps a lower cost, less durable, or more easily applied material can be used.
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18. Repair options

18.1. Establish need for repairs Before proceeding with the repairs an evaluation should be made to determine the need for repairs. Repairs may be required for any of the following reasons: Strength, stiffness and durability Damage needs to be repaired if it reduces the strength, stiffness or durability of the structure to an unacceptable level. For example impact damage to beams and columns or loss of reinforcement by corrosion. In such cases calculations should be carried out to determine the stress levels and deformations in the damaged elements to assess the severity of damage and urgency for repairs. Appearance Repairs may be required to improve the appearance of the concrete surface, for example some types of cracks, minor spalls, scaling, efflorescence, impact damage, etc. These defects may not immediately affect the strength of the structure but if left untreated could lead to further deterioration. Functional performance Repairs required if the function of the structure is impaired even if the strength, stiffness or appearance are not significantly affected. Examples: broken treads and handrails on stairs, loss of sealants from expansion joints, dampness due to ponding of water, etc. Prevention of further deterioration Some repairs need to be undertaken to prevent the existing minor deterioration growing worse if left unattended. For example: evidence of chloride penetration without corrosion may require coating the concrete surface with silane to limit further chloride ingress. 18.2. Repair options Depending on the nature of damage, urgency of repairs and availability of funds and resources, one of the following options may be adopted: 1. 2. 3. Do nothing other than carry out regular safety inspections. Wait and see. Take action to prevent the deterioration from getting worse. Carry out repairs to restore deteriorating parts of the structure to a satisfactory condition. Demolish and re-build all or part of the structure.
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18.3. Selection of repair methods Having determined the repair option, it then remains to select an appropriate repair method for the job in hand. Selection of the repair method depends on the location, type and extent of deterioration and the cause thereof. For a particular defect there may be one or
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more possible repair solutions. Therefore, a comprehensive knowledge of repair methods and procedures is essential. These are given in the next Section.
19. Introduction to concrete repair procedures

19.1. General This chapter presents methods for repairing common types of defects and damage to concrete structures. Techniques that require special equipment and expertise such as cathodic protection, chloride removal, re-alkalisation have been excluded. However, it should be noted that the conventional repair procedures for dealing with the effects of reinforcement corrosion may be limited in their effectiveness. To have any chance of success, rigorous adherence to the following procedures is essential and patch repairs may extend well beyond the area of the initial damage. Even so, fresh electrolytic cells leading to immediate resumption of corrosion may occur at the boundaries of the repair and the repair may have a very short life. Therefore, where damage is due to reinforcement corrosion, expert advice should be sought with a view to determining if more specialised techniques will be more cost-effective. 19.2. Repair methods Chapters 20 to 26 cover the following repair methods: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Repairing cracks Patch repairs Recasting with concrete Repairs for corrosion Sprayed concrete Protective coatings
19.3. Sub-procedures The procedures listed below are preparatory items of work generally required to be carried out prior to actual repairs. Some of them are common to different methods of repairs and are referred to as "sub-procedures" in the Repair Methods. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Removing damaged concrete Removing concrete at joints Cleaning concrete substrate for patch repairs and re-casting Cleaning concrete surface for overlays Cleaning reinforcement Adding reinforcement Applying bonding coat to concrete Coating reinforcement Formwork for re-casting concrete Curing Surface preparation for external coatings.
The sub-procedures are described in Chapter 19. 19.4. Steps in repair work 1. 2.
Carry out detailed damage survey. Indicate location, extent, severity and particulars of the damage. Investigate the cause of damage or deterioration by conducting field and
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3. 4. 5. 6.
7. 8. 9.
laboratory tests as necessary. If corrosion is present establish the cause. (Alternatively, determine if it is necessary to engage services of specialist consultants to carry out the investigation). Assess the strength and stability of the damaged structure. Establish the urgency of repairs. Examine alternative repair options, materials and methods. Assess if the repair work would require track closure, power outage, people and traffic control, flagmen, assistance from police and utility authorities, falsework, temporary structures and health, safety and environmental protection measures. Estimate the cost of repairs. Obtain competitive quotations/ tenders if necessary. Prepare a project repair report on basis of the above. Recommend if the repair work be done by day labour, contract or through specialist agencies. Organise the repairs.
20. Sub-procedures
20.1. Removing damaged concrete (sub-procedure) 20.1.1 Engineering discussion Removal of damaged or deteriorated concrete may be necessary in several situations, such as: Corrosion of reinforcement leading to cracking, spalling and delamination of concrete. Impact damage causing cracks and spalls. Construction defects resulting in honeycombing, cracks and scaling. efective joints causing corrosion to reinforcement, cracking of concrete and leaking. Repair of broken up old repairs.
Regardless of type of deterioration, all unsound and disintegrated concrete must be removed. Where reinforcement corrosion is the cause of the problem, obviously concrete must be removed to a depth that includes all the affected reinforcement and leaves some room behind it as well, so as to give an adequate thickness of cover to steel in every direction. If the new concrete is dense and of high quality this should inhibit the rate of new carbonation. Where chloride contamination is the problem, there are more points to consider. If the contamination comes from the original mix, limited concrete removal will not give complete protection to steel. In this situation coating the reinforcement with epoxy resins may be considered but advice should be sought on the risk of rapid corrosion where the coating terminates . But if the chloride contamination has come from a salty environment, the depth to which the concrete has been contaminated should be determined by testing. The concrete cover should then be removed to a depth where chloride contamination is less than 0.1% of cement. If the salty environment is aggressive, coating the finished concrete surface after the repairs should also be considered. The extent of concrete removal depends on the extent of damage. It may be localised or widespread. If the damage is due to severe but local corrosion in
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reinforcement requiring addition of bars, it may be sufficient to remove only the damaged area of concrete plus the length needed to bond the new reinforcement. Concrete may be removed by power tools or by water blasting with or without entrained abrasives. If abrasive is entrained in the water jet, it also removes most of the rust from the exposed reinforcement. If concrete is broken out from inside a large area of generally sound concrete, the edges of the area to be repaired should be cut with a perpendicular saw cut at least 15mm deep to avoid a feathered edge finish. The feathered edges of repaired concrete will easily prise off as a result of changes in stress. The face of the saw cut must be roughened slightly (eg. with a needle gun) to help the repair material to bond with it. (See Figs. 19.1a and 19.1b).
In situations of soffit repairs to beams and slabs, profile of removed concrete should be planned to allow escape of air during re-casting. Vent holes may be drilled through the slab for the same purpose.
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20.1.2 Procedure 1. Before removing any concrete from a load bearing structure consider carefully whether the concrete to be removed is providing essential support for the structure. If yes, support the structure first. Ascertain the area of damaged concrete to be removed and repaired. Consider extending the repair area to some line where the boundary of the new work will fit in with a feature of the structure. Mark the repair area with horizontal and vertical lines. Avoid sharp acute angles and re-entrant corners. Make perpendicular saw cuts along the lines. Depth of saw cut should be minimum 15mm, maximum 20mm. Take care not to cut through reinforcement bars. For small areas and where saw cutting is not practical, use chipping tools to remove concrete but ensure that edges of repair area are cut perpendicular to the surface. Remove the damaged concrete within the saw cut boundaries to the depth required using power tools and/or high pressure water blasting. If removal of material has exposed more than half of the perimeter of reinforcing bars, remove the concrete further to expose the bars completely with minimum 20mm clearance behind the bars to ensure encasement and bond. Exposure of steel reinforcement must also continue along its length until non-corroded steel is reached and continued at least 50mm beyond to show sound rust-free metal. Corners of the removed concrete at the substrate level should be rounded to obtain good contact between the substrate and patch material. 6. 7. Roughen the edges of saw cuts with needle guns. Ensure that all weak and flaky concrete is removed throughout the substrate.
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20.2. Removing concrete at joints (Sub-procedure) 20.2.1 Engineering discussion Three types of joints are provided in reinforced concrete structures: Construction joints Contraction joints Expansion joints
At construction joints the structure is intended to remain monolithic without movement across the joint. Expansion and contraction joints, however, are provided to allow movement in the structure due to shrinkage, creep and thermal effects. Depending upon the joint detail, a joint may incorporate continuous reinforcement across it (or, the reinforcement may be stopped on either side of it), dowel bars for
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shear transfer and water stops and sealants to prevent water penetration. Because of the complexity of detail at the joints, they are difficult to construct and the concrete at a joint may become porous and honeycombed due to lack of compaction. Therefore, it is not surprising that many joints fail resulting in cracking of concrete, corrosion of reinforcement and water penetration. Construction joints that open and behave as unintended movement joints must be widened and sealed at the external face as soon as they are noticed and before contamination can occur. (Refer methods for repairing cracks). A badly deteriorated joint must be repaired by removing the affected concrete and reconstructing the joint. Removing the concrete 'cover' at a joint is often a matter of removing concrete both on the external surface and the internal joint face and it usually results in removing all the concrete in the immediate vicinity of the joint. The reinforcement, however, must be left in place so that the re-cast concrete can be tied in to the existing concrete. If the joint incorporates dowel bars, it is often necessary to remove the dowel assembly completely. This means that all the concrete may have to be removed as far as 500mm on either side of the joint. Repairing dowelled joints that allow movement by removing the concrete on one side only seldom succeeds, because often it is the lack of accurate alignment of the dowels that causes distress in the joint by not permitting free sliding of the concrete member. In such cases the dowel bars must also be removed and replaced by preassembled dowels that are set parallel to each other and in one plane and installed accurately in formwork perpendicular to the joint plane before concrete is cast. 20.2.2 Procedure 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. If necessary, support the structure on both sides of the joint before any concrete is removed. Ascertain the area of damaged concrete to be removed. Mark the repair area with lines running parallel and perpendicular to the joint. Make perpendicular saw cuts 15 to 20mm deep along the lines. Take care not to cut through reinforcement bars. Remove the damaged concrete between the saw cut and joint to the depth required. If the concrete requires removal through full depth of a slab, the slab should
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7. 8.
be cut below the saw cut at an angle of approximately 20 to the vertical, sloping towards the joint. To achieve a neat joint on the soffit of the slab, consider making a saw cut on the soffit also offset from the saw cut at the top of slab to give a sloping construction joint. (See Fig. 19.2). Roughen the edges of saw cut with needle guns. Ensure that all weak and flaky concrete is removed.
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20.3. Cleaning concrete substrate for patch repairs and re-casting (sub-procedure) 20.3.1 Engineering Discussion To ensure good adhesion of mortar or new concrete to the parent material, the substrate should be clean and free of dust and loose material. 20.3.2 Procedure 1. After removal of damaged concrete, remove loose particles and dust with high pressure water or vacuum cleaning. Air blowing may be effective, but the compressor should be equipped with a functioning oil trap to prevent contamination of concrete by oil. Do final cleaning immediately before placement of repair material to ensure that all contamination is eliminated.
2.
All concrete surfaces on that new ovrelays are to be bonded must be cleaned of dirt, oil, grease, asphalt, tar, laitance and deteriorated concrete. Ashpalt or oil particularly interfere with methyl methacrylate polymerisation and therefore must be removed thoroughly. Detergents may remove suface oil contamination, however, oils that have penetrated the surface should be removed by chipping or scarification. 20.4. Cleaning Concrete Surface for Overlays 20.4.1 Engineering Discussion All concrete surfaces on that new overlays are to be bonded must be cleaned of dirt, oil, grease, asphalt, tar, laitance and deteriorated concrete. Asphalt or oil particularly interfere with methyl methacrylate polymerisation and therefore must be removed thoroughly. Detergents may remove surface oil contamination, however, oils that have penetrated the surface should be removed by chipping or scarification. 20.4.2 Procedure 1. 2. Remove tar and asphalt by mechanical means followed by sandblasting. Remove all traces of dirt, oil and grease by scrubbing with a proprietary alkaline detergent solution such as sodium metasilicate or trisodium phosphate. Wash with plenty of water to ensure complete removal of the detergent. Dirt alone may be removed by water blasting, with wire brushes or similar mechanical means.
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3. 4. 5.
If oil has penetrated into surface, remove affected concrete by chipping or scarifying followed by water or sand blasting to remove loose material. Remove laitance and deteriorated concrete by water or sand blasting. Immediately prior to application of overlay material, blow the concrete surface with clean, dry and oil free compressed air to ensure complete removal of all dust and loose particles.
20.5. Cleaning reinforcement (Sub-procedure) 20.5.1 Engineering discussion If the deterioration of concrete has been caused by corrosion of reinforcement, the products of corrosion must be removed before placing the new concrete, otherwise the repair will not be effective. If the damage is due to chloride contamination, it is essential to remove all rust from the steel, as any residual rust will be contaminated with chlorides that could restart the corrosion later. Water-abrasive blasting is the most effective method for cleaning the reinforcement. The abrasion removes the solid rust and water dissolves the chlorides away. Enough concrete must be cut away on the blind side of the reinforcement to allow room for water-abrasive blasting - the space will be needed for providing concrete cover to steel anyway. If the cause of damage is carbonation, rust removal is less critical and it will be sufficient to remove any loose rust that might prevent adhesion of repair material to steel. 20.5.2 Procedure 1. 2. 3. Ascertain from test results if chloride contamination has occurred. Inspect the reinforcement after the concrete has been removed. If deterioration is due to chloride contamination or if the reinforcement is covered with loose corrosion products and has developed pits, use waterabrasive blasting till all the rust is removed and steel has achieved Class 2 "Near White" surface cleaning to AS1627.4. If there is no chloride contamination and the rust is slight and adheres fast to steel, without signs of loose scales and pitting, clean the reinforcement by water blasting only to remove any loose material.
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20.6. Adding reinforcement (Sub-procedure) 20.6.1 Engineering discussion If rusting has reduced the cross-sectional area of reinforcement by more than 15%, extra reinforcement must be added before the repair is made good to restore the cross-sectional area to its original value. 20.6.2 Procedure Inspect the exposed reinforcement for damage after the concrete cover has been removed. Examine if corrosion has reduced the cross-sectional area of any bars by more than 15%. If yes, measure the length over that such corrosion extends. The length of lapping bar required = corroded length + 2 x splice length required by AS3600.
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Lapping bars shall be of the same diameter as the existing bars. Ensure that sufficient concrete is removed to accommodate the lapping bars (See Fig. 19.3). Clean concrete and existing reinforcement as per sub-procedure 19.3 and 19.5. Attach the lapping bars to existing bars with tie wires or by welding. Ensure that lapping bars will have adequate concrete cover all around. If welds are used remove all weld slag and splatter from steel and concrete.
20.7. Applying bonding coat to concrete (Sub-procedure) 20.7.1 Engineering discussion Engineering aspects of bonding coats have been discussed in Chapter 16 "Repair Materials". If the selected repair method requires application of a proprietary bonding coat to concrete substrate, it is essential first to read the manufacturer's instructions for preparation and application of the particular bonding material. These must be strictly followed. Directions given here are for general guidance only. Working time of different types of bonding coats varies and is often limited. The bonding coat will prevent bonding if it is allowed to dry. It is therefore important to plan beforehand the timing for its application so that the repair can be completed within the allowed working period. "Wetness" of concrete substrate required prior to application of bonding coats is also different for different bonding materials. Generally, epoxy bonding coats are applied to dry surfaces, but specially formulated resins are available for damp surfaces also. Cementitious bonding coats (whether modified with latex or unmodified) require the substrate to be "pre-wetted" but only just damp at the time of application. 20.7.2 Procedure Clean the concrete surface as per sub-procedures 19.3 and 19.4 and steel reinforcement as per sub-procedure 19.5. For applying unmodified cementitious bonding coat, eg. Portland cement grout, (or repair mortar or concrete), keep the concrete surface wet for 12 to 24 hours prior to starting repair. For applying latex modified Portland cement bonding coat (or repair mortar or concrete), keep the concrete surface wet for at least one hour.
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Remove all free water and allow the surface to dry until it is just damp. Apply the bonding coat material with a brush or broom working it vigorously into the substrate. For applying epoxy based bonding coats, allow the substrate to dry completely (unless the epoxy is formulated for application on damp surface). Apply the bonding coat material with a brush or broom working it vigorously into the substrate. Cover only as much area of the substrate as can be repaired or overlaid with repair mortar or concrete within the working time of the bonding material. Apply the bonding material progressively as the repair work advances.
20.8. Coating reinforcement (Sub-procedure) 20.8.1 Engineering discussion Engineering aspect of coating steel reinforcement has been discussed in Chapter 16 "Repair Materials". Apart from cement slurry, other coatings are generally proprietary products and it is essential to read the manufacturer's instructions for their application. These must be strictly followed. 20.8.2 Procedure Clean the steel reinforcement as per sub-procedure 19.5. If required, add lapping reinforcement as per sub-procedure Apply the selected bonding coat to steel bars with a brush working vigorously to ensure that bars are evenly covered all around. Remember, working time of bonding coats is limited. Therefore, follow immediately with the repair material.
20.9. Formwork for re-casting concrete (Sub-procedure) 20.9.1 Engineering discussion Where deteriorated concrete in structural elements is to be replaced, it must be recast using appropriate formwork. Often the space for re-casting concrete is very limited, necessitating the use of super-plasticised or pumped concrete and compacting with external vibrators. Formwork for re-casting repairs must be very rigid and well-supported to prevent the new concrete from sagging away from the old concrete under its own weight, to withstand pumping forces if concrete is to be pumped into forms and to withstand the forces of clamped-on external vibrators. Heavy gauge steel forms are preferable because as well as being rigid they allow quicker dissipation of heat of hydration of the fresh concrete thus reducing the contraction stresses. Formwork should be provided with birdmouth hoppers and openings where appropriate for feeding new concrete and inserting poker vibrators. (See Fig. 19.4). Form releasing agents used should be compatible with the repair materials, particularly epoxy based and latex modified concretes and grouts.
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20.9.2 Procedure 1. Pre-assemble the formwork. Use appropriate form release agent to suit the repair material to be placed. Fix the formwork and its supports immediately after applying bonding coats to concrete substrate and reinforcement. Make the forms mortar tight by sealing with building tape or sealants along all joints. Clean the forms of all the debris before placing any concrete. Place re-casting concrete within the working time of bonding coats if used. Ensure good compaction of concrete using pokers and external vibrators.
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4. 5. 6.
20.10. Curing (Sub-procedure) 20.10.1 Engineering discussion All types of cementitious repair need thorough and continuous curing to develop strength and impermeability and to reduce drying shrinkage to a minimum while bond strength is developing. Water used for curing shall be free from ingredients harmful to concrete. Curing procedures for polymer modified and unmodified cementitious materials are different and have been discussed at length under "Repair Materials". Epoxy based materials are self-curing and do not require external curing.
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Curing compounds should not be used with latex modified concretes as the wax or resin in most curing compounds is incompatible with latex. Curing compounds should also not be used if additional material is to be bonded later to the surface being cured. Continuous water cure is always preferable to membrane cure. Curing membranes do not provide any reserve of extra water to make up for any that escapes and are not likely to provide enough curing in the critical early stages. Curing membranes applied after the wet cure, however, can help to slow down drying. 20.10.2 Procedure for curing latex modified cementitious concretes and mortars 1. Complete all surface finishing operations as soon as possible (before formation of the polymer film). Protect freshly finished surface from rain or damage from other causes. As soon as the surface can support it and prior to formation of polymer film, cover the surface with a single layer of wet hessian. Place polyethylene film over the wet hessian to prevent moisture loss by evaporation. Remove polyethylene film and hessian after 24 hours. Allow the surface to dry for 3 to 5 days.
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20.10.3 Directions for curing unmodified cementitious concretes and mortars 1. 2. 3. Complete all finishing operations before the concrete or mortar starts setting. Protect freshly finished surface from rain or damage from other causes. Keep concrete moist by light water spray immediately after initial set, until curing methods are in place. Cover with saturated hessian sheets followed by polyethylene film to prevent moisture loss. Alternatively, the surface may be cured by continuous spraying or flooding with water.
Curing shall be continued for minimum 4 days in temperate weather and 7 days in hot, dry or windy conditions. 20.11. Surface preparation for external coatings (Sub-procedure) 20.11.1 Engineering discussion Preparation of concrete surfaces is necessary to achieve bonding of film forming coatings and penetration of penetration type coatings. In new structures, this preparation may only require removal of oil or wax form release agents and curing compounds that could be sticking to concrete and prevent adhesion of coatings. In old structures, apart from repairing any deterioration, surfaces will need to be cleaned of dirt, dust, oil, grease, old paint, moss and algae growth.
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The surface also needs to be reasonably dry for the coatings to stick properly and resist peeling and blistering. (However, for cementitious coatings the surfaces have to be pre-soaked with water and should be just damp before application of coating). Coating materials are available as proprietary products. Manufacturer's instructions regarding surface preparation and application should be carefully studied and followed before undertaking any work. 20.11.2 Procedure 1. Clean the surfaces to be coated by suitable methods according to existing condition of the structure. Use high pressure water jets, sandblasting (wet or dry), power operated wire brushes, grinding discs, etc to remove dirt, laitance, weak concrete, corrosion affected concrete and any other deterioration. Remove oil and grease with proprietary alkaline detergents, and moss and algae with fungicidal solutions, rinse off the solutions with large quantities of water. Repair all deterioration in concrete such as cracks, spalls, reinforcement corrosion, etc. Fill surface irregularities, blow holes, tie-wire holes and the like with suitable fairing, levelling or sealing coats or mortars. Allow the repairs to set and cure. Allow the concrete to dry. (For cementitious coatings, however, pre-soak the concrete with water for 24 hours. Remove free water and allow to dry till just damp). Immediately prior to application of primer or final protective coat, as required, remove any dust and loose particles with oil free compressed air.
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21. Repairing cracks

21.1. Types of cracks Description of various types of cracks that can occur in concrete structures has been given in Chapter 14. For purposes of repair, however, there are two types of cracks: 1. 2. Dead cracks - These are inactive cracks and do not move Live cracks -These are subject to movement due to applied loads and temperature changes.
21.2. Repair methods for cracks Dead cracks can be repaired by any of the following methods: Epoxy injection Grouting
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Routing and sealing Drilling and plugging Stitching Adding reinforcement Overlays and surface treatments
Live cracks can be repaired by: Flexible sealing.
21.3. Cracks that should be repaired Not all cracks are structurally significant. The vast majority are caused by shrinkage or other tension stresses that develop as the structure supports itself and have no influence on strength or durability. It is important to recognise if cracking is of a size and type that is harmful, and act accordingly. Generally, fine cracks up to 0.3mm width have no adverse effect when reinforcement cover is adequate. Fine cracking will also heal autogenously as the free cement is exposed to moisture. In this process calcium hydroxide in the cement reacts with carbon dioxide and moisture forming calcium carbonate and calcium hydroxide crystals that tend to seal the crack. Healing will not occur if the crack is subjected to movement or if there is flow of water through it.
Flexural cracks in a bending member do not normally progress beyond the neutral axis and have a reduced width at the tensile reinforcement. In such cases a surface crack width of 0.5mm is usually acceptable. In members protected from driving rain and in absence of aggressive marine and industrial environment, even 1mm cracks can be tolerated. Stable cracks of the size and type described are generally harmless and need not be repaired. Harmful cracks develop due to such factors as carbonation, chlorination, alkaliaggregate reaction, corrosion, overloading of structure, foundation movement, insufficient reinforcement and lack of adequate cover. It is important to identify the presence of these causes. All harmful cracks must be repaired. Longitudinal cracks expose long lengths of reinforcement to possible sources of contamination and they must always be regarded as potentially dangerous, even if they may not be already the result of rusting. Cracks due to severe deterioration (as in corrosion and impact damage) that necessitate removal and replacement of concrete will require repair methods other than crack repairs. Transverse cracks may or may not be serious depending on their width, location and the exposure conditions.
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21.4. Epoxy injection Note: Epoxy injection of cracks in concrete is a highly skilled process; its success depends largely on the experience of the operator. It is not a process that should be attempted by a general contractor. Information given below is, therefore, for general guidance only. 21.4.1 Engineering discussion Epoxy injection is used to restore structural soundness of structures afflicted with inactive cracks. Cracks as narrow as .05mm can be bonded and sealed by injecting with low viscosity epoxy. Cracks wider than 6mm generally require a mix of epoxy and mineral filler, or Portland cement grout. The technique generally involves drilling holes at close intervals along the cracks, fitting them with entry ports, then injecting the epoxy under pressure. Some cracks extending downwards from nearly horizontal surfaces may be filled by gravity if the width of crack is more than 0.5mm and depth is less than 300mm. For this, the top surface edges should be chipped or sawn to form a small trough to provide an inlet for gravity flow of resin into the crack. Except for certain specialised epoxies, the method cannot be used if the cracks are actively leaking. While moist cracks can be injected, water or other contaminants in the crack will reduce the effectiveness of the epoxy repair. 21.4.2 Repair procedure Clean the cracks. Remove any contamination (such as oil, grease, dirt, fine particles of concrete) from the cracks with water under high pressure, or some specially effective solvent. Blow out the residual water or solvent in the crack with filtered (dust and oil free) compressed air or allow adequate time for air drying. Note: The epoxy system used should be capable of bonding to wet surfaces unless it can be assured that the crack is dry. Seal cracks at the surface to keep the epoxy from leaking out before it has gelled. The surface can be sealed by brushing an epoxy on the surface of the crack and allowing it to harden. If extremely high injection pressures are needed, cut a 12mm deep x 20mm wide V-groove along the crack, fill with an epoxy and strike off flush with the surface. Drill holes into the crack for fitting pipe nipple entry ports for epoxy injection. A vacuum chuck and bit are useful in preventing the cracks from being choked with drill dust. Spacing of ports varies between 150mm to 500mm generally depending on the width and depth of the cracks. Establish the first and last entry ports at or near the bottom and top, respectively, of any vertical crack, or at the ends of any horizontal crack in a vertical or horizontal member. Mix the epoxy. continuous. There are two methods for mixing epoxy, batch or
In batch mixing the adhesive components are mixed according to the manufacturer's instructions using a mechanical stirrer.
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Mix only the amount of adhesive that can be used prior to commencement of gelling of the material. In the continuous mixing system, the two adhesive components pass through metering and driving pumps prior to passing through an automatic mixing head. The continuous mixing system allows the use of fast setting adhesives that have a short working life.
Inject the epoxy. Epoxy can be injected with hydraulic pumps, paint pressure pots or air-activated caulking guns. Select the injection pressure carefully. Increased pressure does not necessarily accelerate the rate of injection. In fact, excessive pressure can propagate the existing crack further. If the crack is vertical, commence the injection of epoxy at the lowest entry port until the epoxy exudes from the next port above. Cap the lower port and repeat the process at successively higher ports till the crack has been completely filled and all ports have been capped. For horizontal cracks, carry out the injection from one end of the crack to the other in the same manner. The crack is full only if the pressure can be maintained. If the pressure cannot be maintained, the epoxy is still flowing into the crack or leaking out from somewhere.
After the crack has been sealed, remove the projecting entry ports and fill holes with an epoxy patching compound. If required, remove or even out the surface seals by grinding in order to restore the appearance of the structure. Apply surface coating if it is part of the repair process.
21.5. Grouting 21.5.1 Engineering discussion Wide cracks that are inactive may be repaired by filling with Portland cement grout. Grout mixture may contain cement and water or cement plus sand and water depending on the width of the crack. Other admixtures or polymers may be used to improve the properties of the grout, such as bond. The water-cement ratio should be kept as low as practical to maximise strength and minimise shrinkage. 21.5.2 Repair procedure 1. If the surfaces in the crack are contaminated with oil or grease, remove the contamination with detergents. If oil and grease have penetrated into concrete, remove the affected concrete and repair by replacing with fresh concrete. Flush out all dust and debris from the crack with high pressure water jets. Install grout nipples at intervals astride the crack. Seal the crack between the nipples with a sealant. Flush the crack to clean it and test the seal. Grout the crack until it is completely filled. Maintain the grout pressure for several minutes to ensure good penetration.
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Remove the nipples and fill holes with cement mortar.
21.6. Routing and sealing 21.6.1 Engineering discussion Routing and sealing is used for repairing dead cracks that are of no structural significance. The method involves enlarging the crack along its exposed face and filling it with a suitable joint sealant. This is the simplest and most common technique for crack repair and can be executed with relatively untrained labour. It is suitable for both fine pattern cracks and larger isolated defects, but will not be effective on active cracks and cracks subject to a pronounced hydrostatic pressure. The purpose of the sealant is to prevent water from reaching the reinforcing steel, development of hydrostatic pressure within the crack, staining of concrete surface and causing moisture problems on the far side of the crack. The sealant material is often an epoxy compound. There are many commercial products and type and grade of sealant most suitable for the specific purpose and conditions of exposure should be selected. 21.6.2 Repair procedure 1. Prepare a minimum 6mm wide x 6mm deep V-groove at the surface along the crack using a concrete saw, hand tools or pneumatic tools. (See Fig. 20.1). Clean the groove with an oil free air jet. Allow to dry completely before placing the sealant. Apply the sealant as per manufacturer's instructions.
2. 3.
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21.7. Drilling and plugging 21.7.1 Engineering discussion This method is most often used to repair vertical retaining walls and consists of drilling a hole down the length of the crack and grouting it to form a key. (See Fig. 20.2). The crack must run reasonably straight and the hole must be large enough to intersect the crack along its full length and provide enough section of shear key to structurally take the loads exerted on it. The grout key prevents transverse movement of the sections of concrete wall adjacent to the crack. It will also reduce heavy leakage through the crack and loss of soil from behind the wall. If water tightness is also required in addition to the structural load transfer, a second hole should be drilled and filled with a resilient material of low modulus, the first hole being grouted. The grout is made up of cement and sand (1:3) and water. The water-cement ratio should be kept as low as practical to maximise strength and minimise shrinkage. Other admixtures or polymers may be added to improve the properties of the grout.
20.7.2 Repair procedure 1. 2. Drill a 50mm to 75mm diameter hole centred on and following the crack. Flush the hole and crack with high pressure water jet to remove dust and debris. (Caution: Restrict flushing to the minimum so that backfill soil is not washed into the crack). Allow the crack to damp dry. Seal the crack tight on the exposed face. Allow the seal to cure and harden.
3.
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4.
Fill the hole and crack with grout.
21.8. Stitching Note: Stitching may be used when tensile strength must be re-established across major cracks. Stitching also tends to increase stiffness in the structure that may cause cracking elsewhere. This method of repair should therefore be adopted only under advice of a structural engineer. 21.8.1 Engineering discussion This method involves drilling holes on both sides of the crack and grouting in stitching dogs (u-shaped metal units with short legs) that span across the crack. (See Fig. 20.3.)
Where possible, stitching should be done on both sides of a concrete section so that further movement of the structure would not pry or bend the dogs. This is particularly so in tension members where the dogs must be placed symmetrically. In bending members however the cracks may be stitched on the tension face only. Stitching will not close a crack but can prevent it from propagating further. If it is required to seal the crack, the sealing should be completed before stitching begins. 21.8.2 Repair procedure 1. If it is required, seal the crack by epoxy injection, grouting, or routing and sealing. The stitching dogs should be variable in length and orientation so that the tension across the crack is not transmitted to a single plane but well distributed in the concrete. Drill holes on both sides of the crack accordingly to suit the size and location
2.
3.
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of the stitching dogs. Spacing of the dogs should be reduced at each end of the crack. 4. 5. Clean the holes of all dust and debris. Anchor legs of the dogs in holes with a non-shrink grout or epoxy resinbased grout system.
21.9. Adding reinforcement Note: Adding reinforcement to an existing structure to repair cracks should not be undertaken without advice of a structural engineer. 21.9.1 Engineering discussion When cracks impair the strength of a concrete structure, the structure can be strengthened by addition of conventional or prestressed reinforcement. The method of fixing such reinforcement will depend on particular structure and type and location of the cracks. The damage must be examined by a structural engineer and reinforcement designed to resist the forces causing the cracks. 21.9.2 Repair procedure with conventional reinforcement Cracked structures may be repaired by epoxy injection and reinforcing bar insertion across the cracks. (See Fig. 20.4.)
1. 2.
Clean the cracks of dust, debris and contamination. Allow the cracks to dry. Seal the cracks at exposed surfaces with an epoxy sealant approximately 3mm thick and 40mm wide. Allow one or two vent holes at the top for escape of air during epoxy injection.
o
3.
Drill 20mm diameter holes at 45 to the concrete surface and crossing the
o
crack plane at approximately 90 . Use vacuum bits and chucks to prevent dust from clogging the cracks. The holes should extend minimum 450mm on each side of the crack. Number, spacing and location of the holes should be determined by design, taking care to avoid existing reinforcement. 4. Fill the holes and cracks with epoxy pumped under low pressure (350 to 550kPa). The epoxy used should have very low viscosity and high modulus of elasticity and it should be capable of bonding to concrete and steel in presence of moisture. Holes should be filled with epoxy to part depth sufficient to raise the epoxy level to surface when steel bars are inserted. Insert reinforcing bars (typically 12 or 16mm diameter) into the epoxy filled holes. Clean off any overflowing epoxy immediately.
5.
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21.9.3 Repair procedure with external prestress steel Post-tensioning is often used to strengthen a structure damaged by structural cracking or when the cracks have to be closed. This technique uses prestressing strands or bars to apply a compressive force to negate the tension causing the cracks. (See Fig. 20.5). It requires a thorough design of the prestressing force, detailing of the anchorage system and analysis of the secondary effects on the structure. The task should therefore best be entrusted to a structural engineer.
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21.10. Surface treatments 21.10.1 Engineering discussion Slabs with numerous fine cracks caused by drying shrinkage or other one-time occurrences can be effectively repaired by the use of protective coatings or surface treatments. Concrete surfaces that are not subjected to wear may be sealed with a low solid, epoxy resin-based system (film forming type) or silane/siloxane based coatings (penetration type) depending on the circumstances of the repair job. Surfaces subject to traffic such as walkways, parking decks and interior slabs may be sealed with a heavy coat of epoxy resin covered with aggregate to provide skid resistance. The method will close dormant cracks, even if the aggregate is abraded from the surface, since traffic cannot abrade the resin that has penetrated the cracks.
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A suitable proprietary repair system should be selected according to the requirements of the job. 21.10.2 Repair procedure 1. Select appropriate repair materials according to the particular job requirements. Clean the surface to remove laitance, or contaminants such as grease or oil. (Refer sub-procedure 19.11.) Apply the repair materials strictly according to the supplier's written specifications.
2.
3.
21.11. Flexible sealants for live cracks 21.11.1 Engineering discussion Live cracks are treated as movement joints and repaired with flexible sealants. The sealant is generally installed in a wide recess cut along the crack. The dimensions of the recess (width and depth) depend on the total crack movement and the cyclic movement capability of the joint sealant used. The crack movement should be calculated taking into account the applied loads, shrinkage and temperature variations. Where aesthetics is not important and surface is not subject to traffic, the sealant may be applied on the surface without making a recess. (See repair procedures below). The commonly used sealants for movement type of joints are polysulphides, epoxy polysulphides, polyurethanes, silicones and acrylics. They have generally excellent adhesion to concrete, high movement capability of 50% to 100% and require a width/depth ratio of 2:1. 21.11.2 Repair procedure for recessed seal 1. If the concrete is still uncontaminated, cut a recess along the line of the crack using a power chisel, crack cutter or saw cutting machine. Dimensions of the recess should comply with the requirements of the crack movement and sealant material. (See Fig. 20.6). Clean the recess of dust and debris by wire brushing followed by air-blasting with oil-free compressed air. Coat the surfaces of the recess with primer as specified by the sealant manufacturer. Place a bond breaker (such as polyethylene strip, pressure sensitive tape or other material that will not bond to the sealant) at the bottom of the recess. Fill the recess with flexible sealant as per manufacturer's instructions. Where the concrete is carbonated or contaminated with chlorides or has deteriorated due to corrosion of reinforcement, it must be broken out (refer sub-procedure 19.2) and replaced and a sealed movement joint formed as detailed above.
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3. 4.
5.
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21.11.3 Repair procedure for surface seal 1. Narrow cracks subject to movement, where aesthetics are not important and where the structure is not subject to traffic, may be sealed with a flexible surface seal. (See Fig. 20.7.) Clean the concrete surface adjacent to the crack of laitance and contaminants such as grease and oil. (Refer sub-procedure 19.11). Coat the concrete surface along the crack in approximately 100mm wide strips with a primer recommended by the sealant manufacturer. Place a 20mm wide bond breaker strip over the crack. Apply minimum 60mm wide and 3mm thick flexible joint sealant over the bond breaker with a trowel.
2.
3.
4. 5.
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22. Patch repairs

22.1. Engineering discussion Patch repairing is employed to restore small areas of otherwise sound concrete damaged by spalling, scaling, honeycombing and impact. Patch repairs are generally trowel applied, require none or minimum formwork and their thickness is limited to a maximum of about 100mm in high build applications. Depending on the type, location and extent of damage and urgency of repairing, patch repairs may be carried out with Portland cement mortars, latex modified cementitious mortars or epoxy mortars. Characteristics of different types of mortars have been given under Chapter 16 "Repair Materials". However, preference should be given to cementitious or latex modified cementitious materials for compatibility with concrete. If ordinary Portland cement is used in the mortar, the patched surface would tend to be darker than the surrounding concrete. Therefore, a part of the Portland cement should be replaced with white cement to lighten the patch. It is desirable to make a trial patch to achieve matching colour. Mortar of a consistency suitable for trowelling usually does not contain enough cement paste to coat the old concrete surface or the reinforcement adequately and a bonding coat of cement grout or polymer admixtures must be used. Bonding coats containing polymer admixtures dry quickly and work must be organised so that application of mortar follows the bonding coat within a few minutes. 22.2. Repair procedure with cement-sand mortars 1. Remove all damaged, unsound and contaminated concrete and prepare the edges of the patch area as per sub-procedure Clean concrete substrate as per sub-procedure 19.3 and saturate it with water for 24 hours prior to repair as in sub-procedure 19.7. Clean the reinforcement if exposed and contaminated with rust as per subprocedure 19.5.
2.
3.
Note: Patch repairs are generally done to sound concrete. Repairs for deterioration due to corrosion are treated differently. 4. Select appropriate patch material and bonding coat for the job. It may be a proprietary pre-packaged formulation or site-mixed preparation. For proprietary products carefully follow the manufacturer's recommendations. For common repair jobs a cement and coarse sand mixture in the ratio of 1:3 by weight is generally adequate. If the patch must match the colour of the surrounding concrete a blend of Portland cement and white cement may be used. Normally, about one-third white cement is sufficient, but the precise proportions can only be determined by trial. 5. Prepare the cement-sand mortar by mixing with minimum amount of water. Slump of the mix for shallow patches should not exceed 25mm.
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To minimise shrinkage in place, allow the mortar to stand for half hour after mixing and then re-mix prior to use. Do not re-temper with water. 6. Apply the bonding coat to the concrete substrate and to the reinforcement as per sub-procedure 19.7 and 19.8. Apply the mortar immediately following the bonding coat. The mortar should be forcibly projected or dashed onto the substrate and placed in layers about 10mm thick. Compact each layer thoroughly over the entire surface using a blunt piece of wood or hammer. Each layer should be cross-scratched to facilitate bonding with the next layer. Generally, there need be no time delays between the layers. For vertical and overhead repairs of considerable thickness, in order to prevent sagging of the mortar, the repair may be limited to about 50mm thickness at one time, and should then be kept moist for a day before applying the successive layer. Finish the patch to the texture of the surrounding concrete by using similar form material and hammering with a mallet or by wood floating or steel trowelling as necessary. Start curing as soon as possible. Follow sub-procedure 19.10.
7.
8.
9.
22.3. Repair procedure with polymer modified cementitious mortars 1. The repair procedure is the same as for cement-sand mortars, except for the details noted below The proportion of polymer admixtures to be added should be as per manufacturer's recommendations. The working time of polymer modified mortars is relatively short. Therefore, limit the quantity of mix for a particular job such that it can be placed, compacted and finished within the working time - about 20 minutes. Soak the concrete substrate with water for one hour before applying bonding coat. Apply polymer based bonding coat to concrete substrate and reinforcement as per sub-procedure 19.7. Polymer in the bonding coat should be the same as in the repair mortar. Place the mortar in the patch without any delay and before the bonding coat can dry. Compact and finish within the working time of the mortar. Do not re-work or manipulate the mortar after the latex has coalesced otherwise cracking will occur on drying. Adopt the curing procedure for polymer modified mortars as laid down in sub-procedure 19.10.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
22.4. Repair procedure with epoxy mortars Note: Patch repairs with epoxy mortars require special skills and should be
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entrusted to personnel experienced in mixing, handling and applying epoxy materials. The following notes are for guidance only. 1. Do not carry out repairs with epoxy-based materials at low temperatures as it is difficult to get the mixture to harden quickly enough. Restrict application of epoxy mortar to thin sections, say not exceeding 20mm. Prepare and clean the patch area as per sub-procedure 19.1 and 19.3. The concrete surface should be completely dry. Note: Patching that is thin enough to be appropriate for repair with epoxy mortar is not likely to extend down to the reinforcement, but if it does, clean the reinforcement as per sub-procedure 19.5.
2.
3.
4.
Mix the epoxy components and aggregates accurately as recommended by the manufacturer in a high shear mixer, preferably in whole pre-weighed batches as supplied by the manufacturer. Working time of resin-based materials is very short. Mix the quantities that can be easily placed and finished within the working time. Also, a large batch of resin-hardener mixture has a shorter working life than a small batch. Handle the materials cleanly to avoid contamination of both the resin mixtures and the people working with them.
5.
Prime the concrete substrate (and reinforcement, if exposed) with the same liquid resin mixture as used for the epoxy mortar. (Sub-procedure 19.7). Apply the mortar with a trowel immediately following the bonding coat and finish the repair before the resin hardens. No curing is required for resin mortar patches.
6.
7.
23. Recasting with concrete

23.1. Engineering discussion Recasting with concrete is required to replace concrete that has been severely damaged and non-removal of which would lead to further deterioration and could impair the strength, stability and functioning of the structure. The cause of such damage could be corrosion of reinforcement, fracturing, spalling, delamination, honeycombing, leaking joints or any other. Recasting with concrete generally involves removal of deteriorated concrete, cleaning up the substrate and reinforcement, setting up formwork and placement of new concrete. The entire repair scheme must take into consideration the special requirements for this kind of work, that are:
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23.2. Concrete mix design The concrete mix used for recasting must be capable of producing highly impermeable concrete with adequate workability and low shrinkage. Ideally the repair mix should be made with the same type of aggregate as the original concrete to minimise thermal stress. It is also usually necessary to use a smaller (10mm) maximum aggregate size for repairs because the space for placing concrete is often restricted. Care should be taken to ensure that aggregate will not react with alkali from the cement particularly as a rich mix will be used. To minimise stresses caused by drying shrinkage, the water:cement ratio should not exceed 0.4. In some situations, it may be helpful to add shrinkage-compensating admixtures to the mix. These admixtures work by causing slight expansion to offset shrinkage and thermal contraction. The repair concrete should have a high cement-paste content for bonding with old concrete and reinforcement and to provide high alkalinity for the protection of steel. The mix should have a minimum cement content of 410kg per cubic metre of concrete. For the highest concrete quality it is preferable to use both 35:65 SA cement and silica fume in the mix. The conflicting requirements of low shrinkage and high cement content can be reconciled to some extent by the use of a super plasticiser to give a mix of medium workability (100 to 150mm slump) at a very low total water content. The grading of aggregate and sand must be chosen to make a dense concrete and to keep bleeding to the absolute minimum, especially for soffit repairs where bleeding can lead to complete separation between old and new concrete. For small repair jobs concrete may be mixed at site, using a small concrete mixer. On site batching should be avoided. It is preferable to make trial mixes and then pre-batch into convenient sized bags off site with only specified quantities of water and superplasticiser to be added at site. All materials must be weigh batched. A suggested mix design for small scale repairs is given below. These quantities will make about 0.03 cubic metre of concrete and would fully charge a small mixer. (Source: Austroads 1991 -"Bridge Management Practice"). Cement - Preferred 35:65 SA (Type SA or A acceptable) - Silica fume If silica fume unavailable, use 13.5kg cement) 10mm Crushed Aggregate (assumed solid SG 2.7) Sand (assumed with 2% water content) Water (maximum) Superplasticiser (nominal) (dependent upon the brand)
13.0 kg
0.5 kg
36.0 kg 18.5 kg 5.4 litres 25 ml
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The on-site mixer must be rinsed out and charged with the dry components, then 4.5 litres water added, followed by two minutes mixing. Superplasticiser should be added while mixing continuously, and then more water added until the design slump is achieved. A maximum of 0.9 litres extra water will be needed if the mix design is correct, otherwise the superplasticiser quantity should be reviewed. Where placement quantities are large enough to justify, pre-mixed concrete from a commercial plant may be used. The mix used should have a minimum cement content of 410kg per cubic metre and a maximum water/cement ratio of 0.40 as specified before. 23.2.1 Formwork Requirements of formwork for recasting have been discussed in sub-procedure 19.9. 23.2.2 Compacting recast concrete Where concrete is replaced by recasting, it must be made to flow into place to exclude all air voids because the space for placing the concrete and using internal vibrators is often very restricted. The most practical way of achieving good compaction is to place the concrete in small quantities and vibrate it as the work proceeds. External vibrators on the formwork are very effective for inducing flow and compacting concrete in awkward places. 23.2.3 Placement of concrete The method of placement depends very much on the individual situation but it should ensure that well compacted concrete completely fills all voids. Where soffits are recast, holes may be drilled through the slab and concrete placed from above. (See Fig. 22.1.) Alternatively, soffit formwork can be extended to provide a series of hoppers at the open sides for feeding superplasticised "flowing" concrete, or the concrete can be pumped to the farthest point of the void through a pipe that is gradually withdrawn as concreting proceeds. Whichever method is used, any void that is confined on all sides must be filled from the lowest or farthest points to ensure that air is driven out as the concrete advances, and if necessary vent holes or pipes may be provided to allow escape of the air.
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23.3. Repair procedures Support the existing structure adequately to safeguard against instability and deformation during repair work. Remove all deteriorated or damaged concrete and prepare edges of repair work as per sub-procedures 19.1 and 19.2. Examine the reinforcement for loss of section due to corrosion. If crosssectional area of the reinforcement has reduced by more than 15%, arrange extra reinforcement as necessary. Clean the concrete substrate and reinforcement as per sub-procedures 19.3 and 19.5. Select a suitable bonding agent for concrete and reinforcement taking into consideration its limited working time available for fixing the formwork and placing the new concrete. If concrete can be placed immediately after applying bonding coat, use either Portland cement grout or polymer modified cement grout. If delay is expected due to formwork, specially formulated epoxy bonding agents with long working life should be used. Apply bonding coat to concrete substrate and reinforcement as per subprocedures 19.7 and 19.8. Fix formwork, if required, as per sub-procedure 19.9. Place concrete in the forms by a suitable method. Compact well using internal or external vibrators as necessary. Finish unformed surfaces by brooming, wood floating, steel trowelling or any other method to match the adjacent existing concrete. Start curing of concrete as per sub-procedure 19.10. Forms for load bearing structural members shall remain in position until at least 80% of the 28 day compressive strength of the new concrete is achieved. (10 days for normal Portland cement, 7 days for high early strength Portland cement). Forms for non-load bearing members may be removed after 2 to 3 days.
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After stripping the formwork, examine the concrete for any blemishes. Repair any defective work using stiff cement mortar having the same proportion of cement and fine aggregate as used in the concrete and bring to an even surface using wooden float.
23.4. Replacing bearing pads 23.4.1 Engineering discussion Removal of damaged or deteriorated bearing pads may be necessary in several situations, such as: Cracking Shattering Crushing Pier/Abutment - cracked and shattered. To lift/lower bridge to suit track height and superelevation
Regardless of type of deterioration, all unsound and disintegrated, bearing pads must be removed. Carry out survey to restore track to correct height and superelevation as required. Consideration MUST be given to repair/replace defective H.D. bolts. Consideration MUST be given to weather conditions ie buckling of track in hot weather. If the repair is to be carried out with the bridge open to traffic, select suitable supports for the girders. If H.D. bolts need replacing consider drilling new hole in bed plate for new bolt or replace bed plate - chemical anchor new H.D. bolts. If bearing pads are to be repaired/replaced under traffic and girders to be supported from ground, prepare and erect support at least 1 week beforehand to ensure support does not drop under load. 23.4.2 Procedure outline 1. If bed plates are to be raised with girders, ensure bolts/studs connecting bearing plate to bed plate are in place. Remove nuts from H.D. bolts or unscrew nuts to allow bed plates to be raised to correct height. Raise the girders by jacking the minimum amount required to enable completion of the replacement operation. See 7.6.5.2. Remove damaged bearing pad. Assess conditon of H.D. bolts and repair/replace as required. Clean concrete/masonry substrate.
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3.
4. 5. 6.
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7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
Locate bed plate to correct height. Apply bonding coat to concrete/masonry. Erect formwork. Place new bearing pad material in formwork. Allow time to cure. Lower girders and screw up H.D. bolts.
Replacing bearing pads see the following: 7.6.5 16.3 17.3 18.4 19.1 19.3 19.7 19.9 Repairing bearing plates - Procedure outline. Types of repair material. Selection of repair method. Steps in repair work. Removing damaged concrete. Cleaning concrete substrate for patch repair and re-costing. Applying bonding coat to concrete. Formwork for re-coating concrete.
24. Repairs for corrosion

The presence of corrosion in concrete structures is generally known when cracks occur. Extensive corrosion shows up in long cracks running along the reinforcement leading to spalling and delamination/ or, corrosion may be localised due to impact damage, honeycombing or water penetration. In all cases it is advisable to remove the concrete and examine the extent of corrosion immediately. Where the corrosion is extensive, concrete should be tested for chloride penetration and carbonation also. If it is determined that patch repairing or re-casting with new concrete will be costeffective then the procedures in Chapters 21 and 22 should be followed rigorously. The repair should also include cleaning the reinforcement and possibly applying protective treatment (refer sub-procedure 19.5 and 19.8).Consideration should be given to the application of a protective coating to the concrete surface to limit further ingress of chlorides and carbonation (refer Chapter 25).
25. Sprayed concrete

24.1 Engineering Discussion A description of sprayed concrete has been given in Section 16 "Repair Materials". Sprayed concrete is highly specialised work requiring skilled operators, special mixes, equipment and techniques. For detailed information reference should be made to "Recommended Practice Sprayed Concrete" published by Concrete
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Institute of Australia, 1987. Spraying is most suitable when large areas of relatively thin concrete (30 to 60mm) have to be applied, for example: in restoring or increasing the cover over reinforcement, replacing delaminated concrete, linings and coatings on rock faces and tunnel walls, stabilising excavations, and encasement of steelwork. Where sprayed concrete is more than 50mm thick and is to withstand tensile and/or shrinkage and temperature stresses, steel fabric reinforcement should be used. Recommended fabrics are any 100 x 100mm wire spacing or greater, eg. F41, F81 or more. Expanded metal meshes and heavy concentration of small-grid wire mesh are not recommended as they tend to produce rebound problems. Where large diameter bars are provided, exceptional care should be taken in encasing them as they tend to cause voids or rebound inclusions. Sprayed concrete may be screeded and trowelled to a plane fine-textured finish, but working may impair bonding with the background. Methods of finishing are given in the reference given above. Sprayed concrete employs a relatively dry mix and is often used in thin sections. Proper curing to ensure full hydration of the cement is therefore essential. The surface should be kept continuously wet for at least seven days. If water curing is impractical, approved curing compounds or impermeable sheets (such as polythene) should be used. Curing compounds may be permitted where: drying conditions are not severe no additional concrete is to be sprayed no paint is to be applied it is aesthetically acceptable
Due to surface roughness, liquid-membrane curing compounds should be applied at twice the rate required for ordinary concrete work. It is essential that sprayed concrete work be entrusted to specialist contractors. Accordingly, only brief outlines of repair procedures are given. 25.1. Repair procedure 1. Remove all damaged and unsound concrete from the structure to be repaired as per sub-procedure 19.1. Concrete should be so removed so that there is no abrupt change in thickness of repair and any square shoulders should be tapered. Clean concrete substrate and exposed reinforcement as per sub-procedure 19.3 and 19.5. Fix required fabric reinforcement rigidly to prevent vibration during spraying. Fix formwork as required to restrict the boundaries of sprayed concrete. (See Fig. 24.1.) Coat the formwork liberally with form release agents compatible with the spray mix. Protect adjacent buildings, trees, garden, etc. from dust and rebound concrete, that would ensue during spraying operations, with suitable covers. Ensure that local work safety regulations are adhered to.
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3. 4.
5.
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6. 7.
Check operation of all spraying equipment before commencing work. Wet the substrate with an air/water blast before spraying concrete.
8.
Apply spray concrete in layers. Build up each layer by making passes of the nozzle over the working area in a pattern of overlapping loops. To minimise rebound, the nozzle should be held nearly perpendicular to the surface being sprayed at a distance of between 0.6m and 1.2m. Finish the surface by screeding or trowelling if required. Commence curing as soon as possible.
9. 10.
26. Protective coatings

26.1. Engineering Discussion Protective coatings on surfaces of concrete structures are not exactly repair methods. They are protective or preventive measures applied to inhibit the deterioration process caused by environmental factors such as penetration by moisture, chlorides and carbon dioxide. Coatings may be applied in any of the following circumstances: 1.
On surfaces of new structures for aesthetics and increased durability.

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2.
On surfaces of the existing structures where tests indicate that chloride ingress and carbonation has occurred in the concrete but as yet no corrosion is evident, in which case application of coatings would help in reducing further deterioration. However, if there are signs of corrosion, application of protective coatings will not stop the corrosion. In this case the deteriorated concrete should be removed and replaced by patch repairing or recasting. On surfaces of newly repaired concrete to give extra protection against recurrence of deterioration and to conceal the repair work.
3.
For whatever reason the coatings are applied, it has to be accepted that they do not last forever and re-coating will be required from time to time as ongoing maintenance. However, in some circumstances they could be a more economic alternative to carrying out repairs. A large number of proprietary protective coating systems are available. Selection of any coating will depend on the protection required, soundness of the concrete, ease of application and the cost involved. In all cases follow the recommendations of the manufacturer for health, safety and handling precautions and application techniques. Chlorides penetrate into concrete in solution form, ie. dissolved in water. Therefore, a coating that resists penetration of water will also resist chloride ingress. Silane/siloxane based penetration type coatings as well as film forming coatings that stick well to the concrete surface and form waterproof skins are both effective against chloride penetration. However, build up of water vapour behind the film type coatings can cause such coatings to blister and peel off unless their adhesion to concrete is very good. Carbon dioxide (and other acid gases in industrial environments) penetrate into the concrete mainly as gases. Silane/siloxane based coatings are vapour permeable and therefore ineffective against carbonation. Rendering and painting is the accepted treatment against carbonation. In this a fine cement-based render is first applied to the affected areas to remove surface imperfections, followed by an acrylic based coating that prevents ingress of carbon dioxide. 26.2. Repair procedure for chloride build up (but no corrosion evident yet). 1. Ascertain the profile of chloride penetration into concrete. Determine if the chloride was inherent in the original concrete mix or it has entered later. If there is no corrosion of steel yet, estimate on the basis of chloride profile and age of concrete the time to depassivation of steel (Browne, 1980). Based on this estimate and if the concrete otherwise is in sound condition, decide whether to leave the concrete as it is and re-inspect after an appropriate interval or to take action to limit further chloride ingress. The following techniques can be considered as possible for controlling chloride attack: Silane/siloxane coating Cathodic protection Chloride extraction and re-alkalisation
2.
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Procedure for silane/siloxane coating is given below. The other methods require special technology and should be undertaken only in consultation with the experts in the field. 3. Repair surface cracks and spalls if any by appropriate methods (refer Chapters 20 and 21). Clean the surfaces to be coated of all contaminants as per sub-procedure 19.1. Make good any blowholes and areas of substantial pitting with an approved finishing compound. Wash down the surfaces with clean water. Allow to dry for 24 hours. Mask or protect adjacent areas, paints, sealants, asphalt or coated surface. Apply silane/siloxane in at least two flood coats using a low pressure sprayer. Repeat application until correct coverage is achieved as recommended by the manufacturer. (Silane/siloxane is also used as a primer for some protective coating systems. Allow to dry for at least two hours before applying another coating).
4.
5. 6. 7.
26.3. Repair procedure for carbonation (but no corrosion evident). 1. Monitor the situation at periodic intervals by phenolphthalein tests to determine the progressive depth of carbonation front. No protective surface treatment is necessary until the carbonation front reaches the steel reinforcement. Once the carbonation front reaches the steel, and if the concrete otherwise is in sound condition, any of the following options can be considered to prevent further carbonation: Silane/siloxane primer plus anti-carbonation coating Rendering and painting Cathodic protection Re-alkalisation
2.
Guideline procedure for rendering and painting is given below. Depending on the proprietary materials or coating system selected, exact procedure as recommended by the product manufacturer should be adopted. 3. Repair surface cracks and spalls, if any, by appropriate repair methods (refer Chapters 20 and 21). Clean the surface to be coated of all contaminants as per sub-procedure 19.1. Make good any blowholes and areas of substantial pitting with an approved finishing compound. Wash down the surfaces with clean water. Thoroughly soak the substrate for one hour. Allow to become damp dry without residual water. (Instead, a primer may be applied as recommended by the product manufacturer).
4.
5.
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6.
Apply cement-based render with a trowel from "feather edge" to 3mm thickness. Allow to set partly before finishing finally with trowel, or sponge float, as required. Cure the render with fine spray of water or a curing material recommended by the manufacturer. The curing material must be compatible with the anticarbonation coating proposed to be applied. Allow at least 48 hours before top coating. Apply the selected protective coating as per manufacturer's recommendations. The coating should be pinhole free. One or two coats may be required as per product used.
7.
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27. References
1. 2. Bridge Management Practice - AUSTROADS 1991. Manual for Assessment, Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Concrete Bridges - VICROADS 1990. Concrete Structures, AS3600. Methods of Testing Concrete, AS1012.8-1986. Durable Concrete Structures - S Guirguis, CEMENT AND CONCRETE ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA, TN57 (1989). Recommended Practice Durable Concrete - CONCRETE INSTITUTE OF AUSTRALIA (1990). Cracking of Concrete, Its Importance, Prediction and Control CONCRETE INSTITUTE OF AUSTRALIA, 1985. Recommended Practice Sprayed Concrete -CONCRETE INSTITUTE OF AUSTRALIA, 1987. Alkali-Aggregate Reaction in Australian Concrete Structures A Shayan, CSIRO. Repair of Concrete in the Marine Environment: Cathodic Protection vs Chloride Extraction - F G Collins and P A Farinha, AUSTRALIAN CIVIL ENGINEERING TRANSACTIONS, February 1991 Repair and Maintenance of Concrete Bridges with Particular Reference to the Use of Epoxies - P M Palmer (MRD, WA), NAASRA Bridge Maintenance Seminar Proceedings, 1979. Corrosion Protection - S F Pollard (ex DMR-NSW) NAASRA Bridge Maintenance Seminar Proceedings, 1979. Corrosion Damaged Concrete Assessment and Repair - Peter PullarStrecker, BUTTERWORTHS.
3. 4. 5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
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Deterioration, Maintenance, and Repair of Structures Johnson Sydney M, McGRAW HILL Causes, Evaluation and Repair of Cracks in Concrete Structures -ACI 224.1R-84. Guide for Repair of Concrete Bridge Superstructures ACI 546.1R-80. Guide for Making a Condition Survey of Concrete in Service ACI 201.1R-68. Standard Specification for Repairing Concrete with Epoxy Mortars - ACI 503.4-79. Guide for the Use of Polymers in Concrete -ACI 548.1R-86. Standard Specification for Repairing Concrete with Epoxy Mortars - ACI 503.4-79. Guide to Joint Sealants for Concrete Structures -ACI 504R-77. Routine Maintenance of Concrete Bridges - ACI 345.1R-83. Mechanisms of Corrosion of Steel in Concrete in Relation to Design, Inspection and Repair of Offshore and Coastal Structures - R D Browne ACI SP-65 (1980) pp 169-204. AASHTO Manual for Bridge Maintenance, 1987. Guide to Investigation of Structural Failures - Jack R Janney, ASCE. Bonding New Concrete to Old - Bruce Suprenant, CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, July 1988. Selecting Repair Materials -James Warner, CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, October 1984. How do you Prevent Corrosion? -CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, February 1988. Equipment for Cleaning or Preparing Concrete Surfaces for Repair -B Suprenant and W Malisch, CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, November 1986. Cracks in Structures -James Hill, CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, March 1988. Cathodic Protection of Reinforced Concrete, The Long Term Repair Strategy - Brian Wyatt, CONSTRUCTION REPAIR, February 1987. Concrete Cracking in Coastal Areas: Problems and Solutions A Nanni and W L Lista, CONCRETE INTERNATIONAL, December 1988. Chemical Grouting of Water-Bearing Cracks - S T Waring, CONCRETE
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19. 20.
21. 22. 23.
24. 25. 26.
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INTERNATIONAL, August 1986. 34. The Use of Polymers in Concrete Repair - J D N Shaw, CIVIL ENGINEERING, June 1983. Product Technical Literature: Fosroc Sika Amatek Epirez Ciba-Geigy ICI W R Grace Master Builders Technologies Emhart Bostik Cementaids Vivacity Engineering Remedial Concrete Engineering Denso Dimet
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Part 4 Masonry Repairs
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28. Introduction to masonry repairs

28.1. General Several o fA R T C sb r i d g e sa r ec o n s t r u c t e dw i t h ma s o n r ya b u t me n t s ,p i e r sa n d wingwalls with superstructures of steel girders, reinforced concrete slabs or precast prestressed beams, while some are masonry arches supporting the railway between spandrel walls. All such masonry structures are generally very old and consist of brickwork in cement or lime mortar. Very few bridges consist of stonework, though stone copings and bearing sills on top of brick piers and abutments are quite common. Masonry structures, like any other, can deteriorate under the effects of environment, foundation movements, impact damage and so on. As a result, masonry elements fret, crack, move or become disfigured. This part of the Manual lists the causes of damage and summarises methods of repair for masonry structures. It does not cover, however, the investigations and remedial measures for foundation movements and hydrological and hydraulic engineering problems such as erosion of stream beds, effects of floods etc. that may be responsible for damage to the masonry. Reference on these matters should be made to specialist engineers experienced in the particular fields. 28.2. Health and safety Before undertaking any repairs all precautions should be taken for health and safety of the workers and general public who may be affected by the work. Attention is drawn to the Chapter "Health and Safety" that highlights the precautions required when handling specialised and hazardous materials and equipment during maintenance and repair work. 28.3. Acknowledgements Much of the material for Masonry Repairs has been obtained from the following sources that are gratefully acknowledged: 1. 2. AUSTROADS 1991, Bridge Management Practice. THE HERITAGE COUNCIL OF NEW SOUTH WALES, Technical Information Sheet 2, Masonry Renovations. BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT, UK, BRE Digest 359 (March 1991) Repairing Brick and Block Masonry.
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29. Deterioration of Masonry

29.1. Causes of deterioration The principal causes of deterioration of masonry structures are: 29.1.1 Ground movement All masonry structures are vulnerable to cracking from excessive settlement or differential settlement of the foundations. The ground movements are caused by:
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variations in soil compressibility due to changes in groundwater levels or site drainage loss of support due to soil erosion swallow holes, mining subsidence or local vibration effects desiccation of shrinkable clays in dry summers due to adjacent trees rehydration of clays following removal of adjacent trees inadequately compacted fill.
If significant foundation movement is suspected, it should be referred to a geotechnical consultant for investigation and advice. 29.1.2 Thermal movement Fluctuations in temperature may set up stresses in walls restrained at both ends sufficient to cause fracture or distortion of the wall. Movements of the superstructure elements, eg. steel girders, concrete beams and slabs can crack the supporting masonry if sliding bearings have not been provided or if the bearings have corroded and "seized". 29.1.3 Sulphate attack Cement-based mortars may be attacked by sulphates derived from clay bricks themselves or from sulphate bearing soils. The attack is gradual and occurs only when the masonry remains wet for long periods. Sulphate attack causes expansion of the jointing mortar that may result in spalling of the brick edges, progressive cracking and deformation of the masonry. If the wall is rendered, sulphate attack will produce horizontal cracking of the rendering. Later, the rendering becomes hollow and more badly cracked and portions may fall away. Suspected sulphate attack can be confirmed by chemical tests. 29.1.4 Expansion on wetting Clay bricks undergo a slight "growth" after leaving the kiln, resulting in expansion of brickwork. In load bearing walls vertical expansion rarely causes problems, but horizontal expansion can give rise to movement and vertical cracking of brickwork. These cracks often occur at or near the quoins of short returns, at setbacks or changes in height or thickness of walls. The bulk of the expansion and movement takes place quite early in the life of the structure but can continue for up to 20 years. Another cause of outward movement of masonry and cracking is the swelling of materials used as hardcore or filling behind the walls. Some shales and clays used as fill may swell when wetted and cause outward movement of walls. 29.1.5 Corrosion of embedded iron or steel Corrosion of iron and steel embedded or enclosed in masonry can cause opening of the masonry joints, cracking of the masonry and rust staining. Where a steel beam is in contact with a brick cladding, rusting of the steel may displace the immediately adjacent courses of bricks beyond the main face of the masonry. Rusting of a stanchion similarly covered may produce a vertical crack. Brick pedestals built
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around steel columns often crack due to rusting of the steel. The rusting of unprotected steel cramps, brackets or reinforcement embedded in the masonry can also cause trouble. 29.1.6 Unsound materials Occasionally, masonry suffers damage because of unsoundness of the mortar or of the units themselves. For example, the presence of imperfectly slaked lime in a mortar can produce effects ranging from minor pitting of the mortar to general expansion with deformation and cracking of the masonry. Similarly, unslaked nodules of lime in clay bricks may cause "blowing" or spalling of brickwork when first wetted. Weak mortars are often porous; they are damaged by frost and flowing water, become friable and are easily eroded. The weakness may be due to low cement content or to unsuitable sand in the mortar mix or occasionally it is caused by dirty mixing water. 29.1.7 Salts Salts in masonry may be derived from the bricks or stones themselves, from mortar, from soil in contact with the masonry or from sea water. Salts in clay bricks or mortar produce an efflorescence that although unsightly is usually temporary and harmless to bricks. Salts dissolved in ground water penetrate masonry from the foundations and backfill by capillary action or leak down from the fill materials above. When water reaches the face of the wall in contact with air, it evaporates away leaving behind the dissolved salts that crystallise just below the surface of the wall. The pressure developed due to crystallisation is sufficient to spall the surface layer of the masonry units. If this process continues unchecked for a length of time, considerable loss of material may occur. The deterioration is more pronounced in the lime mortar joints that being more porous than brick or stone draw more water and therefore fret easily. Masonry abutments and piers built in coastal water streams suffer damage by ingress of salts from the sea water. The continuous cycles of wetting and drying in the tidal zone causes disintegration of masonry surface by formation of salt crystals within its pores and subsequent eroding away of the disintegrated material by tides. 29.1.8 Abrasion Water borne abrasive materials may abrade soft masonry. This can be particularly significant if the base flow of the watercourse is permitted to run along the faces of piers or abutments. 29.1.9 Impact force Impact damage can be caused to masonry bridge structures by:
collision of or glancing blows from motor vehicles against masonry abutments, wingwalls and piers derailment of trains overheight vehicles striking against the intrados of masonry arches
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impact of heavy floating logs carried by rapidly flowing streams against the bridge structure.
Impact damage must be investigated immediately to check if the strength and stability of the bridge are affected and repairs should be organised accordingly. 29.1.10 Overloading Overloading of masonry bridge structures may occur due to the following: vehicles with above legal limit weight increased train loads since the construction of the bridge excessive build up of road metal or ballast on the deck build up of flood debris against the structure excessive hydraulic pressures behind abutments and retaining walls due to lack of drainage.
Overloading can cause cracking of the structure. Excessive overloads may even cause collapse. 29.1.11 Vegetation and marine organisms The fill retained between spandrel walls over the arches and behind abutments, retaining walls and wing walls often contains sufficient water and nutrients to support a large mass of vegetation. While growth of grass and small bush may help to stabilise backfill slopes and prevent erosion, large trees may damage the masonry by exerting pressure through their trunks and roots. Roots and stems growing in crevices and joints exert a wedging force that can prise open and dislodge the masonry. Lichen and ivy can chemically attack the surface while attaching themselves to masonry. Rock boring molluscs can attack masonry by means of chemical secretions.
30. Types of defects

30.1. Cracks The commonest form of defect is cracking that occurs due to several reasons, such as differential settlement of foundations or relative movement in members of the structure, thermal movements, growth of brickwork, corrosion of embedded iron or steel, impact damage and growth of vegetation in or around brickwork. Cracking is specially significant if it is recent in origin and should be immediately investigated. Particularly, it must be ascertained if the cracks are live, ie. continuing to move and if they pose any threat to the strength and stability of the structure. If the cracks are known to have existed for a long time and have not caused instability or distortion, they need not be a cause of concern, though steps should be taken to repair them. Cracks that have formed due to overload will tend to be very fine after the overload is removed and may not need any treatment.
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30.1.1 Cracks in masonry arches Masonry arch bridges are particularly sensitive to movements. Factors affecting the stability of arches include: Differential settlement across an abutment or pier -causing longitudinal cracks along an arch ring. Settlement of a pier or abutment foundation -this may cause lateral cracking across an arch ring and settlement in the roadway or railway. It suggests that the arch has broken up into separate segments. Settlement at the sides of an abutment or pier - this may cause diagonal cracks starting from the side of the arch at the springing and continuing towards the centre of the arch at the crown. Flexibility of the arch ring - causing cracks in the spandrel walls near the quarter points. Outward movement of the spandrel walls due to the lateral pressure of the fill, particularly if the traffic loads are applied close to the parapet -this may cause longitudinal cracking near the edge of the arch. Movement of the wing walls -this may cause cracking in adjoining abutments and arches.
30.2. Fretting Fretting is surface damage caused by leaching of dissolved salts through the masonry, and cycles of wetting or drying. It disintegrates the lime mortar in the joints and can cause spalling of the masonry units. 30.3. Spalling Spalling of masonry is generally caused by accidental impact. It may be accompanied by dislodgement of masonry units as well as cracking and depending upon the extent of damage may cause loss of strength and stability in the structure. Spalling due to other causes such as fretting, sulphate attack and unsound materials can generally be recognised by inspection and repaired accordingly.
31. Assessment of deterioration

IMPORTANT NOTE: The most important thing in any assessment of damage or deterioration is to establish that the strength and stability of the structure are not affected. Where safety of a structure is in question, professional advice should be sought immediately for protecting the structure as well as its users against further damage, collapse or injury. 31.1. General Before any repairs are initiated, it is essential to identify the cause and extent of the damage and whether or not the cause is still active. 31.2. Assessment procedure 1. Before proceeding, assess if detailed examination of the damage would require track closure, power outage, pedestrian and traffic restrictions, assistance from police and utility authorities, flagmen, special equipment for
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access and health and safety measures. 2. If the damage is old and has been repaired before, study previous investigation and repair reports if available. Examine the condition of the past repairs and determine if they have been successful or the deterioration is growing worse. Carry out a visual inspection of the structure. If necessary, use hand magnifiers, binoculars and telephoto photography to assess and record the type and extent of damage or deterioration. Assess the possible causes for deterioration or damage (Refer Section 28.1 "Causes of Deterioration"). Map the location, direction and extent of cracks. Examine if the cracks zigzag through the joints or run through the masonry units. Measure the width of cracks. Ascertain if the cracks are moving by fixing strain gauges across them at suitable locations. Cracks that are due to applied load will move immediately when the load is changed (eg. under traffic passing over the bridge). Cracks may also move under temperature variations. Measurements should be made with and without traffic loads and for 4 or 5 times in a day to establish whether a crack is live or not. Check if any distortions have occurred in the load bearing elements such as walls, abutments and piers as well as retaining structures. Check verticality with a plumb line and measure out-of-plumb distortion. Check bulging in both horizontal and vertical directions using a 3 metre long hardwood straight edge.
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Assess the effect of these distortions on the strength and stability of the structure using appropriate structural analysis methods. 8. Examine the bearing areas under steel, concrete and timber beams and concrete slabs supported on top of the masonry walls, abutments and piers. Examine the extent of corrosion of steel bearings or deterioration of other slip joints provided. Look for cracks in the masonry immediately under the bearings. Also ensure that there has not been a significant loss of support to the superstructure. If there are signs of efflorescence, leaching and percolation of water through masonry, assess the deterioration of masonry units and jointing mortar by fretting. Investigate if the earthfill behind the abutments and retaining walls and fills between spandrel walls of the arches are properly drained. Check if the weep holes (if provided) are functioning. Dry weep holes indicate they may be blocked. Examine the substructures that are located in waterways for damage by abrasion, salts or marine organisms above the low tide mark. Check if there is a significant loss of section (more than 15%) and jointing mortar. Check the structure for deterioration by growth of vegetation in joints, near
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foundations and behind retaining walls and abutments.
32. Repair materials

32.1. General Masonry is constructed from units of brick, stone or concrete joined together with cement or lime mortar. In masonry repairs the most important material is mortar. It is essential to understand its function in masonry work and the basic principles that determine the selection of a "strong" or "weak" mortar in repair work. The other materials used in repairing masonry are: polymers (synthetic latexes) for modifying mortars synthetic resins concrete and grouts sealants The above materials are described in Chapter 16 "Repair Materials".
Sometimes bricks, stone and concrete blocks are also needed to replace damaged masonry. The basic criteria for their selection is to match them in colour, texture and strength with the existing work. No other discussion is needed here. 32.2. Function of mortar Purpose of mortar in masonry work is twofold: to seal the joints between masonry units to provide a bed for the units so that the loads are evenly distributed across the joints.
The strength and rigidity of the masonry is mainly dependent on the strength of brick, stone or concrete units rather than the mortar. In fact, a very strong mortar can do more harm than good. 32.3. Problems with strong mortars Two difficulties arise with strong, rich mortars in masonry: Cracking Cracking is not usually attributable to directly applied loads, but is generally caused by differential or thermal movements between the various parts of the structure as a result of thermal or shrinkage movement or foundation settlement. When a strong mortar is used, fine cracks develop between the mortar and the masonry unit (brick, stone or concrete) that, as well as looking unsightly, may pass right through the masonry units and permit the passage of water. A weak mortar, on the other hand, permits the masonry work some freedom to absorb movements without obvious cracking; and where cracking occurs it will tend to be distributed through the joints where it is comparatively easy to repair, rather than through the masonry units themselves.
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Thus there is improved resistance of masonry to cracking when weak mortars are used. Fretting Fretting happens when there has been continued evaporation from the wall surfaces. With weak, porous mortars evaporation occurs mainly along the joints. But if a strong, impermeable mortar is used, the evaporation occurs from the masonry blocks and leads to spalling of bricks and fretting of sandstone. It is easier to repair the fretting of weak and porous mortar by repointing than to replace fretted bricks or stone blocks. It is therefore better to use weak and porous mortar that can be repointed if need be than to use strong mortars and having to re-build the wall. 32.4. Importance of lime in mortars The addition of hydrated lime to the cement improves the mortar in a number of ways. It makes the mortar "soft", so it is then more able to absorb movements in the masonry and therefore minimises cracking. Lime in the mortar improves its workability - the mortar "comes off the trowel" more easily. It also improves its bond and its capacity for self-healing of cracks. 32.5. Basic principles In general, the mortar should be slightly weaker and more permeable than the masonry units. For sandstock brick or sandstone, a cement:lime:sand mix (by volume) of 1:2:9 to 0:1:2 is suitable. For normal bricks, 2:1:12 to 1:1:6 can be used. In all cases, just enough water should be added to attain workable consistency of the mortar. Do not use a clay-sand soil unless following a proven local tradition. Do not use crushed stone unless it has been successfully used as building stone. Avoid any sand, clay or crushed stone that may contain salts.
33. Methods of repair

33.1. General Methods are outlined for repairing the following most commonly occurring defects in masonry structures: Cracking Fretting Impact damage Corrosion of embedded iron or steel
Other repairs are briefly described under Miscellaneous Repairs. Foundation and waterway repairs are beyond the scope of this manual and should be referred to geotechnical and hydraulic engineering consultants respectively.
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33.2. Steps in repair work Refer to Section 18.4: "Steps in Repair Work", under Concrete Repairs. Basically, the same process should be carried out for repairing masonry structures. 33.3. Strength and stability It is not always easy to judge from appearance how far the strength and stability of the structure will be affected by damage or deterioration. But in general, simple cracks, even wide cracks, may not be too serious provided the masonry is not distorted or much out of plumb. If it is established that strength and stability are not affected, repairs can safely be delayed until movement has ceased and the weather is favourable. If in doubt, engineering advice should be sought for assessing the strength and stability. Engineering advice should also be sought before undertaking any major repairs and for supporting and strengthening severely damaged structures. 33.3.1 Strength of arch bridges For assessing strength of masonry arch bridges, reference should be made to the following publications: Department of Transport (UK): D e p a r t me n t a l A d v i c eN o t eB A1 6 / 8 4 T h eA s s e s s me n t o f H i g h w a y B r i d g e s a n dS t r u c t u r e s D e p a r t me n t a l S t a n d a r dB D2 1 / 8 4 T h eA s s e s s me n t of Highway Bridges and S t r u c t u r e s
33.4. Repairs of cracks 33.4.1 Engineering discussion When the damage results in cracks that are liable to further movement, it is not advisable to make a permanent repair until the movement has stopped. The cracks may be left, but if there is a risk of rain or debris penetrating into the crack, the crack may be sealed temporarily by caulking with a mastic or flexible sealant. Distinction should also be made between two types of cracks: cracks that run more or less diagonally, following vertical and horizontal mortar joints and cracks that pass straight down through a line of vertical joints and intervening masonry units and mortar beds. In the first case, cracks through joints can be repaired, if necessary, by repointing. But in the second case, it has to be considered if it is necessary to cut out and replace the cracked units. In both cases, the decision whether or not to repair cracks will depend mainly on two considerations:
if the cracks are unsightly

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if not repaired, they are likely to encourage rain penetration.
Fine cracks (up to about 1.5mm wide) are not very conspicuous and can often be ignored. However, if repairs are considered necessary to prevent rain penetration, they can be sealed by low viscosity self-hardening epoxy compounds. Wider cracks will generally require raking out and repointing the joints and cutting out the cracked units and replacing them. 33.4.2 Repair procedure for moving cracks (Also refer to engineering discussion in Section 20.11 "Flexible Sealants for Live Cracks"). Cracks that are subject to movements permanently (say, due to temperature movements and live loads) should be treated as expansion joints. If they are not unsightly or there is no danger of water penetration through them, they may be left as they are, otherwise they should be sealed with a flexible sealant of width and depth to suit the expected range of movement. If the expected movements are insignificant or if the crack is not to be sealed permanently: (This is the most common type of repair for movement cracks in masonry). Clean the crack of loose dust and debris, oil, algae and other contaminants by using high pressure water jets, compressed air (oil free) or vacuum suction. Allow the surfaces of the crack to dry. Prime the crack surfaces with a primer recommended by sealant manufacturer. If the width of crack is more than 5mm insert a tight fitting closed-cell polyethylene foam backer rod into the crack. The backer rod must be pushed to a depth such that the sealant applied will have width to depth ratio of 2:1, or minimum 5mm depth of sealant. (For cracks less than 5 mm do not insert backer rod). Seal the crack by caulking with a flexible sealant flush with the masonry face.
If the expected movements are significant or if the crack is to be sealed permanently: Provide a recessed seal or surface seal as described below: Recessed Seal (ii)
Cut a recess along the crack using a power chisel or crack cutter. Dimensions of the recess should comply with the requirements of the crack movement and sealant material. (See Fig. 20.6.) Clean the recess of dust and debris by wire brushing followed by air-blasting with oil free compressed air. Prime the surfaces of the recess with a primer specified by the sealant manufacturer. Place a bond breaker strip at the bottom of recess. Fill the recess with flexible sealant as per manufacturer's instructions.
Surface Seal
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Narrow cracks subject to significant movement where aesthetics are not important may be sealed with a flexible surface seal. (See Fig. 20.7.) Clean the masonry surface adjacent to the crack of dirt, algae, and other contaminants. (Refer sub-procedure 19.11, Concrete Repairs.) Prime the masonry surface along the crack in approximately 100mm width with a primer specified by the sealant manufacturer. Place a 20mm wide bond breaker strip over the crack. Apply minimum 60mm wide and 3mm thick flexible joint sealant over the bond breaker with a trowel. 33.4.3 Repair procedure for dead cracks Fine cracks are best repaired by epoxy injection. This method has been fully described in Section 20.4, "Epoxy Injection", under "Concrete Repairs". Wider cracks can be repaired as follows: 1. If cracks run through masonry units and mortar beds, cut out the units and remove joint mortar. Wet the masonry. Allow to dry until it is just damp (no residual water). Install new units, bonding with mortar similar to that in the existing wall. Avoid strong mortar and use a well graded sand to minimise shrinkage. Where the wall is severely exposed, polymer additives may be used in the mortar to increase bond and durability provided the sand used has a negligible clay content. Note: The above procedure for replacing cracked masonry units is also used for repairing spalled masonry. 2. If cracks run through joints only (ie. masonry units are not affected), rake the joints (on both sides of the walls if accessible) to a minimum depth of 15mm using a square edged tool. Clean the joints of dust and debris with a wire brush or by oil-free air-blasting. Wet the masonry. Allow to dry until it is just damp. Fill and point with mortar not richer than a 1:2:9 mix of cement:lime:sand.
33.5. Fretting 33.5.1 Engineering discussion To stop the fretting process permanently, it will be necessary to halt the flow of salt laden water through the wall. As this is not practical, the alternative is to repair or replace the masonry units or jointing mortar that have been damaged. Application of waterproofing membranes to the exposed surfaces of masonry with a view to stop water entering from the back face should not be considered. The membrane type of coatings generally blister and peel off under build up of vapourpressure from behind. The penetration type of coatings (silane/siloxane) repel the ingress of water from the front such as rain but, being breathable, do not stop water entering from the back face and evaporating from the front face. Thus the wetting and drying process is unchecked and fretting will continue unabated. If the masonry consists of "soft" lime mortar in the joints, do not replace it with "hard" cement mortar, it will do more harm than good. As cement mortar is less pervious than lime mortar, more of the salt laden water permeating through the wall will now
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flow through the bricks or stone. Thus while fretting of the mortar will have been reduced, the rate of fretting of the units will increase. 33.5.2 Repair procedure for damage to jointing mortar Note: Repointing of joints is best done in the winter as lime mortar relies on absorbing carbon dioxide from the air to set. This process takes time and if the temperature is too warm, the mortar will dry out before setting. If working in hot weather, the mortar should be lightly sprayed with water at two to four hour intervals for a day. 1. Where the jointing mortar has been damaged without disturbing the masonry units, rake out all loose and fretting mortar from joints, with a square edged tool. Rake out another 20mm of mortar to make sure that all crystallised salt is removed. Rake the joints in topmost 3-4 courses to be repaired first. Thoroughly wet the masonry and allow to dry till it is just damp and without any residual water. The mortar mix for repointing shall consist of hydrated lime and washed concrete sand (without any clay content) in the ratio of 1 lime:4-5 sand. Sand must be free of salts. Only water that is suitable for drinking should be used for the mortar. Mix dry sand and lime, then slowly add water while still mixing to make a stiff mix. As the lime takes a long time to go off, prepare the mortar some hours in advance of the repointing operation and keep it covered with damp bags until used. Pack joints with the stiff mortar. Ensure that no voids are left, using a pointing tool to ram the mortar into the joint. (Start at the topmost joint and work progressively down). Tool off the joint surface to match the original. Note: Where extensive repointing is involved carry out raking and repointing in small sections to avoid instability. For example, work on 3-4 horizontal joints at a time and limit the length of repair to maximum 3 metres or of length of the wall whichever is less. Allow at least 24 hours for the mortar to set before raking joints in the next section. Start at the top and work progressively downwards.
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33.5.3 Repair procedure for damage to masonry units Note: Spalling usually affects only a small proportion of the units in the wall. Replacing the spalled units with new units that would match with the rest of the wall is difficult and it may be considered to leave things as they are until complete resurfacing becomes necessary. However, if matching is not essential, spalling should be repaired as below. CAUTION: Before commencing repairs check if the stability of the wall would be adversely affected by removal of the spalled masonry. Remove and replace only as few spalled units at a time as necessary to ensure stability at all times.
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Cut out the spalled units to a depth at least 20mm beyond the depth of spalling, or remove the whole units. Remove the jointing mortar also. Wash down the broken surfaces to remove dust and debris. Allow the surfaces to dry till it is just damp. Set new units (whole or sawn as required) in place of the old with a lime and sand mortar as described in 32.5.2 above.
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33.6. Impact damage Masonry spalled by accidental impact would require removal and replacement of the spalled units and repair of cracks. Repair procedure for this is the same as for wide cracks. (Refer 32.4.3-1.) 33.7. Corrosion of embedded iron or steel 1. 2. Open up the masonry to gain access to the steelwork. If corrosion is not too far advanced, thoroughly clean the metal by grit-and/or water-blasting to remove any rust. Apply a corrosion protection system to steel. If corrosion is well advanced replace the steelwork either with carefully protected steel, stainless steel, or reinforced concrete. Rebuild masonry. Apply protective coating such as silane/siloxane to prevent moisture penetration.
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33.8. Miscellaneous repairs 33.8.1 Minor displacement of masonry Minor displacement of parts of the masonry is not very important. However, large movements may endanger structural stability. It is advisable to find out the cause of all movements and take steps to prevent its continuing or recurring. When part of the masonry is displaced horizontally, rake out the joints on that movement has taken place and repoint. 33.8.2 Sulphate attack Sulphate attack that is abetted by dampness is liable to continue unless the masonry can be dried out and kept reasonably dry. The repair therefore should be aimed at investigating the cause of dampness and eliminating it if possible. If the damage due to sulphate attack has gone too far, rebuilding may be necessary, in which case use clay bricks of low sulphate content with 1:1:6 or stronger mortar of sulphate-resisting Portland cement. Rendering that has been damaged by sulphate attack should not be patch repaired. It is best to strip it off and allow the masonry to dry and, preferably, to remain bare. If it is necessary to render again use a weaker mix of sulphate-resisting cement.
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33.8.3 Salt water and marine organisms Repair of masonry damaged by salt water and marine organisms is difficult and specialised work and should be entrusted to organisations experienced in this field. Basically, the repair consists of cleaning of the affected masonry by grit and water blasting and protecting the masonry by epoxies or by concrete encasement.
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Appendix A Repair materials
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Inclusion of specific product brand names does not imply exclusive endorsement. The product mentioned is appropriate but equivalent products are likely to be available from other supplies. A1. Steel Unless noted otherwise all steel sections and plates used for strengthening in repair shall be grade 250 (or higher grade if grade 250 unavailable) - to AS3678 and AS3679. Unless noted otherwise all steel sections and plates used in replacement members or elements shall be grade 250 (or higher grade if grade 250 unavailable) to AS3678 and AS3679. Other steels specified for particular repairs A2. Grade 350 to AS3678 and AS3679 Bisalloy 80
Fasteners
High strength bolts, nuts and washers shall conform to AS1252 and shall be galvanised in accordance with AS1214. A3. Epoxies for filling voids Epirez 8242 Epirez 633 (moisture tolerant) A4. Epoxies for sealing interfaces Epirez 8242 Epirez 633 (moisture tolerant) Epirez D5-707 NS (flexible) Dulux Luxepoxy Barrier Coat A5. Patch painting systems Taubmans Interseal 2020 Dulux Amerlock 400 GF and 400 Dulux Luxaprime zinc phosphate A6. Concrete surface coating systems Taubmans Intergard 215 - Interthane 80 HS Dulux Amerlock 400 GF and 400
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A7.
Bearing pad materials Megaflow epoxy flow grout Megapoxy H dry pack grout
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Appendix B Guidelines for Management of Lead Paint on Steel Structures
Scientific Services
31.1.95
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Preface The objective of this document is to provide guidelines for the successful management of hazardous lead containing paints on Authority steel structures particularly when paint removal in preparation for repainting is carried out. As these structures vary greatly in configuration, size, location and function, different levels of health risk to workers and the public and pollution risk to the environment are presented. Thus, different levels and types of debris management are required to ensure health risks are reduced to an acceptable level and environmental pollution regulations are observed.
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Table of Contents Page no. Foreword Summary Scope General Procedure Step 1 Determination of the presence of lead paint Step 2 Selection of painting strategy Step 3 Assessment of risks to public, other workers and environment Step 4 Determination of emission control level Step 5 Selection of paint removal method and containment system Step 6 Selection of monitoring procedures Step 7 Establishment of worker protection measures Step 8 Establishment of waste handling procedures Step 9 Establishment of work site cleaning requirements Step 10 Estimation of project cost Step 11 Preparation of project specification Appendices B1 Containment B2 Air quality monitoring B3 Ground (soil) monitoring B4 Water and sediment monitoring 209 218 222 226 198 198 201 201 201 201 202 204 204 205 206 207 207 207 208 208
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Foreword
Much of the Authority's structural steelwork is primed with red lead primer, for it was standard practice to use red lead primer on new construction until 1968 when it was replaced by inorganic zinc silicate primer and old construction until 1983 when it was replaced by zinc rich epoxy primer. While red lead primer based systems remain intact, they present no significant health or environmental pollution hazard. However, in most instances these systems require repair or replacement during the design life of the structure, and we are confronted with potential health and environmental pollution hazards associated with lead based paint removal during the course of surface preparation for repainting. Lead in any form is toxic to humans when ingested and inhaled. In the majority of cases the most cost effective method of surface preparation for maintenance painting involves the partial or complete removal of existing coatings by mechanical means that pulverise the paint into small particles that may be readily inhaled or ingested. Repeated inhalation or ingestion of lead based paint particles may produce lead poisoning (plumbism) and lesser intake may adversely effect a child's mental and emotional development. Thus, these methods of paint removal give rise to two potential health problems, i.e. inhalation and ingestion of lead-containing paint by workers and the public in the vicinity of the structure, and the deposition of lead paint particles on nearby footpaths, streets or soil areas where they may be resuspended or tracked into houses or buildings and inhaled or ingested. In most instances workers may be simply and easily protected by protective equipment and the public by prevention of access to the work site; however, lead paint deposition may be much more complex and difficult to manage depending on the size, shape and location of the structure. Many structures such as bridges are located in congested, urban areas where paint removal operations may contaminate nearby residences; business properties or playgrounds. Other structures are located in rural settings where grazing or recreational areas in the vicinity of the structure may be contaminated. Further, most government regulatory bodies perceive lead based paint pollution of soil and waterways to be a concern and direct its control despite the inability of the scientific community to assess the degree of hazard posed to the environment. Thus, the need exists for sound management of lead based paint coatings on steel structures. This document addresses the issues critical to such management for the purpose of facilitating selection and implementation of practicable, cost effective maintenance programs that minimize health hazards to workers and the public and pollution hazards to the environment.
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Summary
Lead in any form is toxic to humans when ingested or inhaled. Red lead paint removal by mechanical means, particularly by abrasive blast cleaning that is the most effective method of surface preparation to achieve protection from corrosion, introduces lead bearing particulate matter into the atmosphere. This gives rise to two potential health problems i.e. inhalation of red lead primer particles by the operator, adjacent workers or members of the public in the immediate vicinity of the structure and deposition of red lead primer particles on soil, footpaths or other areas where it may be resuspended or tracked into houses or buildings and ultimately inhaled or ingested by the occupants. Operators and adjacent workers may be simply and adequately protected from inhalation of red lead primer particles by air-supplied respirators and the general public by security measures that prevent access to the immediate vicinity of the work. The red lead particle deposition problem may be much more difficult to deal with depending on the size, shape and location of the structure. Although most lead paint particles fall within a few metres of the removal operation when dry abrasive blast cleaning, many are small enough to be carried aloft and deposited at much greater distances from the work area. Thus, urban bridges adjacent to businesses, residences or playgrounds exposed to the lead laden blasting plume require greater control of blasting debris than bridges in isolated rural settings. The comprehensive U.S. Transport Research Board Report 265 "Removal of Lead Bridge Paints" that specifically addresses health and environmental issues associated with this operation concludes "there is little evidence that lead compounds used in bridge paints are hazardous to the environment when they are removed". This is attributed to the red lead primer's stability and insolubility in water characteristics that are such that it does not easily break down and introduce free lead into either soil or water. Nevertheless, government regulatory bodies perceive lead based paint pollution of soil and waterways to be a concern and direct its control. Bridges over soil areas still present the hazards of resuspension and tracking, and bridges over waterways present the hazard of swimmers ingesting that small portion of paint debris that does not immediately settle to the bottom creating a scum on the surface of the water that can last for some time and be carried some distance. Therefore, reasonable control of blasting debris is in order in both situations. Most bridges in rural areas and some in metropolitan areas that are not within 50 metres of a residence or other occupied dwelling may be dry abrasive blast cleaned and safely dealt with by means of ground tarpaulins to collect spent paint debris and abrasive. The tarps should extend 2 metres beyond the edges of the bridge. Further, care should be taken in rural areas to ensure livestock do not have access to grazing area in the immediate vicinity of the structure during the course of the contract. Bridges over waterways should have tarpaulins arranged to catch spent blasting debris/direct it to the bank for collection and disposal. Further, any scum that forms on the water from blasting debris should be contained with a floating boom device to prevent it from moving upstream or downstream and collected daily. Bridges in built up metropolitan locations require significantly more stringent measures to contain and collect debris generated during dry abrasive blast cleaning. In addition to ground tarpaulins, drapes or a completely sealed enclosure may be required depending upon the proximity of businesses, residences, schools, playgrounds or other sensitive receptors. Where a dust free operation is dictated, wet abrasive blast cleaning may be in
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order. The higher risk of debris resuspension and tracking presented by metropolitan areas necessitates meticulous "housekeeping" procedures. Wet abrasive blast cleaning and total debris containment introduce dramatic project cost increases to the extent the cost of a normal painting project may be multiplied three to five fold. In view of the number of red lead primed rail bridges throughout the state, the cost of specifying these controls across the board is unsustainable and will rapidly bring critical bridge repainting to a halt. As all bridges do not present the same degree of hazard to human health or the environment, it is reasonable to vary the control system. Thus, Maintenance Engineers should treat each structure on its own merit carefully assessing the hazards presented and specifying appropriate controls to adequately protect human health and comply with governing environmental legislation. This approach should enable a viable bridge painting program to be carried out.
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Scope This document provides guidelines for the management of lead-containing paint on industrial structures. It provides information for determining whether lead is present on a structure, selecting an appropriate maintenance strategy and implementing appropriate lead paint emission controls during paint removal in preparation for painting to ensure potential health risks to workers and public are reduced to an acceptable level and environmental pollution regulations are observed. This guide does not address requirements for evaluation of worker health and safety that should be carried out in accordance with regulatory requirements. General The successful management of an industrial structure coated with lead-containing paint requires consideration of the function, design life and service environment of the structure, condition of the existing coating system, coating systems that will be effective in the service environment, hazards associated with lead paint removal to workers, the public and the environment and program cost. These factors and their many intertwined elements need to be judiciously dealt with in a logical and systematic manner for satisfactory painting program selection and implementation to take place. Thus, these guidelines are presented in the form of a step by step procedure to facilitate these considerations when designing a lead-containing paint management project. Procedure The procedure comprises the following steps: Step 1 Determination of the presence of lead paint.
Step 2 Selection of painting strategy. Step 3 Assessment of project risks to the public, other workers and the environment. Step 5 Selection of paint removal method and containment system. Step 6 Selection of monitoring procedures. Step 7 Establishment of worker protection measures. Step 8 Establishment of waste handling procedures. These steps as described below may require modification to accommodate peculiar structures, locations or regulations. Further, there may be circumstances where small, isolated patch repairs or repairs to small structures far from the public or a waterway are to be carried out, and it may be unnecessary to follow the procedure except for regulatory requirements concerning worker protection and waste handling. Step 1 Determination of the presence of lead paint
The presence of lead paint may be established by reviewing the historical painting records of the structure if these records are complete and include its entire painting history from original painting through last maintenance painting. If historical records are incomplete, the presence of lead paint may be determined by chemical field testing or laboratory tests of representative paint samples in accordance with AS/NZS 1580.501.1 or atomic absorption spectroscopy.
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A paint film is considered to be lead-containing if it has 1.0% or more lead or lead compounds by weight in the dry film. Structures showing paint work with this level of lead should be dealt with in accordance with these guidelines. Step 2 Selection of painting strategy
The following maintenance painting strategies are available: (a) No painting. When a lead-containing paint is in good condition, tightly adhering to the substrate, there is no hazard; thus, the option of leaving the coating alone may be appropriate. If the coating has poor film integrity or shows poor adhesion to the substrate, consideration should be given to potential structural problems due to further corrosion and the possibility of the surrounding area being contaminated by flaking and peeling paint. Again, the option of leaving the coating alone subject to carrying out periodic inspections to monitor coating deterioration may be appropriate. Overcoating. When a lead-containing paint or system is adhering tightly to the substrate and showing satisfactory film integrity, it may be contained on the structure for an extended period of time by overcoating it with another topcoat or paint system if its film thickness is not so great that the additional weight of the overcoat will weaken or break the bond between the existing system and the substrate. Prior to overcoating, the existing paint system should be cleaned to remove dust, dirt, grease, oil, loose paint and other contaminants to maximize adhesion. The overcoating material isolates the existing system from the environment thereby eliminating any hazard. A number of systems are recommended for this application by the Paint Industry, and a few are detailed below: (i) (ii) (iii) two-pack epoxy sealer with various topcoats; two-pack, high build epoxy mastic; single pack, moisture cured, polyurethane topcoat pigmented with zinc or aluminium; water borne acrylic primer with acrylic topcoat; oil modified alkyd topcoat with corrosion inhibiting pigment.
(b)
(iv) (v)
When considering this option, one should be particularly cautious where the existing system's film integrity or adhesion to the substrate is suspect and guided by the recommendation of the manufacturer of the overpainting system.. (c) Spot or localized repair Where a structure is exhibiting localized coating breakdown and steel corrosion products, surface preparation of these areas, priming and application of a finish coat to the localized areas or to the whole of the structure may be cost effective options depending upon the extent of the surface area to be repaired. In this instance, a major risk with overcoating is
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inaccurate assessment of the condition and adhesion characteristic of the existing lead based paint system, i.e. if either is poor, very early coating failure will occur. When spot (patch) painting, care should be taken to ensure the repair system paint products are compatible with the existing system and provide long term performance in the service environment. (d) Total coating removal and replacement Surface preparation of the entire structure, to the extent that all existing coatings are removed and a new protective system is applied, may be a cost effective option depending upon the design life of the structure, despite the high short term costs associated with coating removal, containment and disposal. Demolition and replacement of the structure It may be cost-effective to replace the structure rather than removing and replacing the coating. Costs associated with the construction of field containment, the controls over emissions, and worker and environmental protection are applied to a new structure. The risk of environmental, worker, or public contamination is very low, the service life of the structure is optimized and the lead paint coated steel can be smelted and recycled. A disadvantage of this option is the potential disruption to plant processes or the travelling public while the structure is demolished and replaced. The following considerations should be taken into account when selecting a costeffective painting strategy: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Coating condition Service life of the structure Service environment of the structure Surface coating systems that will be effective in the service environment Method of surface preparation required for the coating system to perform effectively and its emission potential. The need to keep the structure or facility operational Proximity of the work to other facility workers or the public Proximity of the work to environmentally sensitive areas.
(e)
(f) (g) (h)
The major consideration in selecting a painting strategy is existing coating system condition. Accurate assessment of this condition is critical to selection of a cost effective painting strategy and should only be carried out by staff with expertise in this field. As the following steps are completed, it may be necessary to reassess the suitability of the selected strategy and modify it as required.
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Step 3
Assessment of risks to public, other works and environment
The potential impact of lead-containing paint emissions on the health of the nearby public, adjacent workers other than workers performing paint removal, fixing containment and collecting debris and the surrounding environment determines the degree of project emission control. The public and adjacent worker risks are estimated by assessing their proximity to the work and how often they frequent the proximity zone. The risk to the public is estimated as nil, low, moderate or high by using the following table: Public Health Risk Assessment Public proximity to site Close < 20 metres Moderate 20-50 metres Far > 50 metres No Access Frequency of public presence Never ---Nil Rare Moderate Low Low -Occasional High Moderate Low -Continual High High Low --
The risk to the adjacent workers is estimated as nil, low or high by using the following table: Health risk to adjacent workers and other workers on site Proximity to site Close < 20 metres Moderate 20-50 metres Far > 50 metres Frequency of presence of personnel Rare Low Nil Nil Occasional Low Low Nil Continual High Low Nil
The environment risk is estimated by assessing the proximity of sensitive environment receptors such as oyster beds, drinking water intakes or market gardens to the work. It is estimated as low if sensitive receptors are not within 50 metres of the work and high if sensitive receptors are within 50 metres of the work. The distances nominated for proximity indicators may be varied to accommodate unusual structure heights or locations, and in some instances a scale plot plan of the project site and surrounding area may be of benefit. Step 4 Determination of emission control level
The three previously determined risk indicators are combined in the matrix shown below
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to establish the level of emission control for the project. After entering the matrix with the environmental risk indicator (low or high), the adjacent work and public health risk indicators are entered on that half of the matrix and the intersection of these two indicators shows the level of emission control required for the project. Risk to adjacent workers Nil High Public Health Risk Mod Low Nil A B C C Low A B C C Low Environmental Impact A -a high level of control where minimal emissions are allowed B -a moderate level of control where limited emissions are allowed C -a low level of control where limited emissions are allowed. Step 5 Selection of paint removal method and containment system High A A A A Nil A A B B Low A A B B High High A A A A
The following factors should be considered when selecting the method of paint removal: (a) Painting strategy selected in step 2. (b) Degree of surface preparation required by the maintenance system. (c) Amount of work to be performed and productivity requirements. (d) Size, configuration and accessibility of the structure. (e) Cost. Paint removal methods are categorized into four groups based upon the level and type of paint emissions generated. These categories are: (a) Emission Category 1 (Very High Emission Potential) Dry abrasive blast cleaning with expendable or recyclable abrasives is in this category as it produces more dust than any other method of paint removal. The use of recyclable abrasives significantly reduces the volume of blasting debris that in most instances must be treated as a hazardous waste. Dry abrasive blast cleaning is the most effective method of surface preparation for paint durability, and it has a high production rate. Emission Category 2 (High Emission Potential) Wet abrasive blast cleaning and water blasting are in this category. It is a dust free method of surface preparation; however, the wet blasting debris is more difficult to handle and transport than dry debris. It requires the use of inhibitors to avoid flash rusting, and it is significantly slower than dry abrasive blast cleaning. Emission Category 3 (Moderate Emission Potential) Power Tool Cleaning without vacuum attachments and Chemical Removal are in this category. Power Tool Cleaning produces significantly less dust and debris than dry abrasive blast cleaning. It is significantly less effective for paint durability than abrasive blast cleaning, and it has a medium production rate. Chemical Removal is a dust free operation, and the volume of debris is significantly less than abrasive blast
(b)
(c)
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(d)
cleaning. It is not a recognized method of surface preparation and pretreatment of metal surfaces prior to protective coating; thus, further surface preparation is required before painting. Emission Category 4 (Low Emission Potential) Hand Tool Cleaning and Power Tool Cleaning with vacuum attachments are in this category as dust generation is minimal, and the volume of debris is significantly less than abrasive blast cleaning. Hand tool cleaning is the least effective method of surface preparation for paint durability, and it has a low production rate.
The selected paint removal method emission category has an influence on selection of containment as does the control level for emissions determined in step 4. The containment system components capable of achieving Levels A, B and C of emission control for each of the emission categories are described in Appendix A. At the completion of this step, if the method of removal and containment selected for the project do not appear to be feasible, the painting strategy chosen in step 3 should be reconsidered. Step 6 Selection of monitoring procedures
Project monitoring of emissions is performed to ensure adequate controls are in place to protect the environment, the public and other workers in the vicinity of paint removal. It should include air quality, ground (soil) and water and sediment monitoring. Air quality monitoring requirements may range from simple visual monitoring to elaborate instrumental monitoring depending upon the location of the structure and method of paint removal. Visual monitoring of dust emissions from containment or equipment during surface preparation and clean up is a subjective means of assessing whether the intended level of control of emissions from these operations is being achieved while instrumental monitoring that enables a determination of the actual amount of lead as particulate matter in the atmosphere is an objective means of making this assessment. Appendix B describes a method for instrumental monitoring of air quality. Ground monitoring also may range from simple visual monitoring upon project completion to ensure all visible surface preparation debris has been removed from the work site to elaborate soil sampling and laboratory analysis of soil samples for lead prior to project start up and upon project completion to determine whether remediation is required or verify adequacy of project controls depending upon the location of the structure and method of paint removal. Appendix C describes a method for ground sampling and analysis. Water and sediment monitoring entails laboratory analysis of water and sediment samples prior to project start up and upon its completion to determine whether the water or sediment has been contaminated by removal of the lead-containing paint. It is used to determine whether remediation is required or verify adequacy of project emission controls. It is not used as a process control measure unless the project is near a drinking water intake. In which instance, sampling and analysis should be carried out as arranged with the Water Authority. Appendix D describes a method for water/sediment sampling and analysis. The methods, frequency and duration of monitoring are dependent upon the emissions potential of the removal method, potential public health risk, potential adjacent worker health risk and potential environmental impact risk. The greater the potential health and environmental risks and the higher the emissions potential, the greater is the need for monitoring.
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Step 7
Establishment of worker protection measures
All personnel on the project who are exposed to lead paint removal should be adequately protected to avoid inhalation or ingestion of lead paint and precautions should be taken to prevent them from inadvertently carrying lead containing dust or debris from the work site to domestic or public locations where it continues to present a health hazard. All measures adopted shall comply with governing legislation. As the exposure standard for lead is 150 g/m of air, it is necessary to determine that employees on the project are exposed to this or a higher level of lead during the course of paint removal and collection of debris for disposal and implement appropriate control measures. This determination may be made by evaluating monitoring data acquired on similar projects or monitoring the personal breathing zones of exposed workers at the beginning of the project. The following control measures are available to limit exposure to lead (a) isolation of the work area (b) engineering devices (c) safe work practices (d) administrative practices. Respirators are required whenever the concentration of lead is at or above the exposure standard. Respiratory protective devices shall comply with AS 1716,and their selection, use and maintenance shall be carried out in accordance with AS 1715. Protective clothing and equipment, housekeeping procedures, hygiene facilities, medical surveillance and employee training requirements specified in regulations shall be strictly observed. Large, complex projects may warrant a written compliance program implemented and maintained by an individual who is capable of identifying hazards and authorized to take prompt corrective measures to eliminate them. Step 8 Establishment of handling procedures
3
Debris generated during the removal of lead-containing paint should be collected in such a manner that its release into the surrounding environment is minimized, placed in sound, suitable containers marked "hazardous waste" and stored on site so as to minimize container corrosion and damage. A representative sample of the debris should be analysed for lead in accordance with US EPA Method 1311 Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP). If the lead content is less than 5 ppm, the debris is classified as non-hazardous waste, re-marked "nonhazardous waste" and disposed of in accordance with statutory regulations. If the lead content is 5 ppm or more, the debris is classified hazardous retaining its "hazardous waste" marking and disposed of in accordance with statutory regulations. Step 9 Establishment of work site cleaning requirements
The worksite should be returned to the condition that existed prior to starting work. There should be no visual evidence of paint removal debris on the structure or its surrounding environment.
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Reusable equipment should be cleaned in such a manner that release of paint removal debris to the surrounding environment is minimized and it shows no visual evidence of paint removal debris at the time of its removal from the work site. Consumable materials shall be disposed of in accordance with statutory regulations. Step 10 Estimation of project cost
Having completed a preliminary project design by working through steps 1-9, an estimate of project cost should be prepared. If the cost is outside budget constraints, project reassessment should be undertaken by working through steps 2-9 again and repeating the process until cost is within budget. Step 11 Preparation of project specification
A project specification should be prepared that clearly addresses the issues of worker and public health and environmental pollution as well as surface preparation and painting.
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Appendix B1 Containment
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B1-1
Scope
This Appendix provides information on containment systems used for controlling emissions during the course of lead paint removal. B1-2 General
Containment system components capable of achieving these levels of emission control for each paint removal emission category are shown in Table B1. Emission control level A is a high level of control where only minimal emissions are allowed, B is a moderate level of control where limited emissions are allowed and C is a low level of control where limited emissions are allowed. B1-3 Containment system components
B1-3.1 Description The components that comprise the containment/cocoon are described in B1-3.2B1-3.6 below. B1-3.2 Containment material rigidity B1-3.2.1 General
The materials used to construct the shell of the containment cocoon and ground covers can be either rigid or flexible. The rigidity or flexibility of the materials has no bearing on the ability of the containment enclosure to control emissions. Selection of the material is based primarily on the need for long term durability and ease of construction. B1-3.2.2 Rigid containment materials
Rigid containment materials consist of solid panels of plywood, aluminium, rigid metal, plastic, fibreglass, or composites. Fire retardance of the materials should be considered during selection. B1-3.2.3 Flexible materials
Flexible containment materials consist of screens, tarpaulins, drapes, plastic sheeting, or similar materials. Fire retardance should be considered during selection. B1-3.3 Containment material permeability/resistance B1-3.3.1 General
The permeability of the containment materials to air, water or chemicals will influence the degree of control over emissions that can be achieved. The materials should also be resistant to the media used for paint removal. B1-3.3.2 Air impermeable materials
Air impermeable materials are those that are impervious to dust or wind, such as rigid panels or coated solid tarps, drapes or plastic sheeting. These materials will stop the passage of debris and essentially any air.
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B1-3.3.3
Air permeable materials
Air permeable materials are those that are formed or woven to allow air flow, but can retain much of the larger airborne particulate. These materials are commonly termed 'wind screens'. Because of the construction of the material, some dust will escape when using methods of removal that produce very high emissions such as abrasive blast cleaning. B1-3.3.4 Water Impermeable materials
Water impermeable materials are any materials that are capable of containing and controlling water when wet methods of preparation are utilized. Note that wind screens hung vertically may satisfy this objective provided the horizontal areas of the containment where ponding or standing water might be present are fabricated from solid, impermeable materials. B1-3.3.5 Chemical/Solvent resistant materials Chemical/solvent resistant materials are those that are not disturbed or softened by prolonged contact with chemical or solvent stripping solutions. B1-3.4 Support Structure B1-3.4.1 General
The structure used to support the containment materials is classified as either rigid or flexible. The support structure used has no bearing on the level of emissions control achieved. Its importance lies in the long term durability of the structure and in the flexibility of its construction. B1-3.4.2 Rigid support structures
Rigid support structures consist of scaffolding and framing to that the containment materials are affixed to allow little to no movement of the containment cocoon. B1-3.4.3 Flexible support structures
A flexible support structure incorporates cables, chains, or similar systems to that the containment materials are affixed. Flexible support structures allow some movement of the containment. B1-3.5 Containment Enclosure Joints B1-3.5.1 General
The joints between containment materials and between the materials and the structure being prepared are either fully or partially sealed. The sealing of the joints has an impact on the degree of emissions control provided by the containment system.
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B1-3.5.2
Fully sealed joints
Fully sealed joints require that all mating surfaces, between containment materials and between the containment cocoon and the structure being prepared, are completely sealed. Methods of sealing include taping, caulking, Velcro, and any other material capable of forming a continuous, impermeable seal. B1-3.5.3 Partially sealed joints
Partially sealed joints involve the mating of materials of each other and to the structure being prepared, where the structural soundness of the joint is considered but a continuous, impermeable seal is not created. B1-3.6 Containment entryways B1-3.6.1 General
Access to and from the containment may require elaborate controls to ensure that emissions do not escape during worker use or during windy periods that could cause the entryway to open. Entrances vary in sophistication from the construction of airlocks to the use of open seams between containment materials. B1-3.6.2 Airlock entryway
An airlock entryway involves a minimum of one stage that is fully sealed to the containment. One door connects the airlock to the containment with a separate door to the outside. Both doors of the airlock should not be opened at the same time, otherwise emissions may escape. The ventilation system used for the containment, should maintain the airlock under negative pressure. The airlock should be equipped with a HEPA vacuum to allow gross decontamination of dust and debris from worker clothing prior to exiting. B1-3.6.3 Resealable door entryway
Resealable doorways involve the use of entry doors capable of being repeatedly opened and resealed. Sealing mechanisms include the use of zippers, Velcro and other similar means. B1-3.6.4 Overlapping door tarpaulin entryway
Overlapping door tarpaulins involve two or three overlapping tarpaulins. This system may have a tendency to open under windy conditions or could disrupt designed airflow patterns when a negative pressure ventilation system is utilized. B1-3.6.5 Open seam entryway
Open seam entryways involve an entrance to the contained area through open seams between containment materials. B1-4 Ventilation system components
B1-4.1 Purpose The purpose of the ventilation is to control emissions into the environment and to provide air flow through the containment enclosure to reduce worker exposures
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to lead. Control of emissions into the environment can be achieved by creating a negative pressure condition inside containment, such that if a breach in the containment cocoon occurs, air from outside of the containment will flow inward preventing dust from escaping. B1-4.2 Ventilation design alternatives The ventilation can involve the use of designed mechanical systems or natural ventilation. When a mechanical system is specified, a negative pressure condition should be required along with filtration of the exhaust air. B1-4.3 Mechanical ventilation system The containment enclosure is ventilated by mechanical means to ensure adequate air movement is achieved to reduce worker exposures to lead and to enhance visibility. The system should be designed for uniform air flow through the containment in either a cross-draft or down-draft mode. The exhaust system should be designed with properly distributed exhausted ports or plenums, adequately sized exhaust ductwork for proper transport velocity and adequately sized discharge fans. This will provide the necessary air velocity within the containment to overcome system static pressure and provide properly sized and distributed make-up air points. Air movement through the containment when using abrasive blast cleaning should result in at least (a) (b) 39 m/min cross-draft. 18 m/min down-draft.
Negative pressure achieved when using mechanical ventilation can be confirmed through instrument monitoring. A minimum of 0.8mm water column relative to ambient conditions should be maintained. Inclined manometers or magnehelic gauges can be used for these measurements. Negative pressure can also be confirmed visually through the concave appearance of the containment structure or by the use of smoke bombs to verify an inward flow of air at breeches in the containment. When using visual means, care should be taken to account for the influence of winds on the concave appearance of the containment enclosure as compared with that created by the ventilation system. B1-4.4 Natural ventilation system Natural ventilation does not utilize mechanical equipment for moving dust and debris through the work area. It relies on natural air flow patterns through the containment. B1-4.5 Exhaust air filtration When utilizing mechanical ventilation systems, filtration of the exhaust air should be specified, otherwise airborne particulate from within the containment will be exhausted directly into the ambient air.
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Filtration systems typically employ wet or dry dust collectors or bag houses. Filtration to 2.0 m may be necessary if workers are continually in the immediate vicinity of the exhaust. For removal methods that produce very low emissions, dust socks on the exhaust fan may be sufficient. If paint is applied within the same containment system, it may be necessary to use a pre-filter to prevent wet paint droplets from damaging the air filtration system, or to exhaust the air through an alternative filtration system such as dust socks. B1-5 Methods of collecting debris
B1-5.1 Handling The debris generated within containment can be conveyed manually, by gravity or mechanically. To reduce worker exposures to lead, non-manual handling means should be utilized wherever feasible. B1-5.2 Manual collection Manual collection involves the use of equipment such as vacuums, brooms, magnetic brooms, brushes, shovels, wheel barrows, buckets or bucket loaders to physically move the debris to a collection point. Because of the potential for increased worker exposure when using most of the methods, the use of vacuum is preferred. B1-5.3 Gravity collection Gravity collection is used for overhead work where specially designed hoppers or funnels allow the debris to fall by gravity into duct work that channels it to a collection or reclamation point. Workers typically do not handle or contact the debris. B1-5.4 Mechanical conveyance Pneumatic equipment or mechanical augers in the containment floor may be used to automatically transport the debris for collection or reclamation. As with gravity conveyance, workers have little need to handle or contact the debris. B1-6 Designing a containment system
Guidance on the design of containment systems is found in SSPC Guide 6I(CON) and SSPC93-02. The following job site and structural considerations should be taken into account when designing a containment system: (a) (b) Type of structure. Load bearing capacity and integrity of the containment system and of the structure. Size and elevation of structure. Location of structure.
(c) (d)
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(e)
Proximity to other buildings, structures, operating equipment and traffic. Tight confines may not permit the construction of certain containment devices. Local wind conditions Requirements of regulating authorities Whether the structure is riveted or welded. On certain structures; the welding of containment system brackets adjacent to riveted seams should be avoided. Containment criteria table
(f) (g) (h)
B1-7
Table B1 shows the containment system components capable of achieving three levels of emission control for each paint removal emission category. Level A is a high level of control where only minimal emissions are allowed, Level B is a moderate level of control where limited emissions are allowed and Level C is a low level of control where limited emissions are allowed. Paint removal methods based upon the level and type of paint emissions generated are categorized as follows: (a) Emission Category 1 Very High Emission Potential -Dry abrasive blast cleaning with recyclable or non-recyclable abrasive. Emission Category 2 High Emission Potential - Wet abrasive blast cleaning and water blasting. Emission Category 3 Moderate Emission Potential - Power tool cleaning without vacuum attachments and chemical removal. Emission Category 4 Low Emission Potential - Power tool cleaning with vacuum attachments and hand tool cleaning.
(b)
(c)
(d)
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TABLE 1 EMISSION CONTROL CONTAINMENT CRITERIA FOR PAINT REMOVAL METHOD (1)
Emission Category Emission control level (2) Containment material rigidity Containment material (3) permeability Impermeable Permeable or impermeable NA Containment support structure Rigid or flexible Containment Material Joints Containment entryway Ventilation system required Mechanical Negative pressure required Required Exhaust filtration required Required
Rigid or flexible
Fully sealed
Airlock resealable
B Very high emission potential 2
Rigid or flexible
Rigid or flexible
Partially sealed
Overlapping
Natural
Not required
Not required
See Note 4
NA
NA
NA Resealable or overlapping
Natural
Not required
Not required
Rigid or flexible
Impermeable
Rigid or flexible
Fully sealed
Mechanical
Required
Required
B High emission potential 3 C
Rigid or flexible
Permeable or impermeable
Rigid or flexible
Partially sealed
Overlapping
Natural
Not required
Not required
See Note 4
NA
NA
NA
NA
Natural
Not required
Not required
Rigid or flexible
Impermeable
Rigid or flexible
Fully sealed
Resealable or overlapping Overlapping or open seam NA NA
Mechanical
Required
Required
B Moderate emission potential 4
Rigid or flexible
Permeable or impermeable NA NA
Rigid or flexible
Partially sealed
Natural
Not required
Not required
C A
See Note 4 See Note 4
NA NA
NA NA
Natural Natural
Not required Not required
Not required Not required
Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual B Low emission potential C See Note 4 NA NA NA NA Natural Not required See Note 4 NA NA NA NA Natural Not required
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Not required
Not required
NOTES: 1. This guide is prepared for information only. It does not guarantee that specific controls over emissions will occur. Other combinations of materials may provide controls over emissions equivalent to or greater than those combinations shown in the table. 2. 3. Emission control Level A provides a high level of control, Level B a moderate level of control and Level C a low level of control. Permeability addresses both air and water. Ground covers should be impermeable and of sufficient strength to withstand the impact and weight of the abrasive and equipment that might be used for cleaning or reclamation. Ground covers may also extend beyond the containment boundary in order to capture debris that may escape. When chemicals are used, the containment materials should be resistant to both chemicals and water. Impermeable ground covers and free hanging tarps are sufficient to control emissions.
4.
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Appendix B-2 Air Quality Monitoring
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B2-1
Scope
This appendix describes a method for monitoring ambient air quality in the vicinity of paint removal operations. It enables the determination of the actual amount of lead as particulate matter in the atmosphere utilizing sampling equipment. B2-2 General
The purpose of air quality monitoring is to assess whether the health of the public or nearby workers is being endangered by lead or respirable emissions from the work site. B2-3 Instrumental monitoring of TSP lead
B2-3.1 Principle Sampling monitors are located at appropriate places around the work site. Preliminary monitoring is performed to establish background levels of contaminants before the removal/repair project commences, and upon commencement of operations, monitoring of the work site is undertaken. B2-3.2 Materials and equipment High volume air sampling equipment -equipped with a total suspended particulate (TSP) collection head. Equipment filters - one for each monitor for each period of operation. Electrical supply - 240 V or an appropriately sized generator. Wind direction and velocity indicators. B2-3.3 Monitor siting B2-3.3.1 General The selection of monitor placement locations is dependent upon a number of site conditions, including but not limited to: (a) (b) (c) (d) B2-3.3.2 surrounding topography; variability in wind direction; proximity to obstacles such as building and trees; proximity to other sources of emissions such as automobiles. Determination of prevailing winds
The prevailing winds may be determined by using Weather Bureau information or a portable weather station. B2-3.3.3 Identification of a down-wind monitoring zone
Select a down-wind monitoring zone by constructing an arc 15 on both sides of the prevailing wind direction. B2-3.3.4 Placement of Monitors
The recommended procedure is as follows: (a)

Position the monitors within the down-wind monitoring zone at a distance away from the structure based on its height as described
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(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
below. Place additional monitors at high public risk receptors such as schools, homes, or hospitals, even if they are located outside of the monitoring zone to assure protection of the public from the inhalation of airborne lead. Locations where the public is present should take precedence over the criteria presented below that is based on prevailing wind and distances. For structures less than 6 m in height, locate one monitoring station within the down-wind monitoring zone, in the direct line of prevailing winds, at a distance of approximately 3 times the height of the structure. Representative high risk areas located within 30 m of the structure, regardless of prevailing wind, should also be monitored. For structures from 6m to 30m in height, establish two monitoring locations within the monitoring zone. One should be located along one side of the monitoring zone (left side of the 15 arc to the left of the prevailing wind), at a distance equivalent to approximately twice the average working height on the structure. The second monitoring location should be positioned along the opposite side of the monitoring zone at a distance of approximately twice the total height of the structure. Representative, high risk areas that are located within a distance of 45 m or three times the total height of the structure, whichever is greater, should also be monitored. For structures greater than 30 m in height, establish two monitoring locations in the monitoring zone as described above, except that the first location should be at a distance approximately equal to the average working height on the structure, and the second location should be established at a distance no greater than twice the average working height. Representative, high risk areas within 90 m or twice the height of the structure, whichever is greater, should also be monitored. Determine if monitoring locations need to be moved depending on the analysis of results. If wind directions are found to vary, the monitoring locations may require repositioning. When working many spans of a bridge, the monitors may have to be relocated for each span. Baseline monitoring
B2-3.3.5
Monitoring around the project site should be conducted for a minimum of three to five days while no work activities are underway. If the monitoring demonstrates that there is a high degree of variability in the background levels, upwind monitoring at a remote location away from the influences of the project site should be utilized to track background levels on a daily basis. The influence of the initial baseline date or the continual upwind monitoring should be taken into consideration when analyzing the test results to establish the contribution of the paint removal activities to the total amount of airborne lead proximate to the work-site e.g. due to the use of leaded petrol, an allowance of 10 percent above the 80% confidence interval of the background level may be
3
used if it exceeds 1.5 ug/m . B2-3.3.6 Work Site Monitoring
The extent and direction of work site monitoring is based on the potential health risk to the public and nearby workers. Four options are available:
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(i)
Full time monitoring Monitoring throughout the duration of the project should be employed if the public is present in the vicinity of the project for most of the time (e.g. homes, schools, hospitals are next to the project site), or other workers are nearby on a continual basis. Start-up monitoring Monitoring at project start-up us used to establish the adequacy of the controls over emissions. Once it is established that the results are acceptable, the monitoring is discontinued. Monitoring may be resumed if suspect emissions occur or the method of removal and containment is changed. This type of monitoring is used in areas where the public and other workers are present on an occasional basis. Monitoring for complaints Public complaints or questions regarding emissions may trigger the need for localized, short-term assessments. The disadvantage to this approach is that if the assessment shows that unacceptable emissions are occurring, the impact of the emissions prior to monitoring may be questioned and require resolution. No monitoring Projects outside of public access or away from other workers who are not involved in the project should not require monitoring.
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
B2-3.3.7 Operation of equipment The high volume air samples should be operated and calibrated strictly in accordance with governing legislation. B2-3.4 Total suspended particulate matter
Total suspended particulate matter shall be determined in accordance with AS2724.3 and analysed for lead content in accordance with governing legislation. B2-3.5 Reporting/record keeping
The following should be recorded: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) Name and location of job site. Date of monitoring. Time of monitoring (Time monitoring begins and ends each day). Identification serial number of monitoring units. Description of specific monitor locations. Description and location of operations underway at time of monitoring. Wind direction and velocity. Flow chart verifying the rate of airflow across the filter throughout the sampling. Name and address of laboratory used. Laboratory test procedure utilized. 3 Laboratory test results, expressed in ug/m . Names of person/firm conducting the monitoring work.
Copies of all records relating to ambient air monitoring should be maintained for the length of the project plus a minimum of three years.
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Appendix B-3 Ground (Soil) Monitoring
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B3-1
Scope
The Appendix provides a method for sampling and analysing the ground (soil) in the vicinity of a project prior to its start and upon its completion to determine if the ground has been contaminated by lead from the work. B3-2 Background
Pre-existing levels of lead in the ground can vary greatly within a few metres due to past usage of the property and to uneven distribution of previously dislodged paint chips. Thus, while this Appendix provides means for collecting and analyzing samples, such variability should be recognized when analyzing the data. B3-3 Materials and equipment
Sampling tool -for the collection of ground plugs approximately 20 mm in diameter and 10 mm in depth. Sample collection bags or containers - comprised of a material such as polyethylene that will not contaminate the sample. Tape measure and compass -to document the precise locations of the samples Sampling template - 300 x 300 mm with a 25 mm hole in the centre. Deionized water - to clean the sampling equipment. B3-4.1 General Sample site selection depends on the configuration and location of the structure. The project/structure should be subdivided into logical units for sampling. The ground around each structure or a portion of a structure should be considered a unique structure for sampling and sampled separately. B3-4.2 Site selection for structures less than 16m in height One sample should be removed on each north, south, east and west compass point at a distance away from the structure equal to its height. For long structures, an additional sample location should be selected for every 32m segment of length. If the structure crosses over ground, samples immediately beneath the structure as described in 4.4 should be removed. B3-4.3 Site selection for structures greater than 16 m in height Two samples should be removed on each north, south, east and west compass point,one at a distance away from the structure of 16m and the other at a distance away from the structure equal to its height. For long structures, an additional sample in each row should be selected for every 32 m segment of length. If the structure crosses over ground, samples immediately beneath the structure as described in 4.4 should also be removed. B3-4.4 Site selection for structures crossing ground
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If a structure crosses over the ground, a minimum of two samples should be removed from beneath each end. Additional samples should be collected in proportion to the floor area of the structure, at a 2 rate of one additional sample for every 500 m of ground surface covered. For elevated structures such as tanks, a minimum of two samples should be collected beneath the centre of the structure with additional samples removed in proportion to the 'floor area' of the structure at a 2 rate of one additional sample for every 500 m of ground surface covered. Perimeter sampling as described in B3-4.2 and B3-4.3 should be carried out. B3-4.5 High risk receptors Samples should be removed at high risk receptors such as schools, day care centres, occupied housing, and hospitals that are located in the vicinity of the work area if there is the possibility that ground contamination from project activities could occur. B3-5 Sample collection
A sample of the surface of the ground should be collected at each sample site. A sample consists of five plugs of ground collected at each location and combined in a single container to represent the sample at the specific site. The following sampling procedure is recommended: (a) (b) (c) Remove by hand visible chips of paint on the surface of the ground. Place a 300 mm x 300 mm template parallel or tangential to the structure. Remove circular surface plugs of ground, measuring approximately 20 mm in diameter and 10 mm in depth, from the centre of the template and at each of the four corners. Place the five plugs in a single sample container. This represents one sample from one sample site. Clean the sampling tool with deionized water prior to moving to a new sample site. Frequency of sampling
B3-6
Samples are removed prior to project start-up and upon project completion. (Interim sampling may be carried out to determine the performance of the containment.) The ground plugs should be analysed for lead in accordance with US EPA Method 3050 or approved equivalent method.
B3-8
Interpretation of results
No paint chips or debris resulting from the removal operation should be visually evident throughout and around the project site. The ground will be considered to have been contaminated by project activities under any of the following conditions: (a) (b) Visible debris is present. If the mean pre-project level is less than 200 ppm, and an increase in total lead content of 100 ppm or more occurs.
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(c)
If the mean pre-project level is greater than 200 ppm, and the 80 percent confidence level of the post project mean levels are more than 10 percent higher than the 80 percent confidence level of the pre-project mean levels. Reporting/record keeping
B3-9
The following information should be recorded: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) Name and location of job site. Dates of sampling. Visual evidence of contamination. Specific location of samples sites (Direction and distance). The use of drawings is recommended. Name and address of laboratory. Laboratory test method. Laboratory test method. Name of person/firm conducting the sampling.
Copies of all tests results shall be maintained for the length of the project plus a minimum of three years.
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Appendix B-4 Water and Sediment Monitoring
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B4-1
Scope
This Appendix describes a method for sampling and analysing water and sediment prior to the start of a project and upon its completion to determine if the water/sediment was polluted by lead from the work. B4-2 General
Sampling of surface water and sediment for lead to determine whether pollution has occurred is of value only in limited circumstances. In fast moving bodies of water, water sampling represents only transient water quality and adequate evaluation of results is difficult. Similarly, in bodies of water greater than 4 m in depth, sediment sampling is of little value. Water or sediment sampling may provide meaningful data for slow moving, shallow bodies of water where drinking water intakes or sensitive environmental receptors such as oyster beds are near the work site. B4-3 Materials and equipment
Rigid container -with resealable lid, approximately 250 ml in capacity, for water or sediment samples. Stainless steel scoop - for collection of sediment samples. Sample collection bags or containers - of a material such as polyethylene that will not contaminate the sample. Tape measure and compass -for documenting the precise sample locations. B4-4 B4-4.1 Number of samples Structures alongside a body of water For work on tanks, buildings, or structures located next to a body of water, soils tests should be used in lieu of water or sediment testing. If soil is not present and water/sediment sampling is required, for every 30m segment of the structure, one sample of water and one sample of sediment at the shore line, and one additional set of samples 6m from the shore line should be taken. B4-4.2 Structures less than 150m in length that pass over a body of water The sampling plan should include the following if water/sediment sampling is required: (a) If the maximum height of the work area is less than 15m above the water for every 30m in length, or portion thereof: (i) Collect two water samples at a distance downstream that is no further than the equivalent of the height of the structure. (ii) Collect sediment samples beneath the structure at a frequency
2
(b)
equivalent to one sample for every 500m of water area covered by the structure. If the maximum height of the work area is greater than 15m above the water, for every 30m length or portion thereof: (i) Collect one water sample downstream within 10 m of the
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(ii)
structure and a second at a distance downstream no greater than the average height of the structure. Collect sediment samples immediately beneath the structure at
2
a frequency equivalent to one sample for every 500m of water area covered by the structure. B4-4.3 Structures greater than 150m in length that pass over a body of water The sampling plan should include the following if water/sediment sampling is required. (a) If the maximum height of the work area is greater than 15m above the water, for every 150m length or portion thereof: (i) Collect two water samples at a distance downstream that is no further than the equivalent of the height of the structure. (ii) Collect sediment samples immediately beneath the structure at
2
(b) I
a frequency equivalent to one sample for every 500m of water area covered by the structure. f the maximum height of the work area is greater than 15m above the water, for every 150m length or portion thereof: (i) Collect one water sample downstream within 10m of the structure and a second at a distance downstream no greater than the average height of the structure. (ii) Collect sediment samples immediately beneath the structure at
2
a frequency equivalent to one sample for every 500m of water area covered by the structure. Where sensitive receptors such as drinking water intakes or oyster beds are located in slow moving shallow bodies of water downstream within 50m of the work site, it may be prudent to collect sufficient water samples to characterise the area. B4-5 Sample collection procedure
B4-5.1 Collection of water samples Dip or grab samples should be collected. The recommended procedure is as follows: (a) (b) (c) B4-5.2 Place the container just beneath the surface of the water and pull in an upstream direction to collect the sample. Collect approximately 250ml of water, seal the container, and tape it shut to avoid spilling the contents or tampering. Use a separate, clean container for each sample. Collection of sediment samples Scoop samples should be collected. The recommended procedure is as follows: (a) Scooping in an upstream direction to a maximum depth of 100mm, collect approximately 250ml of sediment, seal the container and tape shut to avoid spilling the contents or tampering.
B4-6
Frequency of sampling
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Samples should be taken prior to project start-up and upon project completion. (Interim sampling may be carried out to assess the performance of the containment during the course of the project.) B4-7 Laboratory analysis The samples should be analysed for lead in accordance with US EPA Method 3050 or approved equivalent. B4-8 Interpretation of results
Paint chips or debris shall not be visually evident in the water or sediment. Water is considered to have been contaminated by the project activities under either of the following conditions: (a) (b) The mean pre-project level is less than 3.5g/L and an increase in the mean lead content of 1.5g/L occurs. The mean pre-project level is greater than 3.5g/L and the 80 percent confidence level of the post project mean levels is more than 10 percent higher than the 80 percent confidence level of the pre-project mean levels.
Underwater sediment is considered to have been contaminated by the project activities if the 80 percent confidence level of the post project mean levels is more than 10 percent higher than the 80 percent confidence level of the pre-project mean levels. B4-9 Reporting/record keeping
Copies of all test results should be maintained for the length of the project plus a minimum of three years. The following documentation should be provided: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) Name and location of job site. Dates of sampling Specific location of sample sites (The use of drawings is recommended). Name and address of laboratory. Laboratory test method. Laboratory test results expressed in ppm. Name of person/firm conducting the sampling.
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Appendix C Guidelines for welding old steels
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C1.
Background/introduction
The materials used in railway construction over the past 100 years or so have evolved more or less in step with the changes in the metal fabricating industry and it is important to keep in mind that for the first two thirds of this period welding was not widely used and riveting was the usual method of joining. As a consequence of this the weldability of the materials involved was not a prime consideration and the ease, and in some cases the practicability, of welding can vary considerably. This, of course, makes maintenance very much more complex as riveting is no longer commonly used and where welding is not practicable bolting may be the best solution. In an actual repair situation it is clear that identification of the material involved is the first and most important step. It is hoped that in time this information will be available for all bridges in the system. C2. Wrought and cast iron
It is appropriate to describe in a short paragraph the differences between wrought and cast iron since, unfortunately, the terminology in common use in Australia does not correspond to the engineering definitions of wrought and cast iron. Cast iron is a product of a blast furnace with a high carbon content (see Table 1) useful only in compression. Since it has almost no ductility in tension, its use is confined to compression situations, i.e. bridge columns, compression side of beams, and tunnel liners. The cast iron discussed in this note should not be confused with the modern spheroidal graphite iron that has good tensile properties but poor weldability. The cast iron covered here is the type often described as "Grey Cast Iron". Wrought iron, as we shall consider it, was produced by "puddling" pig iron on contact with mill scale (iron oxide) and is similar to a low carbon low strength mild steel containing slag inclusions that reduce its properties in the through thickness or "Z" direction. Beams of riveted construction often had cast iron in the compression flange and wrought iron elsewhere. Beams of this type have been seen in the central city tunnels. Wrought iron is quite easily welded if the provisions described below are observed, but grey cast iron is quite a different proposition and may be either very difficult or impossible to weld. It is therefore very important to identify the materials involved before any repair work is undertaken.
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Table C1 Iron based structural materials - Typical properties

Cast iron Carbon Silicon Sulphur Phosphorous Manganese Slag Yield Stress Tensile Stress Elongation 3.5% 1.9% 0.1% 1.0% 0.7% 0 120 MPa Wrought iron 0.1% 0.2% 0.1% 0.1% 0.4% 1% 215 MPa 354 MPa 30% Mild steel 0.1 to 0.3% 0.3% 0.06% 0.06% 0.4% 0 250 Mpa 460 MPa 20% Structural Steel 0.18% 0.2% 0.02% 0.25 1.0% 0 250 Mpa (Specified Min) 410 Mpa (Specified Min) 22% (Specified Min)
C3.
Welding wrought iron
Since the carbon and sulphur contents of wrought iron are low, it presents no weldability problems in terms of hot or cold cracking, but the presence of slag stringers aligned with the forging direction presents the only problems. Firstly, whilst butt welds in the X and Y directions are quite feasible, welds on the surface Z direction are not recommended if significant load is to be transmitted as a lamellar tearing type of fracture is likely to occur. Welding by the MMAW method is usually recommended using Basic Low Hydrogen electrodes. Not that hydrogen is a concern, but the basic flux is better able to accommodate the slag absorbed into the weld pool. Neither preheat nor post heat is required. Welding procedures and preparations are similar to those used for structural steel but it is recommended that welding speeds be reduced to 5066% of those used for steel to allow time for slag removal from the weld pool. Welding procedures and operators should be qualified where possible along the lines of qualification to AS 1544 Pt 1. If wrought iron of suitable section is not available, qualification may be done using Grade 250 structural plate. Where distortion due to welding is undesirable, then the welding procedure may be combined with a peening procedure to eliminate distortion. See WTIA TN11 for details of this procedure. In cases where it is necessary to make a connection to the surface of a wrought iron member then consideration should be given to replacing a length of the wrought iron by structural steel attached by butt welds to wrought iron or by using a bolting technique. C4. Mild steel
Mild steel was first produced in the late 1800's as a cheaper substitute for wrought iron that was rather expensive and variable in properties. The differences between wrought iron, mild steel and the current structural steels can be seen in Table 1. The important
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things to note are the higher carbon content, relatively high sulphur and phosphorous contents and the low manganese content. Wrought iron is readily forge or blacksmith welded, but mild steel does not lend itself to these welding processes and the introduction of mild steel led to a great increase in riveting and the extinction of forge welding. Fusion welding of mild steel faces two problems. Firstly, the higher carbon content, which increases the hardenability of the material and requires higher levels of preheat and arc energy to prevent excessive hardening in the HAZ which can be dealt with; but more importantly the tendency towards hot cracking in the HAZ arising from the low manganese to sulphur ratio. (Compare the values in Table 1 for Mild Steel and Structural Steel.) Whilst some compensation for this problem is possible by adjusting the welding procedure, the fusion welding of some mild steels is impracticable. An additional factor is that mild steels are frequently segregated, that is, contain bands of high carbon/sulphur content and these areas are likely to cause welding problems. Whether a particular piece of steel is likely to be difficult to weld depends very much upon the raw materials used in steelmaking and is therefore at the current time very much an unknown. The safest course is to either avoid welding or to extract a small sample of material for chemical analysis and metallographic examination as will be described later. As with wrought iron and structural steel, both the welder and welding procedure should be qualified prior to commencement of work. Again the qualification procedure described in AS 1554 Pt 1 should be followed. Since the mild steels are the most difficult of the three materials being discussed, welder qualification on a mild steel should be accepted as qualification for procedures within the limits allowed by AS 1554 for wrought iron and structural steel. C5. Welding procedures for mild steel
Irrespective of the results of chemical analysis, mild steels should be regarded as being at least Weldability Group Number 5 since the sample removed for analysis and the modern analytical methods test only a small area and may not detect segregated areas. To minimise the risk of HAZ hot cracking, weld beads should be kept small and if necessary buttering techniques should be used to reduce the residual stress from welding and the chance of cracking. Low hydrogen basic consumables must be used to counteract the deleterious effects of sulphur and phosphorous into the weld metal. For those reasons, MMAW basic low hydrogen is the only welding process really suitable for welding these materials. Other welding methods have either too large a HAZ and hot cracking risk, or low tolerance to sulphur and phosphorous absorption to yield satisfactory results. C6. Structural steel
Structural steel was developed to overcome the shortcomings of mild steel, i.e. cold cracking, hot cracking, brittle fracture and lamellar tearing. Whilst these matters are too extensive to describe here, the structural steels are characterised by low carbon, sulphur and phosphorous contents, low inclusion contents and small grain size and, in Australian made steels, correspond to AS 1204 and AS 3678. Such steels are intended for welding and avoid the problems of cold and hot cracking and, in Australian made steels, the possibility of lamellar tearing.
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The procedures for welding such steels are fully described in AS 1554 and the welder and procedure requirements of this standard should be observed fully. Welding consumables should as far as possible conform to the prequalified consumables listed in Table 4.5.1(A) of AS 1554 and in repair situations it will generally be found that adherence to the prequalified preparations of Table 4.4(A) will provide the optimum solution. C7. Weld quality
The quality of the completed weld should be confirmed by visual and non destructive testing. Welds in major members should comply with AS 1554 Pt 5 Section 6 and welds in secondary members to AS 1554 Pt 1 Section 6. C8. Quality of repairs
Generally, only visual, magnetic particle and ultrasonic examination will be feasible on bridge repairs, but radiographic testing should be used in place of ultrasonic testing where geometry permits and on qualification tests. C9. Recording of repairs carried out
A record should be made of each repair carried out and should include at least the following information: Bridge identification Nature of damage Location and date of samples removed for material identification Metallurgical report number and date. Detailed description of defect with photograph if possible. Selected repair method. Welding procedures together with a copy of WPS and WPQ. Welders used together with qualifications and date. Material used, i.e. plate numbers and consumable batch numbers. Repair date. Visual and NDT test reports. Photograph of completed repair (if possible) Materials used plates etc, welding consumables, paint and manhours. Time and date bridge returned to normal service. Such records should be kept by the Corridor Manager or nominated representative C10. Material Identification
As discussed above, it is essential before embarking upon any form of welding repair to determine the nature of the materials involved. This can be done from existing records of construction, although care is necessary if previous repairs have been carried out on the bridge; from material identification marks on rolled sections that often give the name of the steelmaker and material standard; and by metallurgical examination of the steels involved. Removal of a sample for examination should be done for each piece of plate or section involved in the welded repair, preferably in a location where rewelding is not required, and simply grinding smooth the area of material removed is acceptable. Typically notching a V-shaped section from the edge of a plate or section approximately 15 mm wide, halfplate thickness and 20 mm long will suffice. Removal is best done by hand using a hacksaw as power grinders often overheat a small sample. An alternative method that is quicker and better is to take a core sample using a trepanning cutter. The sample should
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be min 15mm diameter. Samples should be sealed in an envelope clearly marked with bridge identification and sample location and sent to a laboratory for metallographic examination and chemical analysis for carbon, manganese, silicon, aluminium, sulphur and phosphorus contents. Occasionally it may be impossible to remove a sample for the above testing by a simple sawing method. In such cases the use of a "Boat Sample" removal apparatus can be considered, or the use of in situ metallography. In the latter case the metal surface is prepared without metal removal to permit microscopic examination on site or after the removal of a surface replica. Unfortunately, the current methods of in situ chemical analysis, spectrographic and X-ray diffraction, are not suitable for some of the elements of interest and it may be necessary to remove drillings for chemical analysis. In this case care must, of course, be taken to ensure that the drillings removed are not contaminated with paint, oil or other drilling lubricant. Sample drillings should be sealed in an envelope marked with bridge identification and sample location. Usually about 30gm of drillings will be required for chemical analysis and this represents a 8 mm dia hole of about 8-10 mm in depth that will provide the necessary sample and will not require welding repair. C11. Identification of Wrought Iron
Identification of wrought iron bridges is very important, so that over estimation of rated capacity and remaining fatigue life does not occur, because they are assumed to be steel. This has been a common mistake. In one case, the same underbridge was assessed on 4 different occasions by 3 different groups and all assumed the underbridge to be steel, when it was actually wrought iron. Steel structures which have some wrought iron components are particularly difficult to identify. Drawing prints for the Murwillumbah Line trusses at Lismore, Woodlawn, Eltham, Booyong and Stokers Siding state that the trusses are steel with wrought iron components coloured blue (approach plate web deck spans are wrought iron) but as the original drawings are not available, the wrought iron components of the truss can not be identified from the drawings. Office Identification of Wrought Iron Historical Records Office identification of wrought iron should be based on historical documents recording the construction date of the bridge. Advice may be sought from the Structures Officer or the Structures Examiner, particularly if a dated plaque is on the bridge. Note: Do not rely on the date on drawings unless you have additional confirmation. Two underbridges were assessed as steel because of the date on the drawing. The drawing h a di ns ma l l p r i n t T A K E NF R O MF I E L D ME A S U R E ME N T S a n dt h es i g n a t u r e sw e r e copies. The drawing had been prepared from field measurements as the original drawing was lost. It had been assumed that the underbridges had been constructed at the time of electrification, which coincided with the drawing date, instead of the date of construction of the line. Design Details Design details are another indicator that a bridge may be from the wrought iron era. It must be emphasised that these details can exist in either steel or wrought iron bridges,
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but they at least indicate further assessment needs to be made. The design details are as follows: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. Flat bar tension members, particularly if they are diagonal tension members. Tie rods with turnbuckles for tensioning and pin connections used for wind bracing and/or diagonal tension members. Wind bracing or sway bracing which includes: Flat bar members Connections to girders made by forge bending and/or forge welding of bracing members instead of using gusset plates. Connection of wind bracing to the centre of web (ie mid-depth) and/or away from stiffeners. Angles which have chamfered edges on both sides of the toes (steel angles are rounded on the inside face and square on the outside). Expansion bearing of simple plate on plate design instead roller bearings for spans above 20 metres long. Rivets with flattened or cone shaped heads instead of round heads.
Field Identification of Wrought Iron Test Samples The most positive method of field identification is to obtain core or other samples for metallurgical assessment by preparing macros or micrographs as detailed above, to determine if laminations exist. For an as constructed underbridge one sample may be sufficient. For most underbridges over 100 years old there is usually strengthening and/or repairs which have added steel plates and sections. In this case, a number of samples will be required. Magnetic Particle Testing of Edges Taking and testing samples is a costly and time consuming process. A simpler method has been field trialed on a number of underbridges of both wrought iron and steel. This method involves filing or grinding an edge, then magnetic particle testing the edge to see if laminations can be seen which indicate wrought iron. Care has to be taken as early steel may have stringer inclusions that look like laminations. Some problems were found with early steels during the field trials, but removing more metal by filing usually gave a more definite result (figs C.2 to C.5).
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C12.
Welding process
Increasing temperature and welding on a member under stress can result in collapse of the structure or excessive distortion of a member. AS 1554 in Par 5.7.2 indicates that such welding is not permitted unless the question is discussed with the relevant authorities and safety precautions are taken. AWS D1.1 is a little more specific in Par 11.5.2 that sets a limit of 20.7 MPA on members to be repaired. It will therefore be necessary to unload the area to be repaired by the use of appropriate falsework before welding repairs are undertaken in most circumstances. It is important that all involved with bridge repair be made aware that, whilst welding offers a quick and convenient joining method, unless used very carefully, it can seriously reduce the safety of a structure such as a rail bridge by increasing the danger of fatigue cracking, brittle fracture, and in some cases lamellar tearing. Compared with bolting or riveting, welding carries with it a number of problems. Firstly in a bolted or riveted structure, the failure of a single member by brittle fracture or fatigue failure is often confined to that member, but in a welded structure the failure will often propagate through the weld to the next member. This was the cause of the numerous sinkings of welded ships during and after World War II when welding was first widely used in ship construction. Secondly, in fusion welding a region of the HAZ adjacent to the weld is always overheated and in metallurgical terminology "burnt". This burnt region is an incipient crack and is usually regarded as a continuous crack 0.2 mm deep for fracture mechanic calculations. It is therefore clear that replacing riveting or bolting by welding results in a structure very much weaker in fatigue unless the burnt region at the weld toe is ground out. For example, AS 4100 gives a bolted flange a rating of 140 MPA whilst a welded flange of similar design is rated 63 MPA. Thirdly, welding used in a repair situation produces both distortion and areas of high tensile residual stress that can seriously reduce the fatigue resistance of a structure. It is almost always futile to simply weld up a fatigue crack or even to use a short doubling plate over the cracked area since rapid recurrence of cracking is inevitable. Finally, it must always be borne in mind that the bridges of concern were built before the advent of fusion welding and their materials of construction are often not readily amenable to this welding method. C12.1 Weld Surface Condition Where fatigue cracking is a problem and in some circumstances where brittle fracture could occur, the weld surface profile has a considerable effect on the service life of the joint. For the purpose of this manual we shall simplify the range of surface conditions as follows: a) b) c) As welded weld toe ground weld surface fully ground.
There are other weld surface treatments that offer even greater improvements in performance than b) or c) above but these are probably not required for bridge repairs and will not be discussed further. C12.2 Weld Toe Grinding
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As described above any fusion weld in steel or wrought iron contains a virtual crack the full length of the weld toe of around 0.2 mm in depth and the removal of this zone by disk grinding or better still by use of a tungsten carbide burr in a pneumatic pencil grinder will increase the allowable fatigue stress by around 40%. The depth of grinding must be at least 0.5 mm but should not result in the loss of more than 10% of plate thickness. This procedure requires around 1 man hour/m and is strongly recommended for all repairs on lower flanges. A similar result at lower cost can be achieved by disk grinding but this requires rather more skill on the part of the operator and it may be difficult to achieve a satisfactory result in a bridge repair situation. C12.3 Full Weld Surface Grinding Complete grinding of the weld surface and toe will yield an improvement of about 50% in fatigue performance whilst polishing of the weld surface by burr grinding yields about 80% improvement, but these are expensive and time consuming processes not generally justified on bridges. The desirable level of weld surface depends naturally upon the stress situation at the repair location. As guidance it is proposed that if Design Branch has not specified other requirements the following be used: a) b) c) Transverse welds on lower flange. Weld toe ground as above. Other criteria as per Table 6.1 in AS 1544 Pt 5. Longitudinal welds on lower flange and other welds below _ web height as per Table 6.1 of As 1554 Pt 5. Other welds as per Table 6.2 of AS 1554 Pt 1.
Where NDT is carried out, the requirements for cases a) and b) shall be Table 6.2 in AS 1554 Pt 5 and in case c) Table 6.3 in AS 1554 Pt 1. C12.4 Weld Processes and Consumables Usually repair welds are best carried out using the Manual Metal Arc process since this offers a good combination of flexibility and weld metal properties. However, where extensive welding is required the advantages of higher productivity offered by the continuous wire welding processes should be considered. The continuous wire processes are either flux or gas shielded or self shielded cored wire. Flux shielding, i.e. submerged arc welding, is generally only used in the downhand and horizontal/vertical positions, although with special equipment it can be used in the horizontal position. Gas shielded processes, i.e. MIG, GMA and TIG are usually difficult to us in a field repair situation because it is necessary to provide a shelter to prevent the wind upsetting the gas shield. The self shielded cored wire process is very much more suited to a field repair situation since it is largely immune to the effects of wind and offers excellent productivity and surface profile. Acceptable consumables should meet the requirements of AS 2203.1 W40 or W50 grades. Manual metal arc electrodes should be of the basic low hydrogen type to provide
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the required resistance to HAZ hydrogen cracking in steels of low weldability, good weld metal notch toughness and tolerance to the slag stringer pick up when welding wrought iron. In a repair situation it is best to choose electrodes with 1) low yield strength, 2) good weld metal toughness, 3) smooth running characteristics, and 4) that are supplied in a moisture proof package. Specific electrodes from different local manufacturers that can be recommended are Cigweld Ferrocraft 61 LT (for reason 1), WIA Austarc 16TC (for reason 3) or Lincoln Jetweld LH-70 (for reasons 2 and 4). It is usually better to use the electrodes familiar to the welder rather than retrain a welder to use an unfamiliar consumable type. Electrodes should only be used if in good condition, i.e. no core wire rusting coating, flaking or laitance and after baking in accordance with the maker's recommendations or those given in WTIA Tn 3. C12.5 Minimum Weld Size It is important to ensure that the weld size deposited is not less than the values given in AS 1554 Pt 1 Table 3.3.5. During welding it is as well to check that the welding current and travel speed are in accordance with the approved welding procedure. Welding current is best measured by a clamp meter since the meters on welding equipment are seldom reliable. Failing this, the measured size of a fillet weld will usually allow a good estimate of the welding conditions used. See WTIA Tn 1 Fig 7.
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Appendix D Techniques for removing rivets using oxy-fuel equipment
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Procedure for rivet removal

Option A Using oxy-acetylene or LPG (LPG preferred option). For plate thickness combinations of 0mm to 40mm. 1. Adjust torch to a neutral flame, using a large gouger. 48 GB Type 44 or 41 64 GB Type 44 or 41 Heat head of rivet to required temperature (melting point), ensuring no heat application to adjacent members. Carefully flush the rivet head ensuring no gouging to the adjacent member. Remove slag using a chipping hammer or chisel. Using an appropriate sized punch attempt to knock out the rivet. If rivet is keyed in and fails to move flush opposite head (tail) in accordance with steps (1) and (2). Heat rivet from one side, using a cutting tip pierce through rivet. if applicable drill a small hole through rivet prior to piercing. Remove slag then punch out rivet. If rivet remains keyed in, enlarge pierced hole leaving approximately 3mm of rivet shank. This will ensure scarring of the adjacent member is avoided. Punch out remainder of rivet.
2. 3. 4. 5 6 7 8 9 10
For plate thickness combinations of 40mm and greater It will be necessary to simultaneously heat the rivet from both sides prior to piercing. From one side in the first instance, or both sides if later necessary. Note: If scarring occurs then reaming in accordance with Clause 5.2.2 of this Manual will be necessary before fitting bolts. Option B All of the foregoing where applicable except drilling to be used in lieu of piercing.

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Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering

Bridge Repair Manual RC 4300

Issue A Revision 1 March 2006

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

4.8. References ............................................................................................................. 25 5. Sub-procedures .................................................................................................... 26

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Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Assessment of deterioration ............................................................................. 120

18.1. General ................................................................................................................ 140

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Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Repairing cracks................................................................................................. 151

Patch repairs....................................................................................................... 163

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Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

24.1. Repair procedure.................................................................................................. 171 25. Protective coatings ............................................................................................ 172

Issue A Revision 1 March 2006

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Issue A Revision 1 March 2006

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Bridge Repair Manual

Issue A Revision 1 March 2006

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Issue A Revision 1 March 2006

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Some of these parts are omitted if they are not relevant.

Selecting repair actions

Issue A Revision 1 March 2006

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Issue A Revision 1 March 2006

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Issue A Revision 1 March 2006

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Health and Safety

Issue A Revision 1 March 2006

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Issue A Revision 1 March 2006

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Issue A Revision 1 March 2006

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Issue A Revision 1 March 2006

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Bridge Repair Manual

Part 2 Steel Repairs

Issue A Revision 1 March 2006

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Introduction to standard steel repairs

Issue A Revision 1 March 2006

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Issue A Revision 1 March 2006

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual

Prepare the hole for the bolt:

Issue A Revision 1 March 2006

Engineering Practices Manual Civil Engineering Bridge Repair Manual