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The Palaeolithic age is further divided into three phases depending on the nature of stone tools used by them.

These tools were made of Quartzite rock. They are Early or Lower Palaeolithic age, Middle Palaeolithic age and Upper Palaeolithic Age. They lived on hunting and food gathering. Their period belongs to the Ice Age period.

Early or Lower Palaeolithic Age Their characteristic feature is the use of hand axes, cleavers and choppers for chopping, digging and skinning. Their sites are found in the valley of river Soan (Sohan) in Pakistan, Kashmir and Thar desert, Belam valley in Utter Pradesh and in the caves and rock shelter of Bimbetka near Bhopal, M.P. Their period may be placed between 250,000 BC and 100,000 BC Middle Palaeolithic Age The tools used were blades, points, borers and scrappers made of flakes. Their artefacts were found at several places on river Narmada and south of Tungabadra. Their period may be placed between 100,000 BC and 40,000 BC Upper Palaeolithic AgeThese people used blades and burins made of flint. Their sites are found in Andra, Karnataka, Maharastra, Central M.P, Southern UP, Bihar Plateau and adjoining areas. Their period may be placed between 40,000 BC and 10,000 BC

It is the transitional age between Palaeolithic Age and Neolithic Age. The characteristic tools of the Mesolithic Age are microliths which are small measuring about 3 cm in length. Mesolithic sites are found Rajathan, southern UP, central and eastern India and south of Krishna. Adamgarh (MP) and Bagor (Rajasthan) provides the earliest evidence of domestication of animals. Bagor had a distinctive microlithic industry. Earliest evidence (Sambhar lake) of cultivation of plants also comes from this period. Mesolithic culture flourished from 9000 BC to 4000 B.C. The Mesolithic people were hunters and herders

This age is known as New Stone Age. People of this age used Polished Stone tools particularly stone axes. They were usually made out of fine grained dark green trap. Based on the types of axes used by them, we can distinguish three important areas of Neolithic settlements. The first group of people were found in Burzahom near Srinagar, Kashmir. They lived in pits, used both stone and bone tools, buried the dead along with dogs and practised agriculture and domestication of animals. The second group lived in south India, south of Godavari river. The third area is found on the hills of Assam. The Neolithic settlers were the earliest farming communities. they produced ragi and horsegram (kulathi). The oldest Neolithic settlement is found in Mehrgarh and it roughly belongs to 7000BC. The age of Neolithic Settlement is placed between 7000 BC to 1000 BC. Metal Age in India

Copper Age: People started using metals by the end of Neolithic age. The first metal used was copper. Numerous copper objects were found in the region from Chota Nagpur plateau to upper Gangetic basin. The important finds include ochre coloured pottery. Chalcolithic Age: The culture based on the use of stone and copper is known as Chalcolithic culture which covered the period between 2800 BC to 700 BC. They used

black and red pottery. This type of culture are found in south eastern Rajasthan, Western MP, Western Maharastra and Eastern India Iron Age: In India, we do not have a bronze age in the proper sense, so we find that copper age was followed by iron age in northern India and Neolithic age was followed by iron age in the south India. We have evidence from megalithic monuments such as dolmensof gradual transition from stone and copper culture to iron age in the south India. The main characteristic finds include big funeral urns containing human skeletons and rice husks. Numerous sites of this type has been found in Karnataka and the Deccan.

The discovery of Harappan civilization proved well developed urban civilisation before the arrival of the Aryans. General Cunningham done the preliminary investigation. Mr. R.B.Daya Ram Sahni discovered Harappa in 1921 Mr. R.D. Banerjee dug out the ruins of the pre-historic city of Mohen-jo-Daro in 1922. Extent The Harappan civilization extended to the Punjab, Sindh, North West Frontier Province (now in Pakistan), Baluchistan, Rajasthan, U.P., Gujarat and even some parts of south India.This civilization was spread over an area of about 1600 kilometers from West to East and 1100 kilometers from North to South. Roughly it covers an area of 1,300,000 square kilometers, which is more than that of any ancient civilization known so far.

Mohen-jo-Daro means the Mound of the Dead . located in the Larkana district of Sindh (now in Pakistan). Important findings are great bath, granary, workmen cottages, assembly hall, bronze dancing girl, statue of priest and Pasupati seal. This city is flooded more than once. Harappa was situated on the bank of the river Ravi in the Montgomery district of West Punjab (now in Pakistan). Major finding are granary, single rooms for work men, working platform,red sand stone male torso, proto type of Yaksha or jina , cemeteries and bronze models of ikka s. Kalibangan situated on saraswathi (Ghaggar),Rajasthan. evidence of brick fortification, furrows, pre Harappan and Harappan phases and fire altars Lothal in Gujarat was an important trade centre. dockyard, rice husks, terra cotta figurine of horse, fire altars, cleaver fox depicted in a pot were the major findings. Other important sites were Chanu daro in Sindh (Pakistan) about 130 kilomatres south of Mohen-jo-daro, Alamgir near Hatinapur in U.P. and Ropar in the Punjab, at the foothills of Shivalik, Dholvaria in Gujarat and Rakhigarhi in Haryana. Mohen-jo-Daro means the Mound of the Dead . located in the Larkana district of Sindh (now in Pakistan). Important findings are great bath, granary, workmen cottages, assembly hall, bronze dancing girl, statue of priest and Pasupati seal. This city is flooded more than once. Harappa was situated on the bank of the river Ravi in the Montgomery district of West Punjab (now in Pakistan). Major finding are granary, single rooms for work men, working platform,red sand stone male torso, proto type of Yaksha or jina , cemeteries and bronze models of ikka s. Kalibangan situated on saraswathi (Ghaggar),Rajasthan. evidence of brick fortification, furrows, pre Harappan and Harappan phases and fire altars Lothal in Gujarat was an important trade centre. dockyard, rice husks, terra cotta figurine of horse, fire altars, cleaver fox depicted in a pot were the major findings. Harappan people was heterogeneous consisting of 4 racial types

Mediterranean

Proto Austrolids Mongloids Alpines.

The majority consisted of former two Other important sites were Chanu daro in Sindh (Pakistan) about 130 kilomatres south of Mohen-jo-daro, Alamgir near Hatinapur in U.P. and Ropar in the Punjab, at the foothills of Shivalik, Dholvaria in Gujarat and Rakhigarhi in Haryana.
Archaeologists like Sir John Marshall thought that the Indus Valley Civilization belonged to the period between 3250 B.C. and 2750 B.C. It is the period when the Egyptians, Babylonian and Mesopotamian Civilizations flourished. Therefore, it was concluded that the Indus Valley Civilization existed between 3250 B.C. and 2750 B.C. as during this period Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Babylonian Civilizations flourished. However, recently Indian archeologists using the technique of radio carbon dating, are inclined to believe that the period of Harappan culture extended from 2500 B.C. to 1500 B.C.

Features of Harappan civilization

Town Planning: cities were big and were built on grid planning. houses had a well, bathroom and drains. built mostly on burnt bricks. the roofs were flat and made of wood. rooms were built around an open courtyard. Some houses were double storied. Some buildings had pillared halls.. It is assumed that there also must have been palaces, temples or municipal halls. The Drainage System: They had a well advanced drainage system. The drains were covered with slabs. Water flowed from houses into the street drains. The street drains had manholes at regular intervals. Food: wheat and barley were cultivated. Rice (Rangpur & Lothal) and date palm was also probably grown. Besides these, the diet of the people consisted of fruits, vegetables, fish, milk and meat of animals i.e. beef, mutton and poultry. Ornaments: Both men and women wore ornaments made of gold, silver, copper and other metals. Men wore necklaces, finger rings and armlets of various designs and shapes. The women wore a head dress, ear rings, bangles, girdles, bracelets and anklets. Rich people wore expensive ornaments made of gold while the poor had ornaments made of shell, bone or copper. Furniture and Utensils: The furniture and utensils found at Mohen-jo-daro show a high degree of civilization because of their variety in kind and design. The beautifully painted pottery, numerous vessels for the kitchen, chairs and beds made of wood, lamps of different material, toys for children, marbles, balls and dice, indicate what people manufactured in those days. Domestication of Animals: The people of Harappa domesticated animals like oxen, buffaloes, pigs, goats and sheep. Camels and asses were used as means of transport. Dogs and cats were kept as pets. The humped bull was considered a great asset in the farming community. Crafts The discovery of spindles at the sites of Harappan culture shows that

the people used to spin and weave. Goldsmiths made jewellery of gold, silver and precious stones. People were also engaged in brick-laying and in the art of sculpture. The making of seals was developed during this period. Bronze-smiths made various types of weapons and tools such as knives, spears, saws and axes which were used in daily life. Trade: Traders carried on trade in the country as well as with other countries like Egypt, Babylon and Afghanistan. Many seals of Harappa found in Mesopotamia show that trade existed between the two countries. Mesopotomian literature records refer Indus region as Meluha and two trading stations Dilmun (Baharin) and Makan. The people of the Indus Valley used weights and measures in their business transactions. They used 16 and its multiplies: 64, 160 and 320, in measurement and weight. Sculpture in Stone: Among the stone images found in Harappa two male statues are noteworthy. The first statue is that of a yogi, the other figure is a torso of a human male in red sand stone. Sculpture in Metal: The Harappan artists knew the art of bronze casting. A figure of a female naked dancer was found at Mohen-jo-daro. Besides the figurine, bronze figures of a buffalo and a humped bull are very artistically designed. Sculpture in Terracotta: The Indus Valley people practiced sculpture in terracotta. The teracota figure of the Mother Goddess was discovered in Mohen-jo-daro. Pottery and Painting: Pottery found in large quantities shows that with the potter's wheel the craftsman produced pottery of various artistic shapes. Figures of birds, animals and men were depicted on the pots. Paintings on the pots show, that these men were equally good at painting. Script: The Indus Valley people had some knowledge of the art of writing, though in a rudimentary way. The script is pictographic, but still remains un-deciphered though there are nearly four hundred signs. The writing was generally from left to right, but in some cases it was in the opposite direction i.e., right to left in the first line and left to right in the second. Seals: The most interesting part of the discovery relates to the seals-more than 2000 in number, made of softstone(steatite), terracotta and copper.. Most of the seals have the figures of real animals while a few bear the figure of mythical animals. The seals are rectangular, circular or even cylindrical in shape. It is said that these seals were used by different associations or merchants for stamping purposes. The seals even have an inscription of a sort of pictorial writing. Important Seals The Pashupati Seal: This seal depicts a yogi, probably Lord Shiva surrounded by a rhino, a buffalo, an elephant and a tiger. Under his throne are two deer. This seal shows that Shiva was worshipped and he was considered as the Lord of animals (Pashupati).The Unicorn Seal: The unicorn is a mythological animal. The Bull Seal This seal depicts a humped bull of great vigour. The figure shows the artistic skill and a good knowledge of animal anatomy.

No temple like structures found but image worship was vogue. They worshipped mother godess, God siva or pasupati, Trees (mostly papal), phallus, brids like dove and pigeon. The discovery of amulets suggests that the Indus valley people had belief in magic and charms and also life after Death .The existence of public baths suggests that people believed in ritual bathing.

This civilization is said to have come to an abrupt end. The following reasons are put forward for its abrupt end:

The neighboring desert encroached on the fertile area and made it infertile. Regular floods destroyed the area. Aryan invaders killed people and destroyed the Indus Valley civilization. (R.M.Wheeler) The end was partly caused by changing river patterns. These changes included the drying up of the Hakra River and changes in the course of the Indus River. The river changes disrupted agricultural and economic systems, and many people left the cities of the Indus Valley region. (H.T.Lanbrick). Earthquakes and Epidemics caused destruction Ecological degradation by growing population

By 1700 B.C., the Indus civilization had gradually broken up into smaller cultures, called late Harappan cultures and post-Harappan cultures. However, some aspects of Indus art, agriculture, and possibly social organization continued in the smaller cultures. Some of these aspects became incorporated into a unified urban civilization that began developing throughout the region about 600 B.C.
Aryan is in fact a linguistic term indicating a speech group of Indo-European origin, and is not an ethnic term. In Sanskrit, the word Aryan means a noble man . They were tall, fair complexioned, good-looking and cultured people. Groups of Aryans are said to have settled in different countries and developed some of the most remarkable civilizations of the world. Original Home of the Aryans German scholar Max-Muller thought that the original home of the Aryans was somewhere near the Caspian Sea. From there they had migrated to the European countries. Two groups of Aryans are said to have come to Persia and India. The Aryans who had migrated to India are known as the Indo-Aryans . They were the first people who entered India through the north-western passes. According to Bal Gangadhar Tilak Aryans originally inhabited Siberia but due to the falling temperature had to leave Siberia for greener pastures.

The vedic literature consists of two parts. Samhitas and Brahmanas. Brahmanas is divided into three parts. Brahmanas, Aryankyas and Upanishads. Samhitas: are collections of hymns sung in praise of gods. There are four samhitas : Rig Veda Samhita, Sama Veda Samhita ,Yajur Veda Samhita and Atharva Veda samhita. Rig Veda: It is the oldest, most important because it is the valuable record of ancient India. Divided into ten books or mandalas containing 1017 sung by priest called Hotri . The latest mandalas of Rig veda are I and X . It has many mantras like the Gayatri mantras addressed to solar deity Savitri .Many hymns were written in the praise of different Gods of nature. Sam Veda: It mainly contains verses taken from Rig-Veda(except 75) with reference to Soma sacrifices. Its hymns are set to music sung by the priest Udgatri. Yajur Veda(yajus or formulae): It contain hymns concerning sacrifices. It consists of various mantras(hymns) for the purpose of recitation by priest called Adharvayu and rules to be observed at the time of sacrifice. This veda is composed in verse and proses. Atharva Veda(Magic formulas): It is also collection of spells and charms which are popular among the people. This Veda throws light on the beliefs of the people some of the Mantras are

meant to bring success in life, while some where used to ward off evil spirits responsible for disease and sufferings. Brahmanas: These are commentaries on the Vedic mantras. They are written in prose and deal mainly with rituals connected with sacrifices. They are written in easy prose for the benefit of common people. The difficult concepts of the Vedic text have been illustrated through stories to make them easy to understand. The Rig Vedas has two Brahmanas: Aitareya and Kausitaki brahmanas. Aranyakas: Are the concluding parts of the Brahmanas. Aranyakas meana forest books. They do not deal with rituals but are concerned with mysticism and philosophy. They lay more stress on knowledge of God, soul, world and man. The Vedic literature also consists of the following: Upanishads: They are the concluding parts of the brahmanas and are also called the Vedanta, which means the summing up of the Veda. The word Upanishads means to sit close to. It suggests that this sacred material was originally secret. The most important ones appeared between 800 and 600 B.C. The literary works referred to above are believed to contain sacred knowledge or divine revelation. This knowledge had been handed down by oral transmission by the sages to their pupils by word of mouth. This method of oral transmission is called the shruti or revelation by hearing . Vedangas: Vedangas mean limbs of the Vedas. They are six in number. They form a part of the Vedas, but they were written by scholars of the later Vedic period.

1) Siksha ( Phonetic) 2) Kalpa(Rituals) 3) Vyakarna (Grammar) 4) Nirukta (Etymology) 5) Chandas (Metrics) 6) Jyotisha (Astronomy).

Vedangas are called smirti because they are of human origin. Upavedas: deal with secular subjects. They are

Ayurveda deals with medicine. Dhanurveda with the art of warfare. the Gandharva Veda with music Shilpa Veda with architecture.

It is generally believed that the Aryans came to India in groups that settled in the areas of NorthWestern Province in Pakistan and the Punjab which they had then named Sapt-Sindhu or the land of seven rivers , namely, the Indus, the Sutlej, the Ravi, the Beas, the Chenab, the Jhelum and the Saraswati. The Aryans were found to have been occupying the whole of the present region of Punjab from about 1500 B.C. The first group of Aryans fought against the Dravidians and other inhabitants whom they defeated and are supposed to have been pushed down towards south of India. The Aryans were also victim of infighting and inter-tribal wars. There is an interesting reference to the inter-tribal conflicts in Rig-Veda. The most famous being the Battle of the Ten Kings.fought between Sudas, the king

of the Bharat tribe and Vishwamitra. Vishwamitra formed a confederacy of ten tribes and attacked Sudas, but Sudas was victorious. The enemies were described by Aryans as Panis and Dasas. The Panis were troublesome, as they were cattle-thieves and cattle were the main wealth of the Aryans. The Dasas were defeated is clear from the fact that the word Dasa later came to be mean a slave. The Dasas were held to be inferior because of their darker skin and flat features quite unlike theirs.

Later vedic period

The history of later vedic period is based on vedic texts compiled after the age of Rig Veda. These texts were compiled in the upper Gangetic basin in circa 1000 600 BC. This period is marked by further expansion to eastern Rajasthan, eastern UP and northern Bihar. The Aryans pushed their way along the river Ganga and Yamuna from Sapt Sindhu and by and by occupied the whole of Northern India from the Himalayas to the Vindhayas. The area was called as Aryavartha or the land of the Aryans. The period between 1000 B.C. and 600 B.C. during which the Aryans settled in the Gangetic valley, was known as the later Vedic age. During this period the Aryans occupied vast areas in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Bengal and other parts of North India. The events relating to Ramayana and Mahabharata took place during the later part of the Vedic period. Political pattern in Vedic Period

Rig Vedic period The Kula (Family) headed by Kulapa or grihapati was the basic unit. The next higher unit was gramma or village headed by gramini. The vis or a group of village was headed by vispati. The Highest unit was Jana or tribe headed by Rajan. Later vedic period the highest unit was rastras or janapadas (territorial kingdom) which consists of many tribes. The divinity of Rajan was unknown in Rig vedic period. However the royal power increased due to amalgamation of tribes and increase in size of kingdoms. The king performed various sacrifices and rituals to increase his powers. The main sacrifices were Rajasuya (Coronation ceremony), Vajapeya (Chariot race) and asvameda ( horse sacrifice). The growing power is attributed to divinity and this concept took concrete shape in this period. The concept of absolute royal ownership does not arise in this period. Tribal assemblies The tribal assemblies of Rig vedic period were Vidata (most popular, men & women attended), Sabha, samiti ( Geneal assembly of whole tribe which elected King) and Gana In later vedic period vidata and gana completely disappeared and the rest came to be dominated by nobles and Brahmins Important officials

Purohita,senani,vrajapati (in charge of pasture land), gramini, kulapa were the main officials. Voluntary offerings and spoils of war formed the income of the chief. In later vedic period, the number of officials increased due to large size of kingdoms and economic changes. Bhagadugha(collector of taxes) and sangrihitri (treasurer) were the most important of later vedic period. Economic conditions

Rig vedic Period : They were mainly pastrol though practised agriculture, trade and industry. They domesticated animals. wild animals known were lion,elephant, bear etc. Tiger was not known. they cultivated wheat, barley, beans, seasmum, cotton etc.The trade in Rig vedic period were mainly carried through barter. Cows were an important means of exchange. They used nishkas, Hiranyapindas and manas as means of exchange though they were not gold coins. Later vedic period More specialisation took place. In case of crafts, carpentry, metal work, tanning, weaving, pottery etc were practised. Rice was known in the later vedic period. satapatha brahmana decribes various stages of agriculture. In later vedic period, Satamana, Krishnala, nishka ,pada and suverna were used. However these can be regarded as gold ornaments and not as coins. Later vedic period was also marked by advance in metallurgy. They knew lead, tin, silver, gold, copper (ayas) and syama ayas( iron) Social pattern

The basic unit of social structure is family headed by ghrihapati or dampati or kulapati. The head of the family had vast powers. he could sell his own son. In the later vedic period, the power of father increased and the practise of primogeniture(eldest succeeding his father) came into existence. Caste and Varna system. During RVP , the castes founded were not based on birth and a person could choose it his own will. Mandala IX of Rig veda, attests to this practise. They were no restriction on intermarriages. The social division based on varna (colour) existed. It was mainly due to the conquest of indigenous tribes by Aryans. Initially there were three social groups : warriors, priest and commoners. The fourth division sudras appeared towards the end of RVP. The term sudra is mentioned only once in the 10th mandala (Purushasukta). In the Later vedic period, privileges of Brahmins and Kshatriyas increased. The Brahmins occupied the highest position than Kshatriyas. However Aiteraya brahmana mentions the nation does not take kindly to Brahmanas. Asrama system The term ashrama means a stage in the long journey of life of a man. Bhramacharya was a first stage of life from birth to twenty five years of age. And in this period he acquired knowledge by leading the life of a student.After the education in the Gurukula, the man entered the second stage of his life that is Grihastha ashrama (householders life) till the age of fifty. During this stage a man was supposed to marry and lead a family life following a set of customs & traditions. After this he entered vanaprastha ashrama (life of service to others) till the age of seventy five. During this third period he was supposed to break the family ties and serve the community. This stage was followed by Sanyasa (a renounced life in the forest) where a

person had to abandon his complete social life and devote all his time in the service of God to attain salvation. Some Important points to remember Rig vedic Period

Monogamy was common. widown remarriage was allowed. polygamy was known. child marriage unknown. no seclusion of women in religious and tribal assemblies(sabha and vidata). Slavary was prevalent used mainly for domestic purposes. They were illetrate.

Later vedic period.


Athrava veda mentions gotra. gotra exogamy was practised by Aryans i.e. prohibition of marriage within the same gotra. Atharva veda mentions symbolic sati. women lost their right to attend assemblies. Aiteraya Brahmana describes daughter as a source of misery. child marriages come into vogue

Religion

Aryans seem to have believed in monotheism. Some of the hymns express the idea that God is one, but he is called by many names. The early Aryans worshipped phenomena of nature in the form of nature gods. These forces of nature were worshipped as male or female gods. Indra was the Aryan superman, the god of strength, foremost in battle, always ready to smite dragons and demons and to destroy cities. He was the God of thunder, the rainmaker, and the victor over the forces which the Aryans could not vanquish. Agni second most important. the God of fire, received many beautiful tributes. he dominated the domestic fireplace, and marriages were solemnized in the presence of fire, as they are to this day in Hindu rites. Fire was the purest of the five elements and was held in high esteem. Surya (Sun), Savitri (a solar deity to whom the famous Gayatri mantra is dedicated). Varuna was the god of water. He was the sustainer of plant and animal life. It was his responsibility to uphold the natural order(Rta) Soma (god of intoxicating juice soma).Yama, the god of death, had a prominent place. Vayu (the god of winds).Prithvi was the goddess of Earth.. Ushas, the goddess of Dawn. During Rig vedic period, mode of worshipping was recitation of prayers and offering of sacrifices. Both collective consisting of the whole tribe and individual prayers were made. As in the case of prayers, individual sacrifices and big collective sacrifices were made. Agni and Indra were

invited to partake the sacrifices made by the whole tribe and offerings of vegetables, barely etc were made to Gods. This type of sacrificial process was not accompanied by sacrificial formulae. They did not worship the gods for the spiritual benefit but for obtaining praja (children), pasu (cattle), health, wealth etc. Later Vedic Religion The two important Rig Vedic gods lost their place to Prajapathi, the creator. The two minor gods of Rig Vedic Period, Rudra and Vishnu came into prominence. Like social division, there was division among gods and Pushan was regarded as the god of shudras. The sacrifice became the important mode of prayer which now involved with killing of animals and accompanied with the careful recitation of formulae by the performer (yajamana). The success of depends upon the magical power of words uttered correctly in the sacrifices. These formulae and sacrifices were invented, elaborated by the priests called Brahmanas. On account of this, Brahmins emerged as an important class in the society. mportant Peasant movements & leaders

Name Indigo Agitation of Bengal (1859-69)

Reasons Exploitation & oppression of Peasants

Leaders/ places Bishnucharan Biswas,Digambar Biswas Pabna in East Bengal

Result Appoinment of Indigo commission of 1869 and removal some abuses Enactment of Bengal tenancy act of 1885

Pabna Movement or Oppression of Peasant Unrest in East peasants by Bengal (1872-76) zamindars Decan Riots (1875) Exploitation of peasants by money lenders Oppression by European planters using tinkathia system Refusal of Govt. to exempt Peasants from land revenue due to drought. Oppression and exploitation of Muslim Mopila peasants by Hindu Zamindars Enhancement of land revenue by British

Enactment of Deccan Poona and Ahmadnagar Agriculturists relief act districts of 1879 Gandhiji started satyagraha along with Rajendra Prasad , Mahadev desai etc. Non revenue campaign by Ghandhi and Vallabhai Patel Kunhammad Haji, Kalathingal Mohamad, Ali Musliar etc No revenue campaign by Badroli peasant under Vallabhai Patel Appointment of enquiry committee by Govt. and acceptance of its recommendations Suspension of land revenue by the Govt. Bloody suppression of the movement by British. Famous wagon tragedy occured Appointment of enquiry commission and reduction of land revenue

Champaran Satyagraha (1917)

Khaira Satyagraha (1918) in Gujarat

Mopila Rebellion (1921)

Bardoli Satyagraha(1928)

by the Govt. Caste movements

Justice Movement Against Brahmin (1915-16) predominance

C.N.Mudaliyar, T.M. Nair and P. Tyagaraja Chettti

Founded a political party called Justice Party loyal to British Government

A radical movement , Self respect Propagated his ideas advocated forcible temple E.V.Ramasamy Naicker movement (1925) through his journal Kudi entry , burning of Manu ( Periyar) in Tamil Nadu Arasu. smriti etc. Ezhava Movement of Kerala Satyashodak Movement for the betterment of Untouchable Ezhavas of Kerala Narayan Guru started SNDP with the help of Dr. Palpu & Kumaranasan

Jyotibha Phule through To save lower castes from He organized his book Brahmins satyashodak sabha. Ghulamgiri(1872) Socio Religious Movements

Organisation Atmiya Sabha Brahma Samaj Young Bengal movement Brahma samaj of India Prarthana Samaj Satyadhodak Samaj Arya Samaj Theosophical Society

Year Place 1815 Calcutta 1828 Calcutta 1830 Calcutta

Founder Rammohan Roy Rammohan Roy Derozio

Aims/Remark To propogate monotheism and to remove evils in Hinduism Sama as above Attacked old traditions and customs. Political questions through press and association

1866 Calcutta

Split in Brahmo samaj over social Keshab Chandra Sen reform. The old organization came to be known as Adi Brahmo Samaj Dr. Atmaram Pandurang Jyotiba Phule Swami Dayanand Saraswati Madame H.P.Blavatsky and Reformation of Hindu religion. Joined by M.G.Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar in 1870 Against upper caste domination and supremacy Reform of Hinduism and prevention of conversion of Hindus. Promotion of ancient religions and formation of universal brotherhood

1867 Bombay 1873 Bombay 1875 Bombay 1875 New York

Col. H.S.Olcott Deccan Education 1884 Poona Society Deva Samaj 1887 Lahore Bara Nagar G.G.Agarkar & M.G.Ranade Shivanarayan Agnihotri Swami Vivekananda Swami Vivekananda Gopal Krishna Gokhale

of Man. To prepare the Young for the service of nation through education Same as that of Brahmo Samaj but worshipped a Guru

Ramakrishna Math 1887 Ramakrishna Mission Servants of India Society Social Service League Seva Samiti

1897 Belur 1905 Bombay

Humanitarian relief and Social works To train Indian in different fields in service of motherland To obtain better conditions of life and work to people To organize social service during emergencies Complete Indianisation of the Boy Scout movement in India Reform of Zoroastrian religion.

Poona Seva Sadan 1909 Poona 1911 Bombay

Mrs Ramabai Ranade To promote the welfare of women. N.M.Joshi

1917 Allahabad H.N.Kunzru Shri Ram Bajpai Dadabhai Naoroji, S.S.Bengali, Malabari etc

Seva Samiti Boy 1914 Bombay Scouts Association Rahnumai Mazdyasnana 1851 Bombay Sabha Causes and Development

The Indian workers were paid very low wages and had to work in intolerable working conditions in the Industries, factories etc. With the outbreak of World War I imports to India were restricted but there was a huge demand for Indian goods, which led to price increase at the same time the wages did not increase. This made workers to agitate. The Russian revolution of 1917 , the establishment of ILO in 1919 and the leadership provided by nationalist leaders led to the birth of Trade union movement in India. Important Milestones in Trade union movement

The first Factory commission was set up in 1875 First factory act was passed in 1881. The second factory commission was appointed in 1884. Mr Lokhande presented a memorandum to the commission thus the first trade unionism started in India. The Madras Labour Union was the first trade union of modern type founded by B.P.Wadia In 1920 the All India Trade Union Congress was founded by N.M.Joshi, which looked after the interest of labours in General.

In 1926, Trade Union Act was passed which made provisions for voluntary registration, rights and obligations of Trade Unions. The communist began to infiltrate into trade union which led to ideological differences. In 1929 AITUC, the moderate section formed a new organization viz. Indian Trades Union Fedration (ITUF). In 1933, National Trades Union Federation was formed . The Act of 1935 provided for the election of labour representatives. In the second world war period , the labour conditions were same as those of the earlier period, however strikes very few mainly due to the communist leaders who supported the war. Ahmadabad Textile Labour Union known as Majur Mahajan was founded by Mahatma Gandhi In 1947, the trade union act was passed which made compulsory recognition of Trade unions by employers The Industrial disputes act of 1947 which provided for the appointment of conciliation machinery in case of Industrial disputes.

Regulating act of 1773

The Government of Bengal to be carried on by Governor General(G.G) and 4 members of the council. The G.G has the power to supervise and control the Bombay and Madras presidencies in matters of peace and war. This act established Supreme Court of Calcutta Pitts India act of 1784

This act established a Board of control(6 members) to control the Government of India, reduction of member of G.Gs council to 3 and clear cut subordination of Bombay and Madras presidencies to G.G Charter Act of 1813

This Act provided restricted admission missionaries to India, granted Rs 1,00,000 for education annually, required the companys servants to undergo training and thrown open Indian trade to all British subjects except tea trade Charter Act of 1833

Companys monopoly of tea trade and trade with China abolished. Renamed the G.G. of fort William as

the G.G of India(William Bentic), inclusion of law member( Macaulay) and Abolition of legislative decentralization was the main features Charter Act of 1853

Separate Lieutenant Governor for Bengal, direct recruitment of officials through a competitive examination and additional members in G.Gs council to act as legislative council. Government of India Act 1858

Abolition of Companys rule, Board of Control and court of directors. Appointment of Secretary of state for India to rule with the aid of 15 members. Lord canning was the G.G and Viceroy and charles Wood was the first secretary of state. ndian Councils Act of 1861

Introduction of portfolio system by which each member was assigned a particular department , Establishment of legislative council in provinces and enlargement of legislative wing of Viceroys council. Indian councils Act 1892

Introduction of indirect elections for the non official members of legislative council and the councils were allowed to discuss Budget* The additional members required for G.Gs council were 10 to 16, Bombay and Madras 8 to 20, Bengal not more than 20 and United province 15.

Indian Councils Act of 1909 or Morley Minto reforms

Introduction of direct election, separate electorate for the Muslims (communal electorates) , removal of official majority in provincial legislature. The number of addition members were increased to 60 in G.G council , Bengal, Madras, Bombay and united Province to 50.
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Government of India Act of 1919 or Montague Chemsford reforms

Introduction of Dyarchy in provinces, under this system the provincial subjects were divided into Reserved subjects ( Police,Jails, land revenue, irrigation, forests etc) to be administered by Governor and his Executive council and Transferred subjects (education, local self government, public health, sanitation etc) to be administered by Governor and his ministers. The central control over the provinces were relaxed through Devolution Rules which categorized the subjects of administration into two groups Central and Provincial. The central legislature was made bicameral with council of states consisting of 60 members and legislative assembly consisting of 140 members. The salaries of the Secretary of state for India and his assistants paid out of the British revenues. A high commissioner of India in London was appointed. Government of India Act 1935

Provision for the establishment of an All India Federation to be based on provinces of British India and princely states. This part did not come into operation as the princely states did not give their consent for the union* division of powers into 3 lists Federal, Provincial and concurrent, introduction of provincial autonomy, separate electorates to Sikhs, Europeans, Indian Christians and Anglo Indians. A federal court was established at Delhi with chief justice and not more than 6 judges

Causes of Origin

Post Vedic society was clearly divided into four varnas: brahmanas, kshatrias, vaishyas and shudras. More privileges were granted to first two varnas and numerous obligations were placed on last two varnas. However the first three varnas were known as dvija (twice born) and allowed to study Vedas and entitled to wear sacred. This created social tenstions. The emergence of new agrarian economy and the destruction of cattle wealth in the name sacrifice really affected life of the people. To find a solution to this problem, numerous religious sects as many as 62 sects were emerged. Most prominent among them were Buddhism and Jainism. Buddhist Councils

Place & Date Rajagriha,483 BC Vaisali, 383 BC

Presided by Mahakassapa Sabakami

Patron Ajathasatru Kalasoka

Remarks Settlement of Sutta Pitaka (Buddhist sayings) & Vinaya Pitaka ( Monastic code) Split into orthodox Sthaviravadins(Thervadins) and unorthodox Mahasanghikas

Pataliputra 250 Moggaliputta Tissa Asoka BC (Upagupta)

Final compilation of Tripitakas and sending missionaries to different parts

Kashmir 1 AD Vasumitra Kanishka Split into Hinayanists and Mahayanists The Pali canonical texts are known as Tripitakas. They are Sutta (sermon), Vinaya (conduct) and Abhidhamma (metaphysical) pitakas. The largest and most important pittaka is Sutta pitaka divided into Nikayas (groups) Digha(long), Majjhima (medium), Samyutta (connected), Anuguttara (graduated) and Kuddaka (minor). The Khuddaka consists of Jataka (previous birth stories of Buddha Buddhism

Gaudama or Siddhartha, the founder of Buddhism was born (563 BC) in Lumbini in the Sakya clan of Kapilavastu. His parents were Suddhidahana and Maya. After his mothers death he was brought up by Prajapati Gautami. The sight of an old man, a sick man, a corpse and an ascetic made him to leave the palace in search of truth. This is known as Great renunciation or Mahabhinishkramana. After 6 years he attained the Enlightenment (nirvana) under a papal tree and came to be known as Buddha (the enlightened ) or tathagat (who attained truth). At the deer park near Saranath , Buddha preached his first sermon. Buddhists often call this the "turning of the wheel of the law." Or Dharmachakraparivarthana, He preached next 45 years and passed away in 483 BC at Kusinagar(UP). He said that the world is full of sorrows. the cause of sorrow is desire. if desires are conquered nirvana will be attained. The only way this can be done by following the eight fold path. (Ashtangamarga). He rejected the infallibility of Vedas. condemned sacrifices and rituals. attacked caste system and priestly supremacy. laid emphasis on Karma and transmigration of souls. said that All things are composite, So they are transient . No eternal soul. the characteristics of the world Sorrowful, transient and soulless are repeated in several teachings. Buddha is an agnostic: He neither accepts or reject the existence of GOD. He admitted women in his sangha on the advice of his disciple Ananda. Prajapati Gautami was the first women to join. Mahayana Buddhism & Vajrayanism

Mahayana, the greater vehicle to salvation, promised salvation to all as opposed to Hinayana( lesser vehicle). Mahayana Buddhism developed the concept of a series of Buddhas and future Buddha (Maitreya). The Bodhisattva(being of wisdom) could help the followers to eternal bliss. The heavenly Buddha concerned with our world was Amitaba(Immeasurable Radience) who dealt in sukhavati. The other important Bodhisattvas were Avalokiteswara (the lord who looks down) also known as Padampani, Manjusri who is depicted with a sword in one hand to destroy error and falsehood and a book. Vajrapani is the foe of sin and evil bears a thunderbolt like Indra. The most important text of this school is Nagrajuna's Madhyamika Karika which expounds their philosophy Sunyata. Vajrayanism: It is another form of Buddhism developed from the 5th century AD which

laid more interest in feminine divinities and practised magico religious rites which often contained licentious features. This magical Buddhism is also known as Tantrism. There are divisions right hand sect and left hand sect. To the left hand sect, the name Vajrayana (vehicle of Thunderbolt) is applied. It became popular in Bengal and Bihar from 8th century AD. Jainism

Jainism is a Nastik (atheist) philosophy preached by 24 `Tirthankaras (fordmakers), the last being Vardhamana. He was born in 540 BC at Kundagram near Vaisali in Jnatri Kshatriya clan. His father was Siddharatha, mother : Trisala, sister of Chetaka belonging to Lichchavis of Vaisali. He became an ascetic at the age of 12. he attained Kaivalya (perfect knowledge) at 45. preached for 30 years and died at 72 at pavapuri near Rajagriha. The five principles of Jainism were : no violence (ahimsa), no lies(satya), no steeling(asteya), no property (aparigraha) and observing continence (brahmachariya). The last one added by Mahavira the rest being the teachings of Parsva his predecessor. Jainism though does not believe in God, however, believes in the concept of re-birth. The ethical doctrines of Jainism are based on the path of liberation, comprising right belief, right knowledge and right conduct. The Jains are divided into two major sects, Digambara (Sky-clad or naked) and Shvetambara (White-clad). Digambara Jains are more austere and go about nude or free from all material trappings and social inhibitions. To attain Kavalajnana or final liberation, they prefer voluntary death. In Shvetambara, which is less austere, people can use a simple white cloth. The difference in the two sects is more in rituals than in doctrines. According to Svetabaras, the original doctrine taught by Mahavira was contained in 14 old text called Purva. The first Jain council was held at Pataliputra (310 B.C.). led to the compilation of 12 Angas by Svetambaras which was not accepted by digambaras. The second council was held at Vallabhi in Gujarat (512 A.D) . Important patrons of Jainism Udayin, the successor of Ajatasatru, the Nandas , Mauryan Emperor Chandragupta with his preceptor Bhadrabahu and other Jain sages, settled down in shravanabelagola, King Kharavela of Kalinga , Royal dynasties of Gangas, Kadambas , Chalukyas and Rastrakudas Six orthodox philosophical systems of ancient India & Types of marriage prevalent in Ancient India

Six orthodox philosophical systems of ancient India Name Founder Remarks Samkhya Kapila Important text samkhyakarika of Isvara Krishna Yoga Patanjali Based on Vaisesika Sutra Vaisesika Kanada(Uluka)

Nyaya Vedanta

Gotama(Akshapada) Based on Nyaya Sutra Badarayana Brahmasutra or Vedanta of Badarayana It is also known as purvamimamsa

Mimamsa Jaimini Types of Marriage


1. Brahma : marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of same varna with vedic rites and rituals 2. Daiva : Father gives his daughter to a sacrificial preist as part of his fees 3. Arsa : A token bride price of a cow and a bull is given 4. Prajapati : Marriage without dowry and pride price 5. Gandharava : a special form of swaymavara with the consent of two parties 6. Asura : Marriage by purchase 7. Paisacha : seduction of a girl while asleep 8. Rakshasa : Marriage by capture

Anuloma marriage : marriage of a man below his varna. These type of mariages were sanctioned by religious texts. Pratiloma marriage: marrigage of a woman below her varna. not sanctioned by the religious text.

ntroduction

Nationalism in its exact meaning did not exist even at the time of National revolt of 1857. Several factors or causes contributed to the rise and growth of freedom struggle after the failure of this revolt. Causes

Grievance of almost all the sections of Indian society such as peasants, workers, middle classes etc. Others such as native rulers, landlords etc resented due to racial superiority and discrimination As a result of uniform system of Govt. through out India and the communications (Railways, Postal etc) brought mutual contact among the people. It facilitated the growth of Nationalist Movement in India. Through the Western education, English language became the language of the educated and Indians came into contact with Western ideas and thought (Democracy, Socialism, Liberty, Equality). Growth of Press helped to spread Patriotism and modern liberal ideas and created an all India consciousness and criticised official policies and put forwarded Indian views.

Socio religious movement increased the self confidence of Indian people and took pride in rich cultural heritage. They rejected the British racial superiority etc. Lord Lyttons rule and policies accelerated the National Movement. His rule witnessed Delhi durbar of 1887, reduction maximum age limit for ICS examinations, Vernacular Press Act which curbed the , Arms Act and second Afghan war which affected Indian economy. In 1883, Lord Rippon tried to pass a law to enable Indian Magistrates to try Europeans in Criminal cases. This bill known as Ilbert ( mover of the bill) bill was opposed by the British and supported by Indians. The demands of British were accepted by the Government.

The above reasons made Indians to form nationalist organisations to put forward Indian demands before the British Government. There were a number of organisation before the foundation of the Indian National Congress. The first such association was Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha formed in 1836. The Most important was Indian Association of Calcutta. Indian National Congress was founded in 1885 by A.O.Hume. Its first session was held under the president ship of W.C.Baneerji and it was attended by 72 delegates from all over India. It was a truly national organization. membership was open to all creeds and communities and approached the countys problems from all India point of view. The history of Indian National congress can be studied in three distinct phases. The Moderate phases or Early Nationalist (1885-1905), The Extremist phase or Militant Nationalist (1905-1918) and Gandhian Era (1918-1947). Moderates or Early Nationalists

Early nationalist did not aim for Swaraj or representative Government, they passed resolutions criticising some actions and policies and demanding reforms. These reforms demanded can be grouped as follows.

Constitutional reforms : Larger share for Indians in Legislatures, Executive councils and Public services. Elected members in provincial & central legislative council. Administrative reforms : Simultaneous examinations for I.C.S in England and raising the minimum age. Reduction of Salt tax and Income tax, reduction of military expenditure Economic reforms : lowering of Land Revenue demand, stopping of drain of wealth from India, promotion of Indian industry, reimpositon of import duties on cotton goods etc.

Methods of Moderates Their methods can best be described as Constitutional Agitation or Political mendicancy. i.e. methods of 3 Ps petitions, prayers and protests. They sought political progress was sought constitutional agitation within the law. The attitude of the British government towards the congress was also favourable in the beginning but they were becoming hostile.

Achievements of Moderates Popularisation of ideas of democracy and nationalism among the people thus a wide national awakening. Exposition of true nature of British rule. provided a solid base for national movement. creation of common political and economic programs, Passage of Indian councils Act of 1892 etc. Failures Their movement confined only to the educated class and they failed to realise the importance of mass struggle. They looked British rule as Gods gift for Indian betterment and expressed loyality to British Crown. They did not succeed in getting anything substantial from the British. Important moderate leaders were Dadabhai Naoroji, M.G.Ranade, Surendranath Banerji, Pherozshah metha, Badaruddin Tyabgi, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Dindha Wacha, Anandamohan Bose, Rashbehari Ghosh etc.
Extremist or Militant Nationalists

The Objective of Extremists was the attainment of swaraj(complete autonomy) not just self government as in the colonies of Austraila and New Zealand. The realization of this objective should be immediate and not in gradual stages. Extremist trend began in 1890s ( represented by Rajnarain Bose and Ashwini Kumar Dutt in Bengal, Vishnu sastri Chipulankar in Maharastra however it took deep root with the partition of Bengal 1905. There were several causes for its rise. The failure of moderate methods agitation to get anything substantial, repressive policies of British such as India Official Secrets Act 1904, enactment of law to prevent preaching nationalism (1898) , realization of the need for mass action and growth of self respect and the growing consciousness among Indians of the exploitative character of British rule etc. Methods of Extremists Passive resistance i.e. non cooperating with the British government by boycotting government services, courts, schools and colleges, Promotion of swadeshi and boycott of foreign goods, introduction and promotion of national education. Bal Gangadar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai , Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh were the important extremist leaders Partition of Calcutta

CALCUTTA is the centre from which the Congress Party is manipulated throughout the whole of Bengal, and indeed the whole of India. Lord Curson decided to dethrone Calcutta from its place as the center of successful intrigue by partitioning Calcutta in the name of administrative convenience. The partition proclamation was made in 1905. In 1906 Muslims formed a separate political political organization called Muslim league

Anti Partition movement

Initially it was confined to Bengal but soon it became an all India movement under extremist leaders. The political methods of extremist were applied every where. The objective of annulment of partition superseded by attainment of Indias objective. In the Benaras congress session (1905), the extremist wanted a strong resolution on boycott and the moderates suggested constitutional methods. As a compromise, a mild resolution on Boycott and swadeshi was passed. In the Calcutta Congress session(1906), The moderate candidate Dadabai Naoroji was elected. Extremist wanted Tilak or Lajpat Rai as president. Resolutions on Boycott, Swadeshi and National education was passed. In the Surat Congress session(1907) the extremist were expelled from the congress though enjoying more popular support than the moderates. Luknow Pact

B.G. Tilak played the key role in the Muslim League and Congress pact signed in Lucknow which marked Hindu Muslim unity. Both political organisation agreed to demand common political reforms from the British. However it was based on the Congress acceptance of communal electorates which later led to the division of country. Home Rule Leagues (1916-17):

The idea of Home rule movement was put forward by Mrs Besant as early as 1914 and announced it publicly in the Bombay session (1915) but overruled by President. However B.G. Tilak started before Mrs Besant could do it in April 1916 and Mrs. Beasant started in September 1916. The main objective was to attain home rule for India within the British empire. The inspiration derived from the Irish home rule movement. Important repressive measured taken by British during this period was The Press Act of 1910, the Seditious Meetings Act of 1915, The Defence of India Act of 1915 which provided for the trial of revolutionary offenders with no appeal. Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

The Rowlatt Act passed in 1919 authorised the government to imprison people without trial. The

Rowlatt Act came into effect on 10th March in 1919 . In Punjab the protest movement was very strong. On 10th April,two leaders of the congress Dr.Satya Pal and Dr. Saifuddin Kithlew, were arrested and taken to an unknown place.To protest against the arrests, a public meeting was held on 13th April at Jallianwala Bagh, a small park enclosed by buildings on all sides in Amritsar. General Dyer with his British troops entered the park, closed the only exit and without giving any warning ordered the troops to fire. A peaceful meeting also attended by women and children was fired upon. Firing lasted about 10 minutes and about 1600 rounds were fired. As the exit, which was a narrow passage, had been closed, no one was allowed to escape. About 1000 dead, according to unofficial estimates, and about 2000 wounded persons lay unattended to in the Bagh. Two enquiry commissions were appointed : Hunter committee (official) and congress committee. The Hunter committee found that Government of India was blameless and Dyer used excessive force Khilafat issue

The sultan was the caplih or religious head of Muslims. During the World War I(WW-I), Turkey was sided with Germany and was defeated. At the time of WW-I, the British assured fair treatment of Turkey after the war. However the disintegration of Turkey took place after the war. Ali brothers (Maulan and Shaukat) Ali established All India Khilafat committee for the redressal of Khilafat wrongs Non Cooperation Movement (1921-22)(NCM)

The main objectives of NCM were the 1) the annulment of Khilafat wrong 2) Annulment of Rowlatt Act and remedying Punjab wrong 3) to bring meaningful and substantial reforms The congress held a special session at Calcutta in September 1920 and decided to start NCM if the British failed to meet to its demands. The decision was further endorsed by Nagpur session in 1920. Gandhiji promised swaraj within one year. The movement included certain negative as well as positive programs Negative programmes 1. Surrender of Government titles and honours 2. Boycott of foreign goods 3. Boycott of legislatures, courts and educational institutions Positive programmes

use of swadeshi goods, removal of untouchability , Hindu Muslim unity , Hand spinning and hand weaving and collection of swaraj fund of 1 crore. The NCM was abruptly called off by Gandhijis insistence on 11th February 1922 following the Chauri Chaura incident. The peasants at Chauri Chaura in U.P attacked police station and burnt 22 policemen on 5th February 1922. Swaraj Party

The ideological birth of Congress Khilafat Swarajya Party later known as Swaraj party can be traced to Gaya session of INC in 1922, when C.R.Das, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Motilal Nehru and others declared that NCM had been a failure and lost momentum and advocated council entry. Those supported the Council entry were known as Pro changers(Swarajist) and those oppose council entry came to known as No changers (Ghandhists). The idea of Swarajits was to demand dominion status from the Government platform and if the government did not co-operate, they would obstruct the functioning of Councils. The swarajist remained as a political wing of congress and endorsed Gandhijis leadership and policies of Congress. Simon Commission

The Act of 1919, provided for the automatic review of the working of Act of 1919 after 10 years. The British government constituted Simon commission on 8th November 1927 consisting of 7 white members of British parliament. Indians were denied the right to participate in determination of their constitution. The Madras session of the congress in Dec. 1927 resolved to boycott the commission. Hartal was observed on 3rd Feb 1928 the day the commission arrived. The police responded brutally with the demonstrators. In Lahore lathi charge Lala Lajpat Rai( Punjab Kesari) was wounded seriously and died few days later.

All Parties conference and Nehru report

Lord Birkenhead, the Indian Secretary, said that Indian were excluded from the Simon commission because they were hopelessly divided and challenged to make a draft of reforms agreeable to all. The Indians took up the challenge, An all Parties Conference was held in Delhi on 12 Feb 1928 under the chairmanship of M.A.Ansari. The subsequent meeting was held in Bombay 19 May 1928 and appointed a committee under Motilal Nehru to prepare draft constitution. The important proposals are dominion status, freedom of religion, joint mixed electorates with reservation for minorities in place of communal electorate, adult universal suffrage etc. In opposition to the demand for dominion status, the radical wing of Congress led by Subhash

Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru founded Independence for India League which stood for complete freedom. The Nehru report was not accepted by Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha. Jinnahs 14- Points Agenda : Jinnah repudiated Nehru report and laid his fourteen points embodying the demands of the Muslim community.
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Lahore Congress session & Poorna swaraj

Jawaharlal Nehru was elected the President of INC at the Lahore session of 1929. It was decided that the time to given for Dominion status was lapsed and hence forth the objective of congress was Poorna swaraj (complete independence) ,to start Civil Disobedience Movement , January 26 1930 was fixed as the first Independence day. At the midnight on 31 December Jawaharlal Nehru unfurled the newly adopted tricolour flag on the bank of Ravi

Second Disobedience Movement and Salt Satyagraha

Before starting the movement, Gandhiji made an offer of 11 point Ultimatum which if accepted by the Government, he would not start his disobedience movement. The offer did not include the demand for complete independence, represented a list of specific grievance of the Indians. The ultimatum included these demands:

reduction of land revenue Abolition of salt tax and Government monopoly protection of indigenous textile industry reduction in Military and civil administration prohibition of intoxicants release of Political prisoners

As the government did not respond, Gandhiji started the movement with his famous Dandi march (Mar 12 to Apr 6 1930) from the Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi on Gujarat Coast. He violated the salt laws by picking up of a lump of salt from the shore. When Gandhi was arrested , Badarudin Tyabji led the satyagrahis. When he too was arrested Sarojini Naidu became the leader. The civil disobedience movement soon spread to other parts of country. C.Rajagopalachary led a salt march from Tiruchirapalli to Vedaranyam on Tanjore coast. Similar march by K.Kelappan from Calicut to Payyannur. In Eastern India , people refused to pay chowkidara tax. In Nagland, Rani Gadilieu , responded to Gandhijis call, captured and sentenced

to life imprisonment at the age of 13. The forest laws were deified in Maharastra, Karnataka and the Central provinces. Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan , popularly called Frontier Gandhi, took the leadership of civil disobedience movement in the extreme north western corner of India. He organised the society of Pathans, Khudai Khidmatgars (servants of God) popularly known as Red Shirts committed to non violence and freedom struggle. The whole movement witnessed large scale arrest and imprisonment of popular leaders and brutal suppression of the entire movement. News papers were censored. According to official figures, more than 110 persons were killed and more than 300 wounded in police firing
Deepavali declaration (31 Oct 1929):

Sir John Simon recommended a conference of representatives of both British India and the Indian states to take a final decision on the question of constitutional reforms for India. The suggestion was accepted by the British cabinet and subsequently Lord Irwin made this statement. According to this declaration, the objective of British policy was to grant dominion status to India and a round table conference would be held in London after the Simon commission had reported First Round Table Conference (RTC) (Nov 12 1930 to 19 Jan 1931)

The first RTC was held in London without the participation of the Congress. Muslim League was represented by Muhammad Ali, Muhammad Shafi, Jinnah, the Aga Khan and Fazl Haq.Hindu Mahasabha by Moonje and Jayakar.Indian Liberal Fedration by Tej Bahadur Sapru, C.Y.Chintamani and Srinivas Shastri and Depressed class by B.R.Ambedkar. The British realised that holding of a conference without the participation congress would be a futile effort

Gandhi Irwin Pact (Mar 1931)

The returned Indian representatives from London appealed to Gandhi for a meeting with the Viceroy, Lord Irwin. Gandhiji consented and it resulted in a pact known as Gandhi Irwin pact. According to this pact

the government agreed to withdraw all ordinances and end prosecution to release political prisoners except those guilty of violence allowed peaceful picketing and salt collection with certain conditions. The congress in turn consented to suspend the civil disobedience movement. to participate in the 2nd RTC not to press for investigation into police excess

Second Round Table Conference(Sep 7 to Dec 1931)

Main points

Gandhiji was the sole congress representative the conference deadlocked on the minorities issue Depressed Castes, Indian Chritians, Anglo Indians and Europeans demanded separate electorates. The conference ended with creation of two separate Muslim majority provinces (NWFP & Sind) by Ramsay Macdonald

Communal Award (August 1932)& Poona Pact (September 1932)

As the Indian failed to agree on minorities issue, the British PM Ramsay Mac Donald declared the communal award. It awarded separate electorates for the depressed class which made Gandhji to take a fast unto death. It resulted in Poona Pact signed by Gandhiji and Ambedkar which increased the number of seats reserved for depressed class to be filled by joint electorate Thrid Round Table conference ( 17 Nov 1932 to 24 Dec 1932):

Congress did not participate because it had restarted the CDM , after the failure of 2nd RTC and subsequent arrest of Gandhi by new viceroy Wellingdon. The British government , on the basis of discussions in RTCs ,drafted its proposals for the reform of the Indian constitution, which were embodied in the White Paper published in March 1933. This white paper was the basis of Government of Indian Act of 1935. Elections and Congress Triumph

The congress was totally opposed to the provisions of the Act, yet it decided to contest the elections. The congress won absolute majority in five provinces and largest single party in two provinces. The congress formed ministries in N.W.F.P, Bombay, Bihar, Madras, C.P, Orissa & UP. Congress formed coalition ministries in Sindh and Assam. World War II & Resignation of Congress Ministries

The World War - II was broke out in Sep 1939, the Government of India immediately joined the war without consulting elected members of the Central legislature or the Ministers. The congress declared that the issue of peace and war for India must be decided by the Indian people. Congress also condemned the way India participated in the war and asked the British to give up her imperial and colonial domination of India and reasonable quantum of self Government. The British refused to accept these demands and the congress ministries resigned. League members observed 22 December 1939 as a Day of Deliverance from congress rule. In March 1940 League demanded a separate state for Indias Muslim August offer 1940

The resignation of the congress ministries created a constitutional dead lock. the Governor General on 8 Aug 1940 issued a statement which was aimed to resolve the deadlock. It had three important points. Expansion of Viceroys executive council, establishment of War advisory council and practical steps to solve the constitutional problem after the war. To protest against the Britians policy towards India, the congress started Individual Civil Disobedience in Oct 1940 and Acharya Vinoba Bhave , the Bhoodan leader, was the first satyagrahi. Cripps Mission 1942

In 1941, Japan won a series of victories in Western Pacific and even attacked pearl hourbour in Hawaii. The Allies were surrendered in Malaya and Singapore. The attack of India was imminent. In this situation , the British made a last effort to persuade the Indian leaders to support Britain in its efforts. It Sent Sir Stafford Cripps with some proposals to India in 1942. The main objectives of proposals were : dominion status at the end of war, Indians to frame her constitution by a constituent assembly and interim government to administer the country except defense. Gandhiji rejected it as a post dated cheque drawn a crashing bank Quit India Movement (1942)

The Quit India movement followed in the wake of the failure of Cripps Mission. The congress decided to compel British to accept Indian demand for Independence. The AICC met at Bombay on 8th August 1942 and passed the famous Quit India resolution. Before the Congress could start this non violent struggle, the government arrested all the important leaders. As a result of this a series of revolts broke out in what was known as "British Quit India." The middle class was especially active during the first few

phases. But they were soon weakened by the harsh repression. The last phase in the movement was a difficult one characterized by terrorist activity against communication, police and army installations C.R.Formula and Gandh Jinnah Talks

It became very clear that the British would not hand over power to any parties unless the minorities problem was solved. C.Rajagopalachary put forward a formula to bring a settlement between the Congress and the League in 1944. The main points were: both parties should co-operate for the formation of interim government for the transitional period. After the war, a commission shall be appointed to demarcate Muslim dominated areas in the north west and east of India. The people of these districts shall decide by plebiscite, the issue of separation from India. This formula became the basis for the Gandhi Jinnah talks held in 1944. Jinnah rejected the formula and said Pakistan offered by this formulas was a maimed , multilated and moth eaten one. He opposed the idea of conducting a Plebiscite. Wavell Plan and Simla Conference (1945)

Lord Wavell , the G.G, summoned a conference to remove the constitutional deadlock and put forward a new plan called Wavell Plan : His idea was to leave the executive council in charge of Indians except the commander in chief and equal representation of Hindus and Muslim in the council. This plan also ended in failure due to the attitude of Jinnah. He argued that Muslim League alone could choose the Muslim members which was not acceptable to Congress.

Cabinet Mission (1946)

The British Government headed by Attlee was eager to solve the Indian problem sent a Cabinet Mission consisting of Lord Pethick Lawrence, Secretary of state for India, Sir Stafford Cripps, President Board of control and Mr. A.V.Alexander , First Lord of Admiralty. The main contents were

The provinces would meet in three groups North West, East and the rest Any province could secede from the union after first elections Constitution by a constituent assembly An interim government of all parties till new constitution.

The congress agreed to took part in the constituent assembly but refused to join in the interim government. So Muslim League(ML) expected to form the Govt. but Viceroy refused so ML

withdrew its acceptance of this Plan. The Viceroy invited congress to form the government and invitation was accepted. At first ML refused to join the government but later joined. The League proclaimed 16 August as Direct Action day to press their demand. Bloody riot broke out in many parts of the country. ML refused to join the constituent assembly and pressed for the formation of Paksitan. The constituent assembly met on 9 Dec 1946 under Sachidananda Sinha. Rajendra Prasad was elected President and Jawahal Lal Nehru moved his famous objective resolution in 11 Dec 1946
Role of Subhash Chandra Bose and Indian National Army

In July 1940, he was arrested under defense of India rules. 1941 he escaped from India and reached in Germany. In the mean time Rashbehari Bose organised a conference in Tokyo and then in Bangkok to liberate India from British subjection. Thus Indian National Army was formed. The Bangkok conference invited S.C. Bose to assume the leadership of INA. Bose arrived in Japan and the Japanese authorities extended all the support. He assumed the command of INA gave it the famous battle cry: Chalo Delhi. INA captured Kohima in May 1944. The INA also surrendered to the Allies when Japan surrendered

Moutbatten Plan and Independence

Lord Mountbatten replaced Lord Wavell to transfer power at the earliest opportunity and succeeded in convincing congress leadership the necessity of partition. His plan was popularly known as June 3rd Plan. The main contents were:

The Muslim majority provinces would be partitioned and a separate constituent assembly would be set up The provinces of Punjab and Bengal would be portioned Plebiscite would be conducted in NWFP and Sylhet district of Assam on the issue of separation

A bill will be introduced in the parliament to effect these proposals.The Bill was passed by the British Parliament as Indian Independence Act , 1947 . Governors-General of Fort William in Bengal

Warran Hastings (1773-85) o Regulating Act of 1773, o Rohilla war (1774) o Nanad Kumar incident (1175) o Chait singh affair (1778)

First maratha war (1778-82) Begams of oudha affair(1782) Pitts India Act of 1784 Second mysore war (1780-84) Foundation of Asiatic society of Bengal by Warren Hastings and Sir William Jones. Lord Cornwallis 1786 o Third Mysore War (1790-92) o Treaty of seringapatanam (1792) o introduction of permanent settlement and reform of judiciary Lord Wellesley (1798 1805) o Subsidiary system (1798) o first treaty with Nizam (1798) o Fourth Mysore war (1799) o Second Maratha War (1803-1805) o formation of Madras presidency (1801) Marquess Cornwallis (for the second time) 1805 Sir George Barlow Lord Minto (I) (1807 -13) Vellore Mutiny (1806) Treaty off Amritsar (1809) Charter Act of 1813 Lord Hastings (1813-23) o Nepal(Gorkha) war (1814-16) o treaty of Saguli o Third Maratha War (1817-18) o creation of Bombay Presidency o Pindari war o Ryotwari settlement in Madras Lord Amherst (1823-28) o First Burmese war capture of Bharatpur (1826)
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Lord William Cavendish-Bentinck (1828-35) o Prohibition of Sati (1829) o Charter Act of 1833 o suppression of thuggee (1829-35) o Maculays minutes o abolition of provincial court of appeal and circuit o appointment of commmissioners Sir Charles (Lord) Metcalfe o freed Indian press from restrictions Lord Auckland 1836 (March) o First Afghan War (1836-42)

Lord Ellenborough o Termination of First Afghan Wars (1842) o annexation of Sind (1843) o abolition of slavery Lord Hardinge (1844-48) o First Sikh war (1845-1846) o Treaty of Lahore o prohibition of female infanticide and human sacrifice among Gonds of central India. Lord Dalhousie (1848-56) o Second Sikh War (1845-1846) and annexation of Punjab, o Second Burmese war (1852) o Charter act of 1853 o Appication of Doctrine of Lapse o Woods dispatch o Introduction of Railways(Bombay to Thana) o Telegraph(Calcutta to Agra) o postal system o Widow remarriage Act (1856) o Santhal uprising (1855-56)

Governors-General and Viceroy

Lord Canning o Queen Victorias proclamation and India Act of 1858 o White Mutiny o Indian Councils Act of 1861 o Indian Penal Code in 1860 Lord Elgin (I) (1862) o suppressed Wahabis movement Lord John Lawrence (1864 -69) o Bhutan War ( 1865) o Establishment of High Courts at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1865 Lord Mayo (1869-72) o Establishment of statistical survey of India o Dept. of Agriculture and commerce o state railways o He was assassinated in Andamans in 1872. 1872 Sir John Strachey 1872 Lord Napier of Merchistoun 1872 Lord Northbrook Lord Lytton (I) (1876-80) o Royal Titles Act of 1876 o assumption of title of empress of India by Queen Victoria

Vernacular Press Act Arms Act of 1878 Second Afghan War (1878-80) appointment of first famine commission in 1878. Lord Ripon (1880-84) o First Factory Act and First census o Local Self Government in 1882 o division finances of the centre in 1882 o Hunter commission on Education o Ilbert Bill Controversy Lord Dufferin (1884-88) o Burmese War (1885-86) o Foundation of Indian National Congress Lord Landsdowne (1888-94) o Factory Act of 1891 o Division of Civil services into Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate o Indian councils Act of 1892 o Appointment of Durand Commission and its definition of Durand line o Between India (Now Pakistan) and Afghanistan Lord Elgin (II) o Assassination of British By Chapekar Lord Curzon (1899-1905) o Thomas Raleigh commission o Ancient Monuments Preservation Act of 1904 o Establishment of Agriculture research Institute at Pusa in Bihar o Partition of Bengal in 1905 Lord Minto (II) (1905-10) o Anti Partition and swadeshi movements o Surat session and Split in the congress o Minto Morley reforms o Foundation of Muslim League by Aga Khan o Nawab of Dacca etc. in 1906 Lord Hardinge II (1910-16) o Annulment of partion of Bengal o Transfer imperial capital to Delhi o Death of G.K. Gokhale in 1915 o foundation of Hindu Mahasabha in 1915 Lord Chelmford (1916 -21) o Return of Ghandhji o Home Rule leagues o Luknow Session and reunion of congress in 1916 o Lucknow pact in 1916 by the efforts of B.G.Tilak o August Declaration of Montague o Formation of Indian Liberal Federation by S.N.Banerjee o Jallian Walla Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919) o Khilafat movement (1919-20)

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Appointment of Sir S.P.Sinha as Lieutenant Governor of Bihar (First Indian) Lord Reading (1921-26) o Chauri Chaura incident ( 5th Feb 1922) o Formation of Swaraj party by C.R.Das o Motilal Nehru in Dec 1922 o Foundation of Rastriya Swayam Sevak Sangh (RSS) by K.B.Hedgewar (1925) o Repeal of Rowlatt Act o Holding of simultaneous examinations in India and England o Beginning of Indianisation of officers cadre of the Indian Army. Lord Irwin (1926-31) o Simon commission and its Boycott o Harcourt Butler Indian States commission (1927) o Nehru report and its rejection by Muslim League o Hindu Mahasabha etc. o Deepavali declaration o Lahore session (1929) o Poorna swaraj declaration o launching of Civil Disobedience Movement and Dandi march o First Round Table Congress o Gandi Irwin Pact. Lord Willingdon (1931-36) o Second and Third Round Table conferences o communal award (1932) by Ramsay Mac Donald o Poona pact between Gandhi and Ambedkar(1932) o Govt. of India Act 1935 o Foundation of Socialist Party by Acharya Narendra Dev and Jai Prakash Narayan (1934) Lord Linlithgow (1936-43) o Formation of congress ministries o Resignation of Subash Chandra Bose from the President ship of congress o formation of Forward Block o August offer by Linlithgow and its rejection by congress o Deliverance day by Muslim League (1939) o Cripps Mission o Quit India movement Lord Wavell (1943-47) o C.R.Formula by C.Rajagopalchari o Wavell Plan and Simla Conference o INA Trials o Naval Mutiny (1946) o Cabinet Mission ( Lawrence, Cripps and Alexander) o Formation of Interim Government and Launching of Direct Action Day. Lord Mountbatten (1947) o Partition of India and Independence

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