Soil Handbook by Engr. Kiron

ENGR.
MD SHAHIDUZZAMAN (KIRON)

Soil Test cqvRbxqZv wK?

c_gZ: GKwU Structure Gi Foundation depth Ges Foundation
wK Type ne Zv Rvbvi Rb cqvRb|
2qZ D Foundation Gi Load bearing capacity Kgb ne Zv
Rvbvi Rb |
3qZ D Foundation Earthquake Gi Rb KZUzKz vulnerable.

4_ cvnvox GjvKv ev hLvb Foundation Gi wbPi soil
slide Kivi mebv _vK mLvb wK aibi protection wbZ
ne A` wK retaining wall wKsev sheet pile, bulk heads
wKsev brace cut Gi cqvRbxqZv AvQ wKbv Zv LwZq
`Lvi Rb|
5gZ GKwU Structure Gi m~b load RwbZ Kvib wK
cwigvb Settlement nZ cvi Zv Rvbvi Rb Ges Estimate
Kivi Rb |

6Z Ground water level Kv_vq AvQ Zv Rvbvi Rb|

7gZ Foundation Gi bxPi soil wK cohesive ev Non cohesive
Zv Rvbvi Rb |

8gZ soil G Liquefaction Gi mvebv AvQ wKbv Zv LwZq
`Lvi Rb|

Field Test:

Field Test G hvIqvi c~e GKRb BwwbqviK RvbZ ne
h, Structure wU KZ Storiyed nIqvi mvebv AvQ| Kbbv
Field Test
ENGR. MD SHAHIDUZZAMAN (KIRON)

Gi evwis Depth KZUzKz ne Zv Gi Dci wbfi Ki|

Depth wbYq Kivi Rb Multi storiyed Gi

D = C S
0.7
[ sowers & sowers , 1970 Page -418
Dr. K.R. Arora, Formula-17.1]

hLvb D= Depth of Exploration
C= Constant , 3 for light steel & Narrow concrete building
6 for Heavy steel & Wide concrete building

S= No. of storey

Field test G hvIqvi c~e GKRb BwwbqviK AekB
RvbZ ne h, cvweZ f~wgZ wK cwigvb evwis
KiZ ne|
mvavibZ QvU febi Rb GKUv evwis B h_ | Avi hw`
f~wgi cwigvb 0.4 hectares Gi KvQvKvwQ nq ZLb 5wU evi
nvj B h_ | hvi ga GKUv Centre G Ges Abwj Pvi
KYvi |
Multi storied building Gi Rb Bore hole building Gi me
KYvi Ges important location G KiZ ne, Spacing ne 10 -
30m depend Kie subsurface condition Ges loading Gi
Dci|
Highway Gi Rb proposed centre line A_ev along the proposal
ditch line eivei drill KiZ ne| G evi nvj 150-300m
cici KiZ ne.

Concrete dam Gi bore hole Gi Spacing 40 - 80 m vary
Ki|

[Page-419, Dr. K.R Arora]

mvaviZ Soil Gi Characteristics RvbZ soil exploration Kivi
Rb cvP aibi Method use Kiv nq|

(i)Auger boring (ii) Wash boring (iii) Rotary boring (iv)
Percussion boring (v) core boring

evsjv`k Avgiv mvaviYZ Wash Boring Method G Soil
test Kivi Rb Field SPT Ges Soil sample collect Kwi|

Zvi Rb Avgiv Standard Penetration Test Use Kwi|

Standard Penetration Test Kiv nq mvavibZ cohesionless
soil Gi Rb| GUv mePq ekx useful cohesionless soil
Gi Relative Density Ges Angle of Shearing
Resistance ei Kivi Rb | GUv Aek cohesive soil Gi
Rb unconfined compressive strength wbYq Kivi Rb
eeZ nq |
GB Test Gi mvaviYZ GKUv Split Spoon Sampler
_vK hv w`q Soil Sample Collect Kiv nq Ges GZ
63.5KwR GKUv Hammer _vK hv w`q H sampler
K Drilling rod mnKvi drive Kiv nq| G D
Hammer 760mm Dci _K co Ges wgwbU 30 blows
`q| mvavibZ SPT Collect Kiv nq cwZ 1.5 wgUvi
Ai Ai 6 6 6 Gi Rb | Gi ga
c_g 6 evwis Gi Rb KZUzKz blow jvM, 2q

Ges 3q 6 Gi Rb KZ blow jvM Zv count Kiv nq|
Ze SPT wnmve Kivi mgq c_g 6 Gi Rb
cqvRbxq blow wnmve Avbv nq bv| Zvi ci 6 ,
6 Gi Rb hv jvM Zv hvM Ki total SPT wbYq
Kiv nq| hw` 6 Gi Rb 50 blows Gi Dci jvM ZLb
Avi drive Kiv nq bv&
Ges Test discontinuous wnmve Mb Kiv nq|
[ Dr. K.R. Arora, Page-427]
Split Spoon Sampler nQ hv w`q Soil Sample collect
Kiv nq| mvavibZ GwU 675mm j^v nq Ges Gi Af
ixb Dia 38mm Ges ewnfvM 50mm nq| GB Sampler
K Drilling rod mv_ attach Ki ivLv nq|
Avgiv mvavibZ wd nZ `y aibi Soil Sample collect
Kwi |
(i) Disturbed Sample : Soil Gi index property Rvbvi
Rb hgb Grain size , Plasticity Characteristics,
Specific gravity wbbq Kivi Rb eenvi Kiv nq|
(ii) Undisturbed Sample : mvavibZ Unconfined
Compressive strength , Settlement Characteristics
Compressibility, Permeability BZvw` wbYq Kivi
Rb eenvi Kiv nq| wd nZ Avgiv h SPT collect
Kwi Zvi viv Avgiv eySZ cvwi h Soil
Condition Kgb ne|

wb SPT Value Gi Dci wbfi Ki Soil condition wK
iKg nZ cvi Zv Table Gi gvag `Iqv nj|


For Clay : [ Table 17.3, P-567, B.M. Das]

SPT ( N) Consistency Unconfined compressive
Strength
KN/m
2
lb/ft
2

0-------- --------------------- 0 0
Very Soft
2-------- -------------------- 25 500
Soft
4---------- --------------------- 50 1000
Medium soft
8--------- -------------------- 100 2000
Stiff
16-------- ------------------- 200 4000
Very stiff
32-------- ----------------- 400 8000
Hard
>32 >400 >8000


For Clay [ Table 17.2, P-429, Dr. K.R. Arora ]

SPT N

Consistency q
u
(KN/m
2
)
0-2 Very Soft 0 <25
2-4 Soft 0 25-50
4-8 Medium Soft 14 50-100
8-15 Stiff 17 100-200
15-30 Very stiff 22 200-400
30-50 Hard 22 >400
>50 Very hard 22 -----


For Sand [P-429, Table 17.1 Dr. K.R. Arora]

SPT N Consistency o

Angle of internal
friction ()
0-4 Very loose 6 25
0
-32
0
4-10 Loose 10 27
0
-35
0
10-30 Medium Loose 17 30
0
-40
0
30-50 Dense 19 35
0
-45
0
>50 Very dense 19 >45
0

Correlation between relative density & co-efficient of earth
pressure to know the stress history of the soil deposit-
(M. Tomlinson)

Relative Density K
0

Loose 0.5
Medium dense 0.45
Dense 0.35

SPT K

0-10 0.5
30-50 1.0

Foundation Analysis Ges Design Kivi Rb soil Gi physical Ges
Engineering properties Rvbv cqvRb|


1. Strength Parameter:

Angle of internal friction
Cohesion, c (Mpa)
Stress-strain relationship
Unconfined Compression strength (Mpa)

(2) Compressibility Index for amount and rate of Settlement
- Natural void ratio, e
o

- Compression Index , C
c

(3) Gravimetric Data:
- Natural moisture content (%)
- Specific gravity, G
- Unit weight, (gm/cc)
- Liquid Limit (%)
- Plastic limit (%)

mvaviYZ laboratory Z Avgiv wbi Test jv Perform
Kwi|
(1) Natural Moisture Content.
(2) Grain Size Analysis
(3) Atterberg Limits.
(4) Direct Shear Test.
(5) Unconfined Compression Test.
(6) Consolidation Test.
(7) Specific Gravity Test.


(1) Moisture content:

Apparatus Name: Metal container with lid (air-tight, non-
corrodible) Temp-105
0
-110
0
C controlled. Desiccators,
Tong (one pair)
GwU mvavibZ mass of water Gi mv_ mass of solid Gi
GKwU AbycvZ| GK % Abymvi cKvk Kiv nq |

W =
Ms
M
w

W=
1 3
3 2
W W
W W
*100
W
1
= wt of two container with lid
W
2
= + wet soil
w
3
= + dry soil

High water content liquid satate.

1. No shearing resistance.
2. Can flow like liquids.
3. No resistance to shear deformation.
4. Shear strength=0 (zero)

Low water content Stiffer state

Develop resistance to Shearing resistance.


Typical value of moisture content:

Type of soil Value (%)
Soft organic clay
Soft Clay
Stiff Clay
Loose Uniform Sand
Dense
Loose Angular Grained Silty Sand
Dense
90-120
30-50
21
30
20
25
15

Grain size Analysis:
Grain size Analysis Kiv nq gyjZ Soil grain Gi size Rvbvi
Rb Ges Full Soil profile percent Abymvi wK cwigvb
Kvb particle DcwZ Zv Rvbvi Rb |

Apparatus name:

Table 1.1, P-5 ,R.B. Peck & Hanson:-

Practical size limits of soil constituents
ASTM classification (in mm):-

Gravel >4.75 mm.
Coarse sand 4.75 -2.00 mm
Medium sand 2.00 - 0.425
Fine sand 0.425-0.075 mm
Fines (combined silt & clay) <0.075 mm

P-90, Dr. K.R. Arora, MIT system (in mm)
Gravel >2 mm
Sand 0.060 - 2.0 mm
Silt 0.002 -0.06 mm
Clay <0.002 mm (2)

N.B: 0.075 mm Gi Pq smaller size grain determine Kiv
nq Hydrometer analysis Gi gvag|

Specific Gravity : Specific Gravity nQ ratio of mass of a
given volume of solids to the mass of equal volume of water.


Apparatus Name:

mvavibZ Void ratio ei Kivi Rb GwU use Kiv nq|
G=

) (
4 3
W W W
W G
d
d k
[Eq-3.6, P-23, Alam Singh]

hLvb
Gk= SP. Gravity of water at T
0
C
W
d
= wt of dry soil = w
2
-w
1
W
3
= wt. of Pyc + soil + water
W
4
= wt. of Pyc + water

Typical value for G:

[ P-20, Table 2.1, K.R. Arora & P-24, Alam Singh
Table 3.2]

Soil Type Specific Gravity
Gravel 2.65- 2.68
Clean sand 2.67- 2.70
Clay 2.68- 2.80
Silty Grained sands 2.67- 2.70
Inorganic clay 2.70- 2.80
Soil High in mica, iron 2.75- 2.85
Silt 2.66- 2.70
Organic soil Variable may low 0.2

Dry Density :

Mass of solids per unit volume
- - Soil wK iKg dense Ges Compacted Zv eySvi Rb eenvi
Kiv nq|
-- Dry Density Gi Value hZv ekx ne ZZ ekx soil
Compacted ne|

Apparatus :

Dry Density of a soil [Dr. K. R. Arora, P-24]
(
d
)
Soil
=
WG
G
w
+ 1

Here, e = WG: W=
s
w
M
M

G =
Se
G

e =
WG
S
S= 1.00
e = WG
(
d
)
Soil
=
e
G
w
+ 1
2.35 [K.R. Arora P-24)

[Table 2.5, P-37, K.R. Arora ]

Type Loosest state Densest State
Gravel 1.6 2.0
Coarse sand
/medium
1.5 1.9
Uniform/fine sand 1.4 1.9

Coarse silt 1.3 1.8
Fine silt 1.3 1.9
Lean clay 1.3 1.9
Fat clay 1.0 2.0

Atterberg Limits :
Soil Gi Physical properties Gi Water content Gi Dci wbfi
Ki| GKUv Soil Sample wK fluid ne bvwK soil ne
bvwK Plastic materials ne Zv depend Ki Zv KZUzKz
water absorb Kie Zvi Dci|
[Dr. K.R. Arora, P-69,70]

Liquid Limit :
mB cwigvb water content hvZ Ki GKUv soil sample
liquid state
_K plastic state G icvwiZ nq| [LL, W
l
]

Plastic Limit :
mB cwigvb water content hvZ Ki GKUv soil sample
plastic state _K Semi Solid state G icvwiZ nq|
(P
L
,W
P
] ZLb GK mould crack Ki|

Shrinkage Limit :
mB cwigvb water content hvZ Ki GKUv soil sample Gi
Shrinking nIqv e nq Ges GKUv constant volume ARb
Ki|


Plasticity Index:

liquid limit Ges plastic limit Gi gvS soil plastic B _vK
GK Plasticity index ej| PI = LL-PL= W
l
-W
p

-----
Shear strength at plastic limit is 100 times that at liquid
limit.

--- mvavibZ Plasticity index fine grained soil classify Kivi
cqvRb nq|

Liquidity index I
l
= 100
p
p
I
W W

Consistency Index I
c
= 100
p
l
I
W W

Soil Gi PI Dci wfw Ki soil K classify Kiv hvq |

Table 3.4, P-67, B.M Das] By Bur mister 1949

PI Description
0 Non Plastic
1-5 Slightly plastic
5-10 Low plasticity
10-20 Medium plasticity
20-40 High plasticity
>40 Very high plasticity

SL PL LL

[Fig 4.1, P-70, K.R. Arora

[Page- 23, Peck & Hanson Fig 1.11]
Diagram of the soil moisture scale showing atterberg limits
corresponding physical state & approximate consistency of
remolded soils

Soil moisture scale Physical state consistency
W
L
liquid limit liquid very soft
Plastic range -------- Soft
W
p
Plastic limit Semi Solid Stiff
--------------- Very stiff
W
s
Shrinkage limit
Air dry solid extremely stiff
Hygroscopic moisture Hard
Oven dry
--------------- Very Hard

Vol
m

Water content

Solid
Semi Solid
Plastic
Liquid

-- If water content close to liquid limit soil is normally
consolidated.

-- If water content is close to plastic limit soil is some to
heavily over consolidated.

-- If water content is intermediate soil is some what over
consolidated.

-- If water content is greater than liquid limit soil is on verge
of being a viscous liquid.

[K.R.Arora, P-81]
Sensitivity:- A cohesive soil is its natural state of occurrence
has a certain structure when the structure is disturbed, the
soil becomes remolded & its engineering properties change
considerably. Sensitivity of a soil indicates its weakening
due to remolding. It is defined as the ratio of the undisturbed
strength to the remolded strength at the same water content.

S
t
=
r u
u u
q
q
) (
) (

(q
u
)
u
= Unconfined Compressive strength of undisturbed clay

(q
u
)
r
= unconfined Compressive strength of remolded clay

Sensitivity Soil Type
< 1.00 Insensitive

1.0-2.0 Little sensitive
2.0-4.0 Moderately sensitive
4.0-8.0 Sensitive
8.0-16.0 Extra Sensitive
<16.0 Quick

Uniformity Co- efficient :
The uniformity of a soil is expressed qualitatively by a term
known as uniformity Co- efficient (Cu).
C
u
=
10
60
D
D

D 60 = particle size such tent 60% of the soil is finer than
this size.
D10 = Particle such that 10% of the soil is finer than this
size.

---The larger the C
u
the more is the range of particles.
For soils C
u
2 are uniform soil
For sandy C
u
6 Well Graded
For Gravels C
u
4 More well graded

Tests Perform by Disturbed Sample :

1. Water Content

2. Specific Gravity
3. Dry Density
4. Liquid limit / plastic limit / Plasticity index
5. Direct shear test
6. Grain size Analysis

Test Perform by undisturbed sample

1. Unconfined Compression Test
2. Consolidation Test

mvaviYZ wZb aibi Stage G shear Test Kiv nq|
[Drainage system Gi Dci Depend Ki|

(i) Unconsolidated- undrained condition Quick test

(ii) Consolidated undrained condition slow test
(iii) Consolidated drained condition slow test

Direct Share Test mvavibZ cohesion less soil Gi Dci Kiv nq|
GK CD test I ej|

GB Test mvavibZ Shear Strength Parameter Gi fvj
result `q|
Direct Shear Test mvavibZ `yUv iZcyY shear strength
parameter Gi gvb wbYq Ki|

1. Interparticle attraction or cohesion , C

2. Resistance to interparticle slip or angle of internal
friction

Apparatus Name
Shear Strength Gi Dci wfw Ki Soil K wZb fvM fvM
Kiv nq|
(i) Cohesion Less soil : sand, Gravel Where
C=0
(ii) Purely cohesive soil : Saturated clays &
silts under undrained condition =0
(iii) Cohesive fractioned soil : Clayey
sand, silty sand, sandy clay etc. where
soil having both c & values also
called cohesive soil
Standard value of Angle of internal friction
(Sands & Silts)
[Table 4.1, P-87, Peck & Hanson)

Type Loose Dense
Sand, round grains , uniform 27.5
0
34
0

Sand, angular grains, well
graded
33
0
45
0

Sandy gravel 35
0
50
0

Silty Sand 27
0
-33
0
30
0
-35
0

Inorganic Silt 27
0
-30
0
30
0
-34
0

Standard Value of cohesion (for clay)

(Table 13.3, P-346, Dr. K.R. Arora)

SPT Type Cohesion (Mpa)
0-2 Very Soft <0-012
2-4 Soft 0.012-0.025
4-8 Medium soft 0.025- 0.05
8-15 Stiff 0. 05-0.1
15-30 Very Stiff 0.1-0.2
30-50 Hard >0.2
>50 Very Hard -----

Cohesion less Soil Ges Cohesive soil Gi Dci Direct shear
test Gi result GKUv summery table Ges stress- strain curve
Gi gvag cKvk Kiv hvq|

A stress strain curve normally consists of shear stress,
various shear displacements for both the undisturbed & the
remolded tests under a specified normal load. The normal
load usually varies from
2
/
3
1
cm kg .
Another curve normal stress VS shearing stress will give
Angle of internal friction & cohesion for cohesive soil.


[Fig: 13.8, P_316, Dr. K.R. Arora]
Fig: Stress- strain curve
Unconfined compressive strength test :

GwU Ggb GKwU Special form of triaxial test hLvb soil
confining pressure K Zero aiv nq Ges GB test aygv
undisturbed clayey soil chvR hLvb confinement
Gi cqvRb nq bv|

GB test _K Avgiv
Stress- strain relationship cvB
unconfined compressive strength q
u
cvB hv soil Gi
bearing capacity wbYq chvRb nq|
Avevi GLvb unsupported specimen & failure measure
Kiv nq| (undisturbed soil sample )
7.5 cm height & 3.5 cm dia sample box
load applied axially


Cohesion intercept:
S= C
u
=
2
1
o
=
2
u
q
[13.25, P-331, K.R. Arora]

Standard value of unconfined compressive strength
---------------------For Clay ------------------------------
[Page-20, Table 1.3, R.B peck & Hanson]

N Condition Unconfined Compressive Strength
TSF KN/m
2
0-2 Very soft <0.25 < 25
2-4 Soft 0.25-0.5 25-50
4-8 Medium soft 0.5-1.00 50-100
8-15 Stiff 1.00-2.00 100-200
15-30 Very stiff 2.00-4.00 200-400
30-50 Hard 4.00-above >400
>50 Very Hard -----------

In the above table the shear strength of cohesive soil is equal
to 1/2 of unconfined compressive strength & the angle of
internal shearing resistance is equal to zero.
It should be remembered that the co-relation for cohesive soil
is always much reliable.

Liquefaction :


Avgiv Rvwb h,
Soil Gi Shear Strength
S= tan [ 13.53, P-343, K.R. Arora]

hLb sand ground water table Ges ground Gi wbP _vK
ZLb

o =
z z z
w sat

'
=

|
' '
= tan z S

Avevi hLb sand deposit earth quake Gi Kvib A_ev Ab
Kvb load RwbZ Kvib KwZ nq ZLb Gi ga extra pore
water pressure develop Ki|

ZLb
) tan ) ( |
' '
'
= u z S

h u
w
=
'

|
'
'
= tan ) ( h z S
w

hw` pore water pressure Gi cwigvb eo hvq Ze shear
strength Kg hvq| GKmgq Ggb Aevq cQ hLb eZ
soil G Kvb shear strength _vK bv|

ZLb
0 =
'
h z
w

w
w
w
cr
e
G
i z h
1
1
) 1 (
/
+
=
'
= =
e
G
i
cr
+
=
1
1

0 tan 0 = ' = | S

h Aevi Kvib sand Zvi shear strength lose Ki due to
oscillatory motion ZvK liquefaction of sand ejv nq|


The structure resting on such soils sink. In the case of partial
liquefaction the structure may undergo excessive settlement &
the complete failure may not occur.
The soils most susceptible to liquefaction are the saturated , fine
& medium sands of uniform particle size- when such deposits
have a void ratio greater than the critical void ratio & are
subjected to a sudden shearing stresses, these decrease in vol
m
&
the pore pressure u' increases, the soil momentarily liquefies &
behave as a dense fluid
Extreme care shall be taken when construction structures on such
soils. If the deposits are compacted to a void ratio smaller than
critical void ratio , the chances of liquefaction are reduced.

[P-343,344, K.R. arora/P-89 T William lambe ]






Cohesion less soil Gi Shear Characteristics :
The shear strength of cohesion less soils such as sands &
non- plastic silts is mainly due to friction bet
n
particles. In
dense sand interlocking between particles, also contributes
significantly to the strength.

`y aibi shear failure `Lv `q|
((i) Plastic failure loose sand Gi
(ii) Brittle failure dense sand
[P-344, Dr. K.R.Arora]

Consolidations of Soil:
mvavibZ soil G compression NU wZbwU Kvib
(i) Compression of solid particles & water in the
voids.
(ii) Compression & expulsion of air in the voids.
(iii) Expulsion of water in the voids.

The compression of a saturated soil under a steady
static pressure is known as consolidation. GUv nq
mvavibZ expulsion of water from the void Gi
Kvib | Settlement nQ gradual sinking of a
structure due to compression of the soil below.
A study of consolidation characteristics is
extremely useful for forecasting the magnitude &
time of the settlement of the structure.
[P-256, K.R. Arora]

The property of soil due to which a decrease in vol
m

occurs under compressive force in known as the
compressibility of soils. This compression of a
saturated soil under steady static pressure is known
as consolidation.
mvavibZ consolidation test Kiv nh consolidometer
or an odometer gvag|
Consolidation test aygv undisturbed soil sample G Kiv nq|

Compressibility index parameter nQ-

1. Natural void ratio C
0

2. Compression index C
c

C
c =

0
0
10
) (
log
e
o
o o

A +
A

C
c=
e
1
e
A =
A

Cc Settlement wbYq Kivi Rb eeZ nq|
Cc = 0.009 (W
l
-10) for undisturbed soil
Cc = 0.007 (W
l
-10) for remolded soil
Cc Varies between 0.3 for highly plastic clay & 0.075 for
low plastic clay
Cc=0.54 (e
0
-0.35)
Cc= 0.0054 (2.6w
0
-35)
[P-266, Dr. K.R. Arora]

Standard Values of consolidation test

Natural void ratios e
0
80% -- 98.8%
Compression index, Cc (Mpa) 0.15--- 0.20
Consolidation settlement for normally consolidated soils.

S= ) log(
1
0
0
0
o
o o

A +

+
Ho
e
c
c

S
f
= ) ( log
1
0
0
10
0
o
o o

A +

+
Ho
e
c
c
(eq-12.58, P-283, Dr. K.R. Arora)

mLvb Ho= Initial height, H = Change is height

For Pre-consolidated soils : The final settlements are small
in the case of pre- consolidated soils as the recompression
index C
r
is considerably smaller than the compression index

0
0
log(
o
o o

A +
A
=
e
C
r

S
f
= ) log(
1
0
0
0
o
o o

A +

+
Ho
e
c
r

The above eq
n
is applicable when ( o o A +
0
) is smaller than the
Pre-consolidation pressure
c
o . If the pre-consolidation
pressure
c
o is greater than
0
o but less than ( o o A +
0
) the
Settlement is computed in two parts

(i) settlement for pressure
0
o to
c
o
(ii)
c
o to ( o o A +
0
)

For (i) the recompression index is applicable & (ii) the
compression index is applicable

S
f
= ) log(
1
log(
1
0
0
0 0 0
o
o o
o
o

A +
+
+
+ e
Ho C
Ho
e
C
c c r

1
st
part is relatively small & is some times neglected.
[ P-282, 283, K.R. Arora]

Settlement of Foundation:

(a) Settlements under loads :
(i) Immediate or elastic settlement (s
i
):
Immediate or elastic settlement takes place during or
immediately after the construction of the structure. It is also
known as the distortion settlement as it is due to distorting
within the foundation soil. Although the settlement is not
truly elastic, it is computed using elastic theory especially
for cohesive soils.

(ii) Consolidation settlement (Sc) :
This component of the settlement occurs due to gradual
expulsion of water from the voids of the soil. this
component is determined using Terzaghis theory of
consolidation.
(iii) Secondary Consolidation settlement (Ss) :
This component of the settlement is due to secondary
consolidation. This settlement occurs after completion of

the primary consolidation. It can be determined from the co-
efficient of secondary consolidation. The secondary
consolidation is not significant for inorganic clays & silty
soils.

Total Settlement S= Si+Sc+Ss
(b) Settlement due to other causes :
(i) Underground condition
(ii) Structural collapse of soil
(iii) Thermal changes
(iv) Frost heave
(v) Vibration & shocks
(vi) Mining subsidence
(vii) Load slides
(viii) Creep
(ix) Changes in the vicinity

[mvaviYZ Settlement- 25mm- 40 mm ch very Ki
individual footing ]

Permissible Total and differential settlements for shallow
foundation in soils
(From soil testing for Engineers by S. Mittal & J.P. Shukla)


SL
N
Types of
Structure
Isolated foundations Raft foundations

Sand & hard clay Plastic clay Sand & hard clay Plastic clay
Max
m
Settlement
(mm)
Differential
Settlement
(mm)
Max
m
Settlement
(mm)
Differential
Settlement
(mm)
Max
m
Settlement
(mm)
Differential
Settlement
(mm)
Max
m
Settlement
(mm)
Differential
Settlement
(mm)
1
For Steel
Structure
50 0.0033L 50 .0333L 75 .0033L 100 .0033L
2
For Reinforced
concrete structure
50 .0015L 75 .0015L 75 .0021L 100 .002L
3
For multi storied
building
a) RC or steel
framed building
with panel walls
b) for load
bearing walls

60

.002L

75

.002L

75

.0025L

125

.0033L

1. L/H=2 60 .0002L 60 .0002L
2.L/H=7 60 .0004L 60 .0004L
4
For water towers
& silos
50 .0015L 75 .0015L 100 .0025L 125 .0025L

L= Length of deflected part of wall/raft or c/c distance between
columns .
H= Height of wall from foundation footing.

FOUNDATION DESIGN

Bearing Capacity

Values from Soil Test

]

Values from laboratory Soil Test Values from Field Soil Test


Note: So, ensure the laboratory test result from authentic company.
Enquiry please.

PILE DESIGN

Skin Friction End Bearing Capacity

Angle of internal friction
&
Cohesion (Mpa)

Dry Density

Unconfined Compression
Strength

SPT Value
Direct Shear Test Standard
Penetration Test
Unconfined
Compression Test
Density Test
K and value
SPT from STANDARD PENETRATION TEST

= Friction between sand & pile.
K =Earth pressure coefficient

Bearing Capacity :
A foundation is required for distributing the loads of the
super structure on a large area. The foundation should be
designed such that
(i) The soil below does not fail in shear &
(ii) The settlement is within the safe limits.
The pressure which the soil can safely with stand is known
as the allowable bearing pressure.



Foundations may be broadly two categories-

(i) Shallow foundation : Transmits the loads to the
strata at a shallow depth.
(ii) Deep foundation : Transmits the loads at
considerable depth below the ground surface.

Ultimate bearing capacity (q
u
) : The ultimate bearing
capacity is the gross pressure at the base of the foundation at
which the soil fails in shear.

Net ultimate bearing capacity (q
nu
) : it is the net increase in
pressure at the base of foundation that causes shear failure of
the soil.

q
nu =
q
u
- Df
= unit wt. of soil, D
f
= Depth of foundation.

Net Safe Bearing Capacity (q
ns
): It is the net soil pressure
which can be safely applied to the soil considering only shear
failure
q
ns =
F
q
nu
F= F.S = 3.0
Gross safe bearing capacity (q
s
): It is the max
m
gross
pressure which the soil can carry safely without shear failure

q
s
= Df
f
q
nu
+

Net safe settlement pressure (q
np
) : It is the net pressure
which the soil can carry without exceeding the allowable
settlement. The max
m
allowable settlement generally varies
bet
n
25 mm -- 40 mm for individual footings.

Net Allowable Bearing Pressure ( q
na
) : The net allowable
bearing pressure is the net bearing pressure which can be
used for the design of foundations.

q
na
=q
ns
if

q
np >
q
ns

q
na
= q
np
if q
ns
> q
np

Evaluation of Bearing Capacity :
By standard penetration Test : ( N. Tang) :


For Strip footing :

Bearing capacity
q
nu
= 0.5 n
2
B W
+ 0.83 (100+N
2
) D
f
W
q
[ F.S=3.0]
= 0.167 N
2
BW
+ 0.227 (100+N
2
) D
f
W
q

For Circular or Square footing:
Bearing capacity
q
nu
= 0.33N
2
BW
+ 1.0 (100+N
2
)D
f
W
q

= 0.11 N
2
BW
+ 0.33 (100+N
2)
D
f
W
q

Where N. = SPT Value, B = Width of footing
D
f
= Depth of footing if D
f
> B use D
f =
B
W
q
& W
the water table correction factor

[P-610,611, Dr. K.R. Arora)]

W
q
= 1-0.5 a/D
f
1
W

= 0.5 + 0.5 b/B 1
a= If position of the footing is under the water table.
b= If position of the footing is above the footing.
[P-600, 601. Dr. K. R. Arora]

By using direct shear test:
[ Terzaghi bearing capacity formula]

For cohesive soil:
Strip footing, circular or square footing
0 = | , Bearing capacity = CN
cq
+
f
D [ F.S=3]

N
cq
depend on D
f
/B ratio of the footing & on the adhesion
off the sides of the footing [By Meyerhofs]
[ P- 603, Dr. K.R. Arora]

For Non- Cohesive soil: C=0
q
u
= 0.5
rq
BN

hLvb N
cq
Gi Maximum value = 8.30 Ges Adhesion =0

Avevi , N
cq
Gi max
m
value = 8.8 ZLb adhesion = cohesion
of the soil.

From unconfined compression Test :

For cohesive soils:

Q
ult
= CNc=
2
c u
N Q

q
all
= Df
Nc q
D
N Q
u
f
c u
+
= +
3 2 2

q
all
=
f
c u
D
N q
+
6
[ F.S=3.00]

q
u
= unconfined compressive strength in Tsf
N
c
= Bearing capacity factor
= 6.8 for square footing
= 5.7 for continuous footing

For non-cohesive soil:
Q
ult
= CN
c
S
c
+ D
f
N
q
+ 0.5 BN
[ J.E Bowles]


C= cohesion , = unit wt of soil
D
f
= Depth of footing , B= width of footing
Nc, Nq &N
= Bearing capacity factor

Sc & S= Shape factors
Q
allowable
=
S F
q
ult
.
[ F.S = 3.0]
[J.E Bowles P-213- 277]

By Terzaghi Bearing capacity theory :

q
u
= cN
c
+D
f
N
q
+05BN

23.25 (a)
[Dr. K.R. Arora P-594]

For square footing :
q
u
= 1.2.cN
c
+ D
f
N
q
+0.4BN
23.37
For circular footing
q
u
=1.2 cNc+D
f
N
q
+ 0.3BN
23.38

Effect of water table on Bearing capacity :
Case 1 : Water table located above the base of footing :
if D
w
= 0 [i.e. a = D
f
]
q
u
= cNc +D
f
N
q
+ 0.5 BN

- 23.33 (a)
If a =0 , D
f
= D
w
q
u
= cNc+D
f
N
q
+ 0.5BN

- 23.33 (b)
=
sat

w
=
v
w
sub
[P-601, K.R Arora]

Case 2: Water table located at a depth b below base
When: b=o i . e w/
T
at the base

q
u
= cN
c
+D
f
N
q
+ 0.5 B N

- 23.35 (b)
When b = B i.e. W/T at depth B below base
q
u
= cNc +D
f
N
q
+ 0.5 BN
[23 . 25]
[Page - 601, 602, Dr. K.R. Arora]

Shape Factors By Hansens

[Table 23.3, P-604, K.R. Arora]

Shape of footing S
c
S
q
S

Continuous footing
(strip)
1.0 1.0 1.0
Rectangular footing 1+0.2B/L 1+0.2B/L 1-0.4B/L
Square footing 1.3 1.2 0.8
Circular footing 1.3 1.2 0.6

mvaviYZ wZb aibi shear failure NU _vK hv Vesic .
(1973) mvj classify Kib|

(i) General shear failure: A strip footing resting on
the surface of a dense sand or a stiff clay. A shear
failure occur and failure surfaces extend to the
ground surface.
A heave on the sides always observed in general
shear failure.

(a) General shear failure

(ii) Local shear failure : A strip footing resting on a
medium dense sand or on a clay of medium
consistency. Failure surfaces gradually extend
outwards from the foundations.
A heave is observed only when there is substantial
vertical settlement.


Local shear Failure
(iii) Punching shear failure : A strip footing resting on
a loose sand or a soft clay. The failure surfaces do
not extend up to the ground surface.

--- No heave is observed. There is only vertical movement of
footing.

Punching shear failure
[P-595-597, Dr. K.R. Arora]

A failure will be general or local shear conditions will be
known from these values below ---
(i) For a cohesion less soil
If > 36
0
General shear failure
<29
0
Local
29<<36
0
- interpolation
(ii) If relative density

D
f
>70% - General shear failure
Df <35% - Local shear failure
(iii) If SPT >30 General shear failure
If SPT <5- Local shear failure
(iv) If void ratio e <0.55-General shear failure
e>0.75local shear failure
[Table 23.1, P-595 Dr. K.R. Arora]

Terzaghis bearing capacity factors

General shear failure Local shear failure N
q
(vesic)
N
c
N
q
N
N
c
N
q
N

0 5.7 1.0 0.0 5.7 1.0 0.0 1.0
5 7.3 1.6 0.5 6.7 1.4 0.2 1.2
10 9.6 2.7 1.2 8.0 1.9 0.5 1.6
15 12.9 4.4 2.5 9.7 2.7 0.9 2.2
20 17.7 7.4 5.0 11.8 3.9 1.7 3.3
25 25.1 12.7 9.7 14.8 5.6 3.2 5.3
30 37.2 22.5 19.7 19.0 8.3 5.7 9.5
35 57.8 41.4 42.4 25.2 12.6 10.1 18.7
40 95.7 81.3 100.4 34.9 20.5 18.8 42.5
45 172.3 173.3 297.5 51.2 35.1 37.7 115.0
50 347.5 415.1 1153.2 81.3 65.6 87.1 329.10


Bearing capacity of the shallow foundation
[ Values in TSf , F.S=3.0]

SPT Range Allowable bearing capacity (Tsf )
Continuous footing
B=4
Isolated col
m

footing (B=8)
0-2 0.00-0.225 0.00-0.30
2-4 0.225-0.45 0.30-0.60
4-8 0.45-0.90 0.60-1.20
8-15 0.90-1.80 1.20-2.40
15-30 1.80-3.60 2.40-4.80
>30 >3.60 >4.80

Note : a. width = 4 for strip footing
Width=8 for isolated footing
b. The above values are the net allowable leaving capacity
c. The cohesive soil has been considered in a saturated
condition.


[Table 23.9, P 618, Dr. K.R. Arora]
Max
m
Differential settlement (IS: 1904-1978)

Sand & Hard clay Plastic clay
Max
settlement
Diff-
settlement
Angular
distortion
Max
settlement
Diff-
settlement
Angular
distortion
Isolated
foundation

(i) Steel
structure

50mm

0.0033L

1/300

50mm

0.0033L

1/300
ii) RCC
str
50mm 0.015L 1/666 75mm 0.0015L 1/666
iii) Raft 75mm 0.0033L 1/300 100mm 0.0033L 1/300
v) RCC 75mm 0.002L 1/500 100mm 0.002L 1/500

Ultimate Skin Friction (f
s
) & End bearing (f
b
)

For cohesive soil
fs= F*C
d
F= 1.0 = Unity
fs= C
d
=
2
u
q

q
u
= 2*f
s

q
u
= unconfined compressive strength of soil.
F= Bearing capacity factor [0.6- 45]


For Non cohesive soils:

For light displacement piles , f
s
=2.0 N KN/m
2

(Timber, precast,pre-stress concrete, steel tube, Rotary etc.
For low displacement piles , f
s
= 1.0N kN/m
2

[Precast concrete, pre-stressed , steel H- section, steel tube)
Where N is the avg. of corrected value of N
f

Along the length of the pile.
In very fine & silty sands below the WT
Ncor= 15+0.5 (N
f
-15) - [5.28, M.J Tomlinson-P-265]
When the material is gravel or sandy gravel by Burland &
Burlidge
N
cor
= 1.25N-- [5.29, P-265, M.J. Tomlinsion]
For bored piles in sand 9

f
b
= 14N(D
b
/3) KN/m
2

= 0.053N
Where D
b
= Actual penetration into the granular soil.
For bored piles in sand, the unit frictional resistance f
b
is
given by----
f
b
= 0.67 N KN/m
2
[ Dr. K.R. Arora]



(Table 2.7 Page 39 M.J Tomlinsion)
Nominal working loads & dimensions for ordinary soils
Internal dia
(mm)
Area of
concrete
Working load
(KN) for
ordinary soils
Working load
for rock
254 50670 150 200
305 72960 300 350-450
356 99300 400 500-650
406 129700 500 600-850
457 164100 650 800-1000
508 202700 800 1000-1300
559 245200 1000 1250
610 291800 1200 1500

Ordinary soil sand , gravel or very stiff clay roce row,
very dense sand or gravel or very hard mari or hard
shale

Individual pile capacity:

P
u
= C * (Perimeter ) *L + Point bearing.
Point bearing = 9*c* Area of pile [P-1011, J.E Bowles]
& From Fig 16-14 using API curve (soil to soil )
[P-899] [J.E Bowles ]

Example
Given, C= S
u
= q
u
/2 = 30 kpa
D= 400 mm, L=20m.
From fig 16-14, = 0.6.
P
u
= 0.6 *30 **0.4*20+9*30**
4
4 . 0
2

P
u
=452.16+33.91
p
u
=486.072 KN/Pile

For group capacity.
Q
ult
=9*c*A
b
+ Block shear.
Block shear =*S
u
*perimeter*length,
Block Area =L*B=14,21m
2

L=4.1+2*(0.2+025)=4.9
B=2*1+2*(0.2+0.25)=2.9
Perimeter =2(4.9+2.9)=15.6m

Here Q
ult
=9*30*14.21+0.6*30*15.6*20
=3807+5616=942 KN
But Q
ult
=15*486.0 KN/Pile=7290 KN
Whichever is smaller value will be taken for safe.

Table No: 9-1
Range of Modulus of Subgrade Reaction k
(Page-565, J.E. Bowles)

SOIL

k, kN/m
3
Loose sand 4800-16000
Medium Dense Sand 9600-80000
Dense Sand 64000-128000
Clayey Medium dense sand 32000-80000
Silty medium dense sand 24000-48000
Clayey Soil
q
a
s 200 kpa
200<q
a

s
800 kpa
q
a >
800 kpa

12000-24000
24000-48000
> 48000



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ENGR.

2.35 [K.R. Arora P-24)

the water table correction factor

= Bearing capacity factor

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