We know that electromagnetic waves from AM radio waves to visible and invisible light can propagate through vacuum.

That is vacuum can be a medium for electromagnetic waves. This seemingly obvious fact was long disbelieved and the concept of ether prevailed for a long period of time. In mechanical waves such as sound waves in gases and solids. And transverse waves on a string, we have no difficulty in visualizing wave motion. In sound waves. For example molecules from equilibrium positions. And we have seen that the motion of the molecules from equilibrium positions determines the potential energy, associated with wave motion. Said conversely, in any media capable of storing kinetic and potential energies, mechanical waves can be produced and propagated. Close analogy can be found in vacuum. Take a capacitor first. A capacitor can store electrical energy in its volume. Although most capacitors are filled with dielectric materials. This is not essential. Dielectrics can be replaced by or vacuum :that is, vacuum can store electrical energy. Next, take an inductor. Which is capable of storing magnetic energy. Again the magnetic energy . Again. The magnetic energy is stored in the volume occupied by the inductor, which can be air or vacuum thus we draw an important conclusion. Vacuum is capable of storing electrical and magnetic energies, which correspond to two energies, potential and kinetic, in the case of mechanical waves. In any media capable of storing electrical and magnetic energies. electromagnetic waves can be produced and propagated. In an ideal vacuum. Electromagnetic waves are completely dispersionless that is. The phase velocity equals the group velocity for any frequencies. Rumus Can you imagine what would happen to FM radio if this were not the case. If the electromagnetic waves were dispersive. Two waves of different frequencies would be received at different times. And the signals would be all mixed up! Electromagnetic waves can be dispersive. however. in media other than vacuum. In fact the velocity of visible light in glass is slower than that in vacuum. More important, the velocity of light in glass, depends, although slightly, on wave frequency; that is, the electromagnetic waves in water are not dispersion less. Another example is the propagation of shortwave radio around the earth surface, being reflected by both the earths surface and the ionospheric plasma surrounding the earth. As we have seen in mechanical waves, waves can be reflected whenever they enter another medium in which the propagation velocity (more precisely, the impedance) is different. As we will see later, the ionospheric plasma acts as a soft boundary. Visible light has no difficulty in penetrating into the ionospheric

plasma since the plasma since the plasma becomes essentially nondispersive at such high frequencies. In this chapter we derive the wave equation for electromagnetic waves using the basic knowledge we have. In fact, all we need is the knowledge of Kirchhoffs voltage and current theorems. Then we generalize the primitive method using macroscopic Maxwells equations (namely, Faradays induction law and Maxwells displacement current). Finally, you will be briefly introduced to the differential form(or microscopic form) of the Maxwells equations. Which govern all electromagnetic phenomena. 9.2 Wave Equation for an LC Transmission Line A ladder network composed of series inductances and parallel capacitances is called an LC transmission line or delay line(fig.9.1) . This is an excellent analogue of the distributed mass-spring system(9.2). We studied (chapter 4) and in fact can describe electromagnetic waves under many practical situations. Gambar 1. LC transmission time Gambar 2. Mechanical transmission line Gambar 3. Voltages and currents at one section of an LC trans mission line. ALL quantities. V s and Is depend on time also. We pick up one section of the LC line located at x, and assign currents and voltages as shown in fig.9.3. Kirchhoffs voltage theorem requires. Rumus And the current theorem requires Rumus The first term in the RHS of eq. (9.2) should have been written as Rumus But if Rumus And rumus can be well approximated by rumus. The current at rumus can also be Taylor-expanded as Rumus is small, which we assume, we may Taylor-expand rumus

Substituting eqs. (9.3) and (9.4) into Eqs. (9.1) and (9.2), we obtain Rumus Which may be considered as two simultaneous differential equations for and Next, we differentiate .. with respect to the spatial coordinate x and Eq. .. with respect to time t to obtain. Rumus

Since 111 the current 1 can be eliminated and we finally obtain a partial differential equation for the voltage 11 Rumus Exactly the same equation for the current 1 can be found. Rumus By differentiating Eq. (9.5) with respect to t an Eq. (9.6) with respect to x. (you should work this out by yourself) Equations (9.9) and (9.10) are of the form of a wave equation. The propagation velocity is immediately found as Rumus But 11 and 11 are the inductance and capacitance per unit length of the transmission line . thus we have found that : The propagation velocity of voltage and current on a transmission line is determined by the inductance and capacitance per unit length, henry/m, and farad/m. This conclusion is in fact quite general, and once we know the inductance and capacitance per unit length of any transmission lines, the velocity can readily be found. Let us go back a little bit in the derivation of the wave equation. We assumed to be small ,but did not specify how small it should be. When we wrote ,we used 111 instead of 1111,this can be done if 111 As is clear from the Taylor expansion for 1111. For a sinusoidal waveform of the voltage.111 with 111 we find

Therefore111 requires that Rumus Or roughly speaking,111 must be smaller than the wavelength. Thus when we have a discrete LC transmission line as shown in fig 9.1 the propagation of voltage and current signals can be described by a disperssionless, linear wave equation only if the preceding condition 111 is satisfied. This is the major limitation of this model, although it is possible to find an exact dispersion relation for the discrete LC transmission line (example 2) This limitation seems very severe, but we do not have to worry about it at all in practical transmission lines, which in most cases are continuous. We saw that the propagation velocity is determined by the inductance and capacitance per unit length remain as finite quantities no matter how small 111 is chosen. The most familiar transmission line is the one composed of just can easily be calculated for such a system (see example 4). Another important transmission line is the coaxial cable, which we will study in the tail later. Usually, the coaxial cable is filled with dielectric material in order to provide mechanical strength the dielectric in turn increases the capacitance per unit length. Consequently, the propagation velocity of electromagnetic signals in coaxial cables is smaller than that in those filled with air or in vacuum. As we will see, coaxial cables filled with air would have the propagation velocity 111, which is velocity of light in vacuum (or air). Let us now reexamine the dimensions of the vacuum permittivity 111 and permeability 111 the dimensions of 111 can be rewritten as farad/meter, since farad has the dimensions of 111. Thus the physical meaning of 111 is the capacitance per unit length in vacuum. Similarly, 111 can be understood as the inductance per unit length vacuum. 111 Thus the velocity of electromagnetic waves in vacuum can immediately be found as 111 (This the velocity of electromagnetic waves in unbounded vacuum or air. The wave velocity of electromagnetic waves in bounded media. Such as air filled waveguides, is not given by preceding expression and waves become dispersive). In dielectric materials, such as glass and water, the permittivity is larger. And the velocity of electromagnetic waves in dielectric materials is correspondingly smaller.

Thus we have seen that the simple LC transmission line can model several important media for electromagnetic waves propagate through them. Since the bulk expression for bolt energies are 111 and 111 with C and L the capacitance and inductance, respectively, we can alternatively state that any medium having both capacitance and inductance is capable of accommodating electromagnetic waves. Consider a highly conductive metal such as copper. We know that an electrostatic field cannot penetrate into copper. In other words, metals cannot store electrical energy. Thus electromagnetic waves cannot exist in metals with high electrical conductivity, and waves incident on metals are completely reflected. Conductivity in conductors plays much more dominant roles than permittivity for electromagnetic waves. In section 9.7 we will see that electromagnetic waves in conductors obey a differential equation entirely different from the usual wave equation such as Eq. (9.10). A static field should be distinguished from a dc field, which is dynamic and associated with a current flow in conductor. A dc field can penetrate into a conductor, as we will see in the section on skin effect. Example 1. Find the velocity of electromagnetic waves in a coaxial cable filled with Teflon, which has 111 and 111 (Fig. 9.5) From 111 We find 111 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES Example 2. (a) for the LC transmission line shown in Fig. 9.1, derive a difference equation similar to Eq. (4.7) for a mass-spring transmission line. (b) show that the exact dispersion relation is given by 111 For a harmonic wave 1111. Here 1111 (a) Let us consider two adjacent units as shown in Fig. 9.6. applying Kirchhoffs voltage theorem repeatedly, we obtain 111 Subtracting and rearranging give 111 However, Kirchhoffs current theorem yields 111

Or 111 Substituting (D) into (C), we obtain 111 This is the required difference equation for the voltage. Note that this is mathematically identical to Eq. (4.7), for the mechanical transmission lines (b) Let 1111. Noting 11111 And thus 111 We find 111 Note that the long wavelength limit corresponds to 111. Approximating 111 by simply 1111 yields our previous dispersion relation.