Geographic Information Systems for Transportation (GIS-T): Principles and Applications

By Harvey J. Miller and Shih- Lung Shaw From a book published by Oxford University Press, August 2001 (ISBN 0195123948 ) To paraphrase Mark Twain, reports of the "death of distance" are greatly exaggerated. The rise of the information economy triggered an even greater explosion in the private transportation industry: every movement of a bit implies movement of a far greater number of atoms. Despite the hype about telecommuting, teleshopping and virtual entertainment, we still sit in traffic jams and watch our urban airsheds turn opaque. Like squeezing a balloon, we have traded congestion in the urban core for congestion at the urban periphery in many cities of the world. Transportation systems serve some neighborhoods (and cities and regions) well. Some continue to be neglected. Some suffer so that others can be better connected. As Waldo Tobler recently pointed out, while the world may be "shrinking," it is also "shriveling": transportation cost differentials are increasing and creating a new, complex geography of transportation. It is likely that transportation-related problems will be at the forefront of private sector decision making and public sector debate as the world navigates through the 21st centur y. Our connected and crowded world requires efficient, responsive and environmentally-friendly transportation systems. We have also come to the realization (too late in some cases) that transportation decisions have enormous impacts on land,and life.

Geographic information systems for transportation

Geographic information systems for transportation (GIS-T) are interconnected hardware, software, data, people, organizations and institutional arrangements for collecting, storing, analyzing and communicating particular types of information about the earth. The particular types of information are transportation systems and geographic regions that affect or are affected by these systems (Fletcher 2000).

GIS-T have "arrived" and represent one of the most important applications of GIS. The GIS-T community has its own, widely recognized moniker (namely, "GIS-T"). There are dedicated conferences and well-attended session tracks at mainstream conferences. Papers and articles about GIS-T can be found in a wide-range of general and specialized GIS journals and trade publications. GIS-T consultants abound. There are career opportunities the public and private sectors (Maquire et al. 1993; Waters 1999). Indeed, some have recognized the recent emergence of a "second GIS-T renaissance" as GIS data and services continue to improve in leaps and bounds (Fletcher 2000; Wiggins et al 2000) GIS-T applications cover much of the broad scope of transportation. Transportation analysts and decision makers are using GIS tools in infrastructure planning, design and management, public transit planning and operations, traffic analysis and control, transportation safety analysis, environmental impacts assessment, hazards mitigation, configuring and managing complex logistics systems, just to name a few application domains. Intelligent transportation systems, including services such as intelligent vehicle highway systems and automatic vehicle location systems, are a particularly ambitious integration of GIS and communication technologies to a wide variety of transportation services (see Souleyrette and Strauss 1999; Waters 1999).

What is the fuss about GIS-T? Part of the excitement is certainly spillover from the meteoric rise of geographic information science and sys tems in general. GIS are profoundly changing geographic analysis and decision- making across a wide range of domains (Longley et al. 1999). This is only at the beginning of the geographic information revolution. We will continue to see vast, perhaps even accelerating, increases in the volume, scope and spectrum of digital geographic data, capabilities for processing geographic data into geographic information, and information technology (IT) for moving these data and information to where it is needed. We may soon enter the era of the geographicallyenabled scientist, engineer and citizen who can access, process and communicate digital geographic information anywhere at anytime (Mark 1999; Fletcher 2000). In addition to the supply-side "push" of increasingly pervasive and powerful tools, there are several transportation trends that are increasing the demand for GIS-T. First is a widening recognition that land and transportation are complex, highly interrelated systems. Transportation exists to overcome geographic discrepancies in resources, goods and services by moving material, people or information between where things are and where things are wanted (or vice-versa). By overcoming these geographic discrepancies for certain locations and regions, transportation systems dramatically alter accessibility. This in turn influences travel demands and eventually land-use patterns, creating new and sometimes unintended outcomes. There is also widening recognition that transportation is a major component of the quality-of- life and sustainability (Wiggins et al. 2000).

In this respect, transportation trends are not encouraging. Population growth, urbanization and suburbanization and continued intensive use of the internal combustion engine as a transport technology are creating severe negative consequences at many geographic scales. The transition to an information and service-oriented economy with activities that are less spatially and temporally focused than machine-based economies is propagating congestion across entire communities and regions for many hours of the weekly clock (Cervero 1986; Hanson 1995). This restricts accessibility to opportunities and has major negative impacts on the environment, including high demands for non-renewable energy sources, declining air quality and the consequent impact on human health

The heightened visibility and changing perspectives on transportation in our public arena is occurring at the same time that dramatic transformations are occurring in the institutional frameworks for public sector planning and decision- making. Governments around the world are outsourcing, privatizing and decentralizing services and operations due to political pressures for smaller bureaucracies and increased competition from the private sector for services traditionally considered public (e.g., education, transportation, data provision). This is not the place to debate the merit of these trends but only to recognize their existence and likely continuation. This is decentralizing public sector decision making to local levels. Many public sector transportation and metropolitan planning organizations are also evolving from engineering and design agencies to multipurpose information providers operating in a context of increasing public scrutiny (Fletcher 2000). GIS-T can play a central role in the new environment for public land-use and transportation decision- making. By allowing a wide-range of information to be integrated based on location, GIS-T fosters (but certainly does not guarantee) a holistic perspective on complex land-use and transportation problems. GIS-T allows analytical and computational tools to be used in conjunction with detailed representations of the local geography, allowing analysis and problem-solvi ng to be tailored to the local context. GIS-T can also greatly reduce the gulf between analysis and communication, allowing greater public input into analytical decisions such as choice of data, modeling assumptions and scenario development.

This could lead to greater public "buy- in" to transportation decisions, particularly important in an era of pervasive "Not-InMy-Backyard" attitudes. GIS -T can also make transportation information more accessible, potentially enhancing location and transportation decision- making by the public-at- large and encouraging wider participation in the transportation planning process.

GIS-T in the private sector is also expanding and showing few signs of abating. Dramatically improving information technologies (particularly communication technologies) are creating an increasingly hyper-competitive, global-scale economy. This is creating new requirements for efficiency and customerresponsiveness. Meeting these objectives requires an effective logistics system for managing the flow and storage of material, information and services from their points of origin to their place of final consumption.

Since many organizations are dispersed across geographic space, sometimes at national and global-scales, the supply chains from origin to consumption are geographical. GIS -T is being increasingly used to configure and manage geographical supply chains for maximum efficiency and responsiveness. GIS-T is also diffusing to the public at large. Wireline and wireless access to the World Wide Web (WWW) and the Internet is increasing and will soon achieve penetration rates similar to telephony. Wireless GIS services will become increasingly available, both from the private sector as well as from public and quasi-public organizations. Many of the queries posed by casual user will be transportation and travel- related (e.g., is there a good Mexican restaurant within ten minutes of my current location?; see Smyth 2001). Not only will this create direct demands for GIS-T services such as intelligent transportation systems, but will also quite likely improve the geographic and transportation literacy of the citizenry at large. (As an example, consider how many more people now know about geographic referencing systems due to the increasing use of the global positioning system for recreational uses.) This could create additional, indirect demands for GIS -T services, including greater sophistication in citizen scrutiny of transportation decisions in the public and private arenas. All of these trends point to an enhanced role for GIS-T in public and private sector decision making. While current trends are encouraging, but the actual outcomes may be less than rosy. Increasing the quantity or scope of transportation information in society does not necessarily imply an increase in the quality of analysis and decision- making.

As Fotheringham (2000) and Longley (2000) warn, GIS may result in a step-backwards for scientific research and applied decision making if these systems only make bad tools more accessib le or poor analysis appear more sophisticated. This is where geographic information science plays a role.

Geographic information science for transportation

As Longley et al. (1999) point out, the continuing existence of GIS relies on a widely-s hared vie w that there is something special about spatial, in other words, geographic information is unique and requires a particular type of processing. The two unique properties of geographic information are spatial dependency and spatial heterogeneity. Spatia l dependency is the tendency for things closer in geographic space to be more related. Spatial heterogeneity is the tendency of each location in geographic space to exhibit some degree of uniqueness (see Anselin 1989). GIS would not be worthwhile if geographic information did not exhibit spatial dependency and heterogeneity. Spatial dependency means that it is meaningful to record, organize and analyze data by geographic location. Spatial heterogeneity means that it is worthwhile to consider local geographic context rather than just global generalities. From an information science perspective, geographic information is unique. Geographic information space exhibits a high degree of interrelations among two, three or four of its dimensions (the two or three dimensions of geographic space, possibly with time).

In contrast, many of the other information spaces processed by computers have dimensions that can be isolated from each other and therefore easily unraveled into separate one-dimensional structures. This is convenient since at a deep level computers are basically one-dimensional information pipelines (although we can sometimes run these pipelines in parallel). A major problem in GIS software and tool development is determining the best way to arrange and process geographic information through a one-dimensional pipeline. Spatial dependency and heterogeneity also have implications for analysis and modeling. Spatial dependency implies that data recording in the real-world should occur at different locations depending on whether one wants to control or capture these relationships. Analytical models and statistical estimation techniques that do not consider spatial dependencies in geographic data ignore valuable information, are not properly specified and can give misleading results. Spatial heterogeneity implies that spatially aggregated measures can be artificial and arbitrary. Heterogeneity also means that most boundaries are lies and create measurement artifacts that may not correspond with the geographic reality. Spatial dependency and heterogeneity imply that the science and tools to support geographic information processing and decisionmaking must be tailored to recognize and exploit the unique nature of geographic information. Geographic information science (GISci) refers to the theory and methods at the foundation of GIS (Goodchild 1992). Geographic information science for transportation (GISci-T) refers to the theory and methods that underlie GIS-T.

This is a subset of GISci that develops theory and methods for capturing, processing, analyzing and communicating digital transportation information. As with GIS in general, the proper use of GIS-T requires knowledge not only of the operational level (i.e., software commands, programming languages) but also what happens behind-the-screen when procedures are invoked. This is most obviously true for software engineers and application developers working on new GIS -T tools. However, deeper knowledge beyond commands and languages is also required if one is to be an intelligent consumer of these tools. A lack of deeper GISci-T knowledge is particularly noticeable when we encounter unusual situations where the tools generate unexpected results. The GIST analyst who understands the deeper GISci-T principles can recover and respond gracefully in these difficult situations (that always seem to happen at the worst times). The software environment for GIS -T software is also changing and placing greater responsibilities on the transportation analyst. GIS vendors recognize that they cannot provide all the tools that every user wants for different types of analyses. Even if they tried, the outcome would be less than desirable, with GIS software resembling a multi-function "Swiss Army Knife" rather than a precision toolkit. Interoperable and customizable software environments can prevent this unfortunate situation by allowing an analyst who knows a particular domain well to build appropriate tools. In particular, componentware or "plug-andplay" software modules can increasingly blur the lines between software developer and user, allowing the user to develop effective GIS -T tools tailored for a particular problem. IT will also allow individuals to share these tools freely, meaning a likely propagation of both good and bad tools.

A foundation in GISci-T is necessary for distinguishing between good and bad tools and building good tools when none are available.

The scope and outline of the book

Geographic Information Systems for Transportation (GIS -T): Principles and Applications is about the fundamentals of geographic information science (GISci) and the applications of geographic information systems (GIS) to transportation. Chapters 2 - 7 discuss the fundamental scientific principles of capturing, representing, integrating, processing and analyzing digital geographic information about transportation infrastructure and systems. Chapters 3 - 11 build on this foundation and discuss applications of GIS-T software, tools and related technologies to transportation planning, intelligent transportation systems, environmental and hazards analysis, and logistics.

However, transportation networks have complex properties associated with their multimodal nature, different logical views and "one-t o- many" relationships among transportation features. Data modeling techniques are tools for translating information about some real-world domain into effective digital representations.

Chapter 2: Data Modeling and Database Design

At its heart, a GIS is a geographic database management system. Consequently, data are central to GIS. We begin the "principle" chapters of the book (Chapter 2 - Chapter 7) with three chapters on data modeling, sources and integration. To provide a solid foundation in database design, Chapter 2 addresses the fundamental data requirements and data modeling techniques with special reference to GIS-T. It may seem that developing data models for GIS-T is relatively easy since transportation has a central object of study, namely, the transportation network in a study area.

After reviewing data modeling techniques, Chapter 2 discusses three general database design issues that are relevant to GIS -T. The first is handling time in a GIS database. This is a complex issue due to the increase in dimensionality and multiple types of"time" that might be represented in a GIS. A second issue is metadata or "data about data," that is, ancillary data that describes the database. Metadata is critical for determining the fitness of a database for particular uses. This is important in transportation applications since data are often integrated from multiple sources with varying degrees of accuracy, scale and resolution. Finally, we discuss data warehousing, an increasingly important issue as the volume, scope and spectrum of digital transportation data continues to increase. A data warehouse allows the analyst to store read-only, historical copies of the operational databases for querying, exploration and decision support. A data warehouse involves challenging design issues, particularly for geographic data.

Chapter 3: GIS-T Data Models

Chapter 3 discusses data models and design issues that are specifically oriented to GIS-T. We begin with graph theory, the mathematical basis for representing networks (particularly for modeling and analysis). We discuss the traditional node-arc network model for representing a transportation system as well as major extensions such as intersection "turn-tables" and maintaining one-to- many relationships between the transportation network and events such as accidents or pavement condition. We also review some advanced, cuttingedge data models for intelligent transportation systems and related applications, including data models that support navigation.

We conclude Chapter 3 by discussing distributed and interoperable GIS-T data models. Distributed and interoperable databases are critical for intelligent transportation systems (ITS). ITS components are likely to be distributed over many locations both within a single jurisdiction and among different jurisdictions. These concepts can also be more broadly applied across all GIS T domains as distributed network computing and enterprise systems are applied to many types of information processing activities.

Chapter 4: Transportation Data Sources and Integration

After designing a GIS-T database, we must populate it with data. Chapter 4 discusses issues surrounding GIS data sources and integration for transportation-related applications.

Although a GIS transcends the traditional analog map, it shares many of its fundamental representational properties. Therefore, using geographic data effectively still requires a solid foundation in basic mapping concepts. After reviewing basic mapping concepts, Chapter 4 discusses primary and secondary sources for GIS -T relevant data. We will discuss methods for collecting geographic data for transportation, including the global positioning systems, remote sensing and traffic recording devices. We also briefly review some major secondary data sources and products in the United States and Europe, including spatial data infrastructures or information networks for making geographic data accessible to researchers, analysts and the public-at-large. Since transportation data are often acquired from different sources with different formats and varying quality. Although spatial data standards are emerging to facilitate GIS data exchanges, data integration remains as a challenge. Chapter 4 also discusses some of the most frequently encountered GIS-T data integration issues. In addition to spatial data standards, we discuss integration methods such as areal interpolation and network conflation. We will also discuss the closely related issues of spatial data aggregation and the "modifiable areal unit problem" or the troubling phenomenon that changing the configuration of aggregate spatial units changes the result of data measurement and analysis. Data integration often requires aggregation; as we will see, aggregating spatial data can create confounding effects on modeling and analysis. This is longrecognized and serious problem that is beginning to yield (albeit slowly) due to increasing capabilities for handling and reconfiguring spatial data through GIS.

Chapter 5: Shortest Paths and Routing

The next two "principles" chapters concerns network algorithms. At the core of many analytical procedures in GIS -T software are procedures or algorithms for conducting analyses and solving routing and location problems within a network. Chapter 5 focuses on methods for calculating shortest paths and solving vehicle and fleet routing problems. We begin Chapter 5 by discussing some crucial properties of networks and algorithms. This includes precise definitions of important network connectivity properties and fundamental properties of algorithms, including the difference between "exact" and "heuristic" algorithms and methods for predicting an algorithm's run time for a given problem size. Even if one is not involved in constructing new algorithms, knowing these basic properties is important for evaluating and choosing "off-the shelf" algorithms (and, by extension, software).

We continue Chapter 5 by discussing the shortest path algorithm, perhaps the central algorithm in transportation network analysis. The discussion includes a generic shortest path algorithm and different methods for implementation of this algorithm within a computational platform such as a computer. Different implementations of the same algorithm can vary widely in performance, particularly when applied to real-world transportation networks. Knowing these principles is not only important for choosing GIS-T software but is also a good basis for understanding physical processing structures used in computers. We also discuss methods for computing shortest paths very quickly, i.e., in real- time or near-real-time. This will include a review of parallel processing and heuristic implementations. We conclude Chapter 5 by discussing two closely related vehicle routing problems, namely, the traveling salesman problem (TSP) and the vehicle routing problem (VRP). The TSP attempts to find the least cost route for a vehicle that tours a set of locations that returns to the starting location. The VRP attempts to determine the simultaneous tours of multiple vehicles through a set of locations where each vehicle starts and stops at a central location (the "depot"). These problems are very important due to their direct application in transportation as well for a surprising range of non-transportation problems. They are also fascinating in their own right since they are easy to state but notoriously difficult to solve.

In contrast with the shortest path, traveling salesman and vehicle routing problems, network flow modeling concerns the case where multiple entities may travel through a given network arc.

There are two broad classes of flow problems, namely uncongested and congested. Uncongested means that each unit of flow does not affect other flows; this case often corresponds to "abstract" networks that represent logistics problems (the optimal distribution of materials, services information and control within an organization such as manufacturing, warehousing and retailing). In the congested case, the network is saturated to the point where flows affect each other by creating delays and other congestion-related costs. This case corresponds to flows through physical networks, in particular, flow through street and other transportation networks. Both sets of methods are being increasingly incorporated into GIS software, either as "turn-key" systems or through software integration and customization by researchers, users or third-party vendors. We conclude Chapter 6 by discussing methods for locating facilities within a network. Facility location methods are important for configuring logistics systems. In addition, the new transportation demands created by facilities also should be considered when evaluating new land use proposals; facility location models can be helpful for predicting induced travel demands.

Chapter 6: Network Flows and Facility Location

Chapter 6 completes the surve y of basic GIS-T network algorithms by discussing methods for solving network flow problems and finding optimal or near-optimal facility locations within a network.

We can also use facility location methods to solve flow interception and sampling problems such as locating vehicle inspection stations and traffic counters.

Towards the end of Chapter 7, we expand on a similar discussion in Chapter 3 to set a context for the use of GIS in some of the advanced transportation applications discussed in the second part of this book. We conclude Chapter 7 by discussing geographic visualization, a blending of scientific visualization and cartography. We will discuss several modes and strategies for geographic visualization, including virtual reality. These information exploration and communication tools will become increasingly important in the emerging data-rich environment for GIS-T.

Chapter 7: GIS-Based Spatial Analysis and Modeling

Chapter 7 concludes the "principles" section of the book by discussing GIS spatial analysis and modeling capabilities with special reference to transportation. We will begin with a discussion of general issues surrounding GIS and spatial analysis (the scientific study of properties that vary with geographic location). Transportation and land-use systems are examples of phenomena whose properties vary by geographic location. We also discuss GIS analytical functions, including basic functions common to most GIS software and transportation-specific tools that have been integrated into many commercial GIS products. Since it is unlikely that many of the sophisticated tools required for transportation analysis will be built into GIS software, Chapter 7 also discusses coupling GIS and transportation analysis software, including recent developments in GIS interoperability and componentware that support tight software integration. We also review of software tools such as macrolanguages and object-oriented programming that allow users to customize GIS software. Advanced transportation applications, particularly disaggregate travel demand modeling approaches and intelligent transportation systems, require representation of complex and abstract transportation features that are not well supported by the node-arc data model.

Chapter 8: Transportation Planning

Chapter 8 is the first of several on applications of geographic information science and systems to transportation problems. In Chapter 8, we discuss the role of GIS in transportation planning. The objective of transportation planning is to guide development of a land-use/transportation system to achieve beneficial economic, social and environmental outcomes. This includes tactical decisions such as planning new right-of-ways or public transit routes. This also includes long-term, strategic planning of the entire land-use transportation system. (Issues concerning operational or day-to-day transportation management will be discussed in the next chapter on intelligent transportation systems.) GISci and GIS have much to offer to transportation planning. Many transportation analysts are familiar with GIS support at the front -end as a spatial database management system and at the back-end to produce graphic and cartographic visualizations of present and future scenarios.

These are very valuable in transportation planning. In the middle are tools for processing geographic data into geographic information. This requires consideration of spatial dependency and spatial heterogeneity. Modeling techniques that do not take these properties into account do not exploit the full range of information in geographic data and in fact may lead to violations of the assumptions of standard techniques (particularly statistical and parameter estimation methods).

GIS software tools as well as techniques from the underlying GISci supports processing of very large quantities of land-use/ transportation data and the appropriate analysis of these data to produce reliable geographic information. This can help determine effective solutions to transportation problems, identify the factors that influence the land-use/transportation system, determine desirable future states of the system and illuminate the paths to achieve the desirable states. GIS can also greatly enhance the quantity and quality of information flows among all components of transportation planning process, substantially influencing decision- making within this process. Chapter 8 also discusses spatial decision support systems for helping analysts, decisionmakers and stakeholders choose among future landuse/transportation scenarios.

Chapter 9: Intelligent Transportation Systems

Chapter 9 discusses an important special case of a distributed and interoperable GIS, namely, intelligent transportation systems (ITS). Urbanization, suburbanization, population growth combined with desire for dispersed locations and continued reliance on the interna l combustion engine as a transport technology are creating undesirable negative impacts on economies and individual quality of life in many communities of the world. Conventional approaches to tackling these problems increase transportation supply by building new highways and widening existing roads. Unfortunately, as many (but sadly not all) political leaders, decision- makers and stakeholders are realizing, we cannot build our way out of congestion. Rather than increasing the physical supply of transportation infrastructure, ITS try to improve system efficiency through the use of advanced computing, real- time data sensor and communication technologies. The objective is to make transportation systems more efficient, safer, and environmentally friendly. ITS are integrated information technologies for monitoring and influencing a land-use/ transportation system through direct control (e.g., traffic signals) or indirect persuasion (variable message signage, WWW). Chapter 9 provides an overview of ITS, particularly as they relate to geographic data, information and GIS. We begin with a discussion of ITS development in three different national and pan-national settings (Japan, Europe and the United States). We then identify and discuss the range of possible ITS user services. This sets the stage for a review of ITS architectures that provide the logical configuration of geographic information and communication technologies and ITS services. Chapter 9 compares and contrasts ITS architecture in the three international settings mentioned above.

We also discuss the role of geographic information in ITS architectures, particularly with respect to location referencing and geographic data error. Chapter 9 concludes by providing examples of GIS- linked ITS services for in- vehicle navigation systems and internet -based transportation information systems. As mentioned above, transportation systems are major sources of environmental degradation and risk in modern societies. Building transportation facilities requires major alterations to the physical environment. Automobile-oriented transportation systems are a major source of energy consumption and air pollution. Transportation systems also have an inherent degree of risk due to accidents, potentially causing direct harm to individuals and property particularly if hazardous materials (HazMats) are being transported when an accident occurs. Transportation systems are also central to emergency response and management. Under extreme circumstances, we may need to rapidly evacuate the population within an affected area, often using personal transportation.

Chapter 10: Transportation, Environment and Hazards

In Chapter 10, we discuss GIScience principles and GIS tools for assessing the environmental impacts of transportation and mitigating the effects of transportation hazards. Chapter 10 discusses the impacts of transportation infrastructure on such sensitive environmental features, hydrological systems and scenic views. We also discuss the impact of operational transportation systems on air quality. With respect to hazards, Chapter 10 discusses accident and safety analysis, routing hazardous materials and evacuation planning. All of these applications require tight integration of transportation and geography, particularly with respect to high resolution and accurate representations of the physical environment and detailed estimates of flow and congestion over geographic space and real time.

References
Anselin, L. (1989) "What is special about spatial data? Alternative perspectives on spatial data analysis," Technical paper 89-4, National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis, Santa Barbara, CA. Cervero, R. (1986) Suburban Gridlock, New Brunswick, N. J.: Center for Urban Policy Research Fletcher, D. (2000) "Geographic information systems for transportation: A look forward," in Transportation in the New Millenium: State of the Art and Future Directions, Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board, CD-ROM Fotheringham, A. S. (2000) :"GIS-based spatial modelling: A step forwards or a step backwards?" in A. S. Fotheringham and M. Wegener (eds.) Spatial Models and GIS: New Potential and New Models, London, Taylor and Francis, 21-30. Hanson, S. (1995) "Getting there: Urban transportation in context," in S. Hanson (ed.) The Geography of Urban Transportation, 2ed.: New York: Guilford Press, 3-25 Longley, P. A. (2000) "The academic success of GIS in geography: Problems and prospects," Journal of Geographical Systems, 2, 37-42 Longley, P. A., Goodchild, M. F., Maguire, D. J., Rhind, D. W. (1999) "Introduction," in P. A. Longley, M. F. Goodchild, D. J. Maguire and D. W. Rhind (eds.) Geographical Information Systems, Volume 1: Principles and Technical Issues, 2ed., New York: John Wiley, 1-20

Chapter 11: GIS and Logistics

Chapter 11 concerns the applications of GIS in logistics or the planning and management of material, service, information or capital flows within an organization. Since many organizations are geographically dispersed, sometimes at global scales, logistics involves planning and managing transportation networks and/or services. Logistics increasingly involves sophisticated information and communication technologies to coordinate these dispersed and intricate systems. A recurring theme in Chapter 11 is the mismatch between narrow spectrum of commercial GIS software and the complexity of most logistics problems. This simplification is due to many factors, including the biases of GIS software vendors towards purely "geographic" solutions and the limits of the current state-of-the-art in transportation theory and methods. There is great opportunity for transportation analysts and the GIS -T community to contribute to reducing this mismatch by building more sophisticated logistics tools for GIS.

Maguire, D. J., Smith, R. and Jones, S. (1993) "GIS on the move: Some transportation applications of GIS," Proceedings, Thirteenth Annual ESRI User Conference, vol. 3, 39-46 Mark, D. M. (1999) Geographic Information Science: Critical Issues in an Emerging Cross-disciplinary Research Domain," Report from a workshop on Geographic Information Science and Geospatial Activities at the NSF, January 14-15, 1999, available at http://www.geog.buffalo.edu/). Smyth, C. S. (2001) "Mining mobile trajectories," H. J. Miller and J. Han (eds.) Geographic Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, London: Taylor and Francis, forthcoming. Souleyrette, R. R. and Strauss, T. R. (1999) "Transportation," in S. Easa and Y. Chan (eds.) Planning and Development Applications of GIS, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA, 117-133 Waters, N. (1999) "Transportation GIS: GIS-T," in P. A. Longley, M. F. Goodchild, D. J. Maguire and D. W. Rhind (eds.) Geographical Information Systems, Volume 2: Management Issues and Applications, 2ed., New York: John Wiley, 827-844 Wiggins, L., Deuker, K., Ferreira, J., Merry, C., Peng, Z. and Spear, B. (2000) "Application challenges for geographic information science: Implications for research, education and policy for transportation planning and management" URISA Journal, 12 52-59.

About the Authors Harvey J. Miller is Associate Professor in the Department of Geography at the University of Utah. His research focuses on the use of GIS and other information technology in the analysis of transportation and telecommunication systems. Harvey is a board member of the University Consortium for Information Science and Councilor-at-Large for the North American Regional Science Council. He is currently North American Editor of the International Journal of Geographical Information Science. He is also co-editor of a forthcoming book on "Geographic Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery" by Taylor and Francis. Shih-Lung Shaw is Associate Professor in the Department of Geography at the University of Tennessee - Knoxville. His research interests include geographic information systems, urban transportation planning and modeling, GIS for transportation (GIS-T), and spatial analysis. Shih- Lung currently serves as the Chair of Transportation Geography Specialty Group (2000-2002) of the Association of American Geographers. He also serves on the editorial board of Journal of Transport Geography.