Hydrology and water management (LEC 1A & LEC 1B)

Hydrology
Hydrology deals with the origin, occurrence, circulation, distribution, the physical and chemical properties of water and its interaction with living organisms.

Hydrology is an essential field of science since everything from tiny organisms to individuals to societies to the whole of civilization - depends so much on water.

Water management
The activity of planning, developing, distributing managing the optimum use of water resources. and

Branches of Hydrology
Hydrology can generally be divided into two main branches:

o Engineering Hydrology
(Planning, design and Operation of the control and use of water) Engineering projects for

o Applied Hydrology
(Hydrological cycle, precipitation, runoff, relationship between precipitation and runoff, hydrographs, Flood Routing) Hydrology can be divided into the following branches

Chemical Hydrology : Study of chemical characteristics of water.

* * * * * * * * * o o

Ecohydrology : Interaction between organisms and the hydrological cycle. Hydrogeology : Also referred to as geohydrology, is the study of the presence and movement of ground water. Hydroinformatics : is the adaptation of information technology to hydrology and water resource applications.= Hydrometeorology : is the study of the transfer of water and energy between land and water body surfaces and the lower atmosphere. Isotope Hydrology : is the study of isotropic signatures of water (origin and age of water). Surface water Hydrology : is the study of hydrologic processes that operate at or near earths surface. Ground water Hydrology : is the study of underground water. = Drainage basin management : covers water storage in the form of reservoir and flood protection. Water quality : includes the chemistry of water in rivers and lakes, both of pollutants and natural solutes.

Applications of Hydrology
Determining the water balance of a region. Determining the agricultural water balance.

o o o o o o o o o o

Designing riparian restoration projects. Mitigation and predicting floods, landslides and drought risk. Flood forecasting and flood warnings. Designing irrigation schemes and managing agricultural productivity. Designing dams for water supply or hydroelectric power generation. Designing bridges. Designing sewers and urban drainage system. Predicting geomorphologic changes, such as, erosion or sedimentation. Assessing the impact of natural and anthropogenic environmental change. Assessing containment transport risk and establishing environmental policy guidelines

Hydrological cycle

Hydrological cycle also known as Water cycle, describes the continuous Movement of water on, above and below the surface of the earth.

The main processes involved in hydrological cycle are

* * * * * * * * *

Evaporation Condensation Precipitation Interception Infiltration Percolation Transpiration Runoff Storage

The water cycle begins with the evaporation of water from oceans and other water bodies. The resulting vapors are transported by moving air and under proper conditions, the vapor are condensed to form clouds, which in turn results in precipitation. The precipitation which falls upon land is dispersed in several ways. The greater part is temporarily retained in the soil near where it falls and is ultimately returned to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration by plants. A portion of the water flows over surface soil to stream channels, while other penetrates into the ground to become part of the ground water. Under the influence of gravity, both surface and underground water move towards lower elevations and may eventually discharge into the oceans.

o o o

This Hydrologic Cycle recycles the earths valuable water supply. In other words, the water keeps getting reused over and over. Just think, the next glass of water you drink could have been used by a dinosaur in the Mesozoic Era one hundred million years ago! Water in that glass could have been a liquid, a solid, and a gas countless times over thanks to the water cycle.

Precipitation
The term precipitation as used in hydrology is meant for all forms of moisture emanating from the clouds and all forms of water like rain, snow, hail and sleet derived from atmospheric vapors, falling to the ground. Precipitation is one of the most important events of hydrology. Floods and droughts are directly related to the occurrence of precipitation. Water resources management, water supply schemes, irrigation, hydrologic data for design of hydraulic structures and environmental effects of water resources development projects are related to precipitation in one way or the other. So it is important to study various aspects of precipitation.

Forms of Precipitation

Drizzle: These are the minute particles of water at start of rain. These consist of water drops under 0.5 mm diameter and its intensity is usually less than 1.0 mm/hr. Their speed is very slow and we cannot even feel them. Therefore they cannot flow over the surface but usually evaporate.

Rain: It is form of precipitation in which the size of drops is more than 0.5 mm and less than 6.25 mm in diameter. It can produce flow over the ground and can infiltrate and percolate. Both the duration as well as rate of rainfall are important. If the rainfall per unit time is greater than the rate of infiltration, the rain water can flow over the surface of earth. Glaze: It is the ice coating formed on drizzle or rain drops as it comes in contact with the cold surfaces on the ground.

Sleet: Sleet is frozen rain drops cooled to the ice stage while falling through air at subfreezing temperatures.

Snow: Snow is precipitation in the form resulting from sublimation i.e. change directly to ice.

of of

ice crystals water vapor

Snowflakes: A snowflake is made up of a number of ice crystals fused together.

Hail: Hail is the type of precipitation in the form of balls or lumps of ice over 5 mm diameter formed by alternate freezing and melting as they are carried up and down by highly turbulent air currents. The impact of these is also more. A single hailstone weighing over a pound has been observed.

Factors influencing Precipitation formation

o o o

A lifting mechanism to produce cooling of the air. A mechanism to produce condensation of water vapors and formation of cloud droplets. A mechanism to produce growth of cloud droplets to size capable of falling to the ground against the lifting force of air.

* * * * *

Mechanism of cooling When air ascends from near the surface to upper Levels in the atmosphere it cools. This is the only mechanism capable of producing the degree and rate of cooling needed to account for heavy rainfall. Cooling lowers the capacity of a given volume of air to hold a certain amount of water vapor. As a result super saturation occurs and the excess moisture over saturation condenses through the cooling process.

o * * *

Condensation of water vapor Condensation of water into cloud droplets takes place on hygroscopic nuclei which are small particles having an affinity for water. The source of these condensation nuclei are the particles of sea salt or products of combustion of certain sulfurous and nitrous acid and carbon dioxide. There are always sufficient nuclei present in the atmosphere.

o * * * *

Growth of Droplet Growth of droplets is required if the liquid water present in the cloud is to reach the ground. The two processes regarded as most effective for droplet growth are: Coalescence of droplets through collision due to difference in speed of motion between larger and smaller droplets. Co-existence of ice crystals and water droplets. Co-existence effect generally happens in the temperature range from 100 to 20o F.

If in a layer of clouds there is a mixture of water droplets and ice crystals, the saturation vapor pressure over ice is lower than that over water. This leads to the evaporation of water drops and condensation of much of this water on ice crystals causing their growth and ultimate fall through the clouds. This effect is known as Bergerons effect.

The ice crystals will further grow as they fall and collide with water droplets.

Classification of Precipitation Based on the Lifting Mechanism

The precipitation is often classified according to the factor responsible for lifting of air to higher altitudes. Following are the various types of precipitation based on this classification.

* * * * *

Convectional Precipitation Orographic Precipitation Cyclonic Precipitation

o Convectional

Precipitation

The main cause of Convectional precipitation is thermal convection of the moisture laden air (rising of warmer, lighter air in colder, denser surroundings). A major portion of the solar radiation is utilized in heating the earth. As the earth conducts heat slowly, the heat accumulates at the surface of the earth and air which comes in its contact is heated up and the lapse rate near the surface of the earth increases rapidly. With the passage of time as the sun gets higher and higher the lapse rate increases further and air becomes unstable. Vertical currents are then set up which carry heat and the moisture laden air is picked up from the surface to higher levels. Due to convection, the moist air in the lower levels of the atmosphere rises up to the condensation level where clouds develop and with further convection these clouds finally grow resulting in a thunderstorm.

o *

Orographic Precipitation
In the orographic precipitation, expansion and condensation occurs because moisture laden air masses are lifted by contact with orographic (mountain) barriers.

* * o * * * * * *

This type of precipitation is most pronounced on the windward side of mountain range, generally heaviest precipitation occurs where favorable orographic effects are present. Orographic precipitation also occurs in the inland areas where mountain ranges rise above the surrounding areas in the path of the moisture laden air masses.

Cyclonic precipitation
Precipitation in plain regions is generally cyclonic in character. Cyclonic precipitation results from the lifting of air converging into a low-pressure area or cyclone. Cyclonic precipitation can be frontal or nonfrontal. Frontal precipitation results from the lifting of warm air on one side over a colder denser air on the other side. Warm-front precipitation is formed in the warm air advancing upward over a cold air mass. Cold-front precipitation is formed in the warm air is forced upward by an advancing mass of cold air.

In the Indo-Pak Subcontinent, the cyclonic storms form in the Bay of Bengal in different months. During April, May and June most of these storms do not reach Pakistan. But some of them affect Bangladesh and give very heavy rainfall there. During the summer monsoon season, the cyclonic storms reach Pakistan and are fed with moisture from the Arabian sea resulting in heavy rainfall over the Northern areas of Pakistan. In September, October and November these storms are very destructive in Bangladesh. Such storms cause considerable loss of life and property over the coastal districts. Cyclonic storms also form in Arabian sea but their number is far less.

Measurement of precipitation

All forms of precipitation are measured on the basis of the vertical depth of water that would accumulate on a level surface if the precipitation remained where it fell. The amount of precipitation is measured in units of length (millimeters/inches). The precipitation is measured by rain gauges/precipitation gauges. There are two types of rain gauges.

* *

Non-recording rain gauge (standard rain gauge)

Recording rain gauge

The main difference between these rain gauges is that with the help of recording rain gauges we get the rain recorded automatically with respect to time, so intensity of rain fall is also known whereas an observer has to take readings from non recording rain gauge for rain and he has to record the time also, for calculation of intensity of rain fall.

Non-Recording/Standard gauge

The standard gauge of U.S. Weather Bureau has a collector of 200 mm diameter and 600 mm height. Rain passes from a collector into a cylindrical measuring tube inside the overflow can. The measuring tube has a cross sectional area 1/10th of the collector, so that 2.5 mm rain fall will fill the tube to 25 mm depth. A measuring stick is marked in such a way that 1/10th of a cm depth can be measured. In this way net rainfall can be measured to the nearest 1 mm. The collector and tube are removed when snow is expected. The snow collected in the outer container or overflow can is melted, poured into the measuring tube and then measured. This type of rain gauge is one of the most commonly used rain gauges.

Standard rain gauge(Non Recording)

o * * * * * *

Sources of Error Some water is used to wet the surface of instrument. The rain recorded may be less than the actual rainfall due to the direction of the rainfall as affected by wind. Dents in the collector and tube may also cause error. Some water is absorbed by the measuring stick. Losses due to evaporation can also take place. The volume of stick replaces some water which causes some error.

Recording Rain gauge

Recording rain gauges can be divided into the following types:

* * *

Float type

Weighing type

Tipping bucket type

o Float Type Rain Gauge

This type of rain gauge also has a receiver and a float chamber along with some recording mechanism or arrangement. In this type the rain is led into a float chamber containing a light, hollow float. The vertical movement of the float as the level of water rises is recorded on a chart with the help of a pen connected to float. The chart is wrapped around a rotating clock driven drum. To provide a continuous record for 24 hours the float chamber has either to be very large, or some automatic means are provided for emptying the float chamber quickly when it becomes full, the pen then returning to the bottom of the chart. This is usually done with some sort of siphoning arrangement. This arrangement activates when the gauge records a certain fixed amount of rain (mostly 10 mm of rainfall.). Snow cannot be measured by this type of rain gauge.

Float type rain gauge

Weighing Type Rain Gauge

The weighing type rain gauge consists of a receiver, a bucket, a spring balance and some recording arrangement. The weighing type gauge weighs the rain or snow which falls into a bucket which is set on a lever balance. The weight of the bucket and content is recorded on a chart by a clock driven drum. The record is in the form of a graph, one axis of which is in depth units and the other has time. The records show the accumulation of precipitation. Weighing type gauges operate from 1 to 2 months without stopping. But normally one chart is enough only for 24 hours. This type of rain gauge has advantage of measuring snow also. The receiver is removed when snow is expected.

[Type a quote from the document or the summary of an interesting point. You can position the text box anywhere in the document. Use the Text Box Tools tab to change the formatting of the pull quote text box.]

Tipping Bucket Type Rain Gauge

This type of gauge is equipped with a remote recorder located inside the office which is away from the actual site. The gauge has two compartments pivoted in such a way that one compartment receives rain at one time. A certain amount of rain (usually 0.25 mm fills one compartment and over balances it so that it tips, emptying into a reservoir and bringing the second compartment of the bucket into place beneath the funnel of receiver. As the bucket is tipped by each 0.25 mm of rain it actuates an electrical circuit, causing a pen to mark on a revolving drum. This type of gauge is not suitable for measuring snow without heating the collector. Plotting is similar to that of other recording rain gauges.

o * * * * * *

Sources of Error Dents in the collector. Moistening of inside-surface of the funnel and the tube. Rain drops splashing from the collector. For very intense rain some water is still pouring into the already filled bucket. Inclination of the gauge may result in catching less or more rain than the actual amount. Error in measurement due to wind.

o Remedial * * *

measures for Error in Precipitation measurement

Removal of error due to dents obviously needs repair of the instrument. For rain recorded with dents a correction should be applied. Errors such as moistening of the inside surfaces of the gauge, splashing of rainwater from the collector and pouring of water into the already filled bucket during an intense rain can only be corrected by some correction factor. Inclined instrument needs to be reinstalled. The correction factor however can be calculated from the angle of inclination.

For wind protection certain wind shields are designed and used which are called Splash Guards. Proper setting of gauge above ground level is necessary.

Example: A rain gauge recorded 125 mm of precipitation. It was found later that the gauge was inclined at an angle of 20 degree with the vertical. Find the actual precipitation.

Solution: P(measured) = 125 mm Angle of inclination () = 20o with the vertical P(actual) = P(measured)/cos() = 125/cos20o = 133 mm

Measurement of precipitation by Radar

This is a modern technique for measurement of rainfall rate. It can also detect local movement of areas of precipitation. The electromagnetic energy released and received back by radar is a measure of rainfall intensity. The measurement is appreciably affected by trees and buildings. However extent of rainfall can be estimated with reasonable accuracy. Use of radar is useful where number of rain gauges installed in an area is not sufficient.

Rain Gauge Network The number of rain gauges and their distribution affect the nature of collected precipitation data. The larger the number of rain gauges the more representative will be the data collected. But on the other hand we have to observe other factors also, like economy of the project, accessibility of certain areas and topography of the area. So, one has to look for some optimum solution. In this regard the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has made following recommendations for minimum number of rain gauges in a catchment:

o o o

In comparatively flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean and Tropical Zones, the ideal is at least one station for 230 345 sq. miles. However one station for 345 1155 sq. miles is also acceptable In mountainous regions of Temperate, Mediterranean and Tropical Zones, the ideal is at least one station for 35 95 sq. miles. However one station for 95 385 sq. miles is also acceptable. In arid and polar zones, one station for 575 3860 sq. miles is acceptable.

Analysis of Precipitation data

o o

Estimation of missing precipitation data

Consistency of precipitation data or Double Mass Index

1.

Estimation of missing Precipitation data

Some precipitation stations may have short breaks in the records because of absence of the observer or because of instrumental failures. It is often necessary to estimate this missing record.

In the procedure used by the U.S. Weather Bureau, the missing precipitation of a station is estimated from the observations of precipitation at some other stations as close to and as evenly spaced around the station with the missing record as possible. The station whose data is missing is called interpolation station and gauging stations whose data are used to calculate the missing station data are called index stations.

There are two methods for estimation of missing data.

o o

Arithmetic mean method Normal ratio method

Simple Arithmetic Mean method mean method the missing

According to the arithmetic precipitation Px is given as:

1 i=n n i =1
1 i= n n i= 1

Px=

Where n is the number of nearby stations, Pi is precipitation at ith station and Px is missing precipitation. In case of three stations 1, 2 and 3, Px = (P1 + P2 + P3)/3

Naming stations as A, B and C instead of 1, 2 and 3 Px = (Pa + Pb + Pc)/3 Where Pa , Pb and Pc are defined above.

Normal Ratio method

According to the normal ratio method the missing precipitation is given as: 1 i=n N x n i =1 N i Pi
1 i= n n i= 1

N P N
x i

Px

Where Px is the missing precipitation for any storm at the interpolation station x, Pi is the precipitation for the same period for the same storm at the ith station of a group of index stations, Nx the normal annual precipitation value for the x station and Ni the normal annual precipitation value for ith station.

For example, for the symbols defined above for three index stations in a catchment area. 1 Nx [ + 3 N 1 P1

N +N ] P P N N
x x 2 3 2 3

1 Nx [ + 3 N 1 P1

N +N ] P P N N
x x 2 3 2 3

Px=

If the normal annual precipitation of the index stations lies within 10% of normal annual precipitation of interpolation station then we apply arithmetic mean method to determine the missing precipitation record otherwise the normal ratio method is used for this purpose.

Consider that record is missing from a station X. Now let, N = Normal annual precipitation. (Mean of 30 years of annual precipitation data) P = Storm Precipitation. Let Px be the missing precipitation for station X and Nx , the normal annual precipitation of this station, Na, Nb and Nc are normal annual precipitations of nearby three stations, A, B and C respectively while Pa, Pb and Pc are the storm precipitation of that period for these stations. Now we have to compare Nx with Na , Nb and Nc separately. If difference of Nx - Na, Nx - Nb, Nx - Nc is within 10% of Nx then we use simple arithmetic mean method otherwise the normal ratio method is used.

Example : Find out the missing storm precipitation of station C given in the following table:

Station

Storm precipitation (cm) Normal Annual precipitation (cm)

9.7 100.3

8.3 109.5

---93.5

11.7 125.7

8.0 117.5

Solution: In this example the storm precipitation and normal annual precipitations at stations A, B, D and E are given and missing precipitation at station C is to be calculated whose normal annual precipitation is known. We will determine first that whether arithmetic mean or normal ratio method is to be applied.

10% of Nc = 93.5x10/100 =

9.35

After the addition of 10% of Nc in Nc, we get

93.5 + 9.35=102.85

And by subtracting 10% we get

a value of 84.15

So Na, Nb, Nd or Ne values are to be checked for the range 102.85 to 84.15.

If any value of Na, Nb, Nd or Ne lies beyond this range, then normal ratio method would be used. It is clear from data in table above that Nb, Nd and Ne values are out of this range so the normal ratio method is applicable here, according to which: 1 i=n N x n i =1 N i Pi
1 i= n n i= 1

N P N
x i

Px =

Pc= (1/4 )(93.5 x 9.7/100.3+ 93.5 x 8.3/109.5+ 93.5 x 11.7/125.7+ 93.5 x 8.0/117.5) = 7.8 cm

Example Precipitation station X was inoperative for part of a month during which a storm occurred. The storm totals at three surrounding stations A, B and C were respectively 10.7, 8.9 and 12.2 cm. The normal annual precipitation amounts at stations X, A, B and C are respectively 97.8, 112, 93.5 and 119.9 cm. Estimate the storm precipitation for station X.

Solution Pa = 10.7 cm Pb = 8.90 cm Pc = Px = ? 10% of Nx = 97.8 x 12.2 cm Na = 112 cm Nb = 93.5 cm Nc = 119.9 cm Nx = 97.8 cm 10/100 = 9.78 cm.

Nx - Na = 97.8 - 112 = -14.2 cm need of calculating Nx Nb and

More than + 10% of Nx (no Nx Nc

Px = (1/3)( 97.8x 10.7/112+ 97.8x 8.90 /93.5 + 97.8x 12.2 / 119.9) Px = 9.5 cm

2.
o

Consistency of Precipitation Data or Double Mass Analysis

In using precipitation in the solution of hydrologic problems, it is necessary to ascertain that time trends in the data are due to meteorological changes. Quite frequently these trends are the result of the changes in the gauge location, changes in the intermediate surroundings such as construction of buildings or growth of trees, etc. and changes in the observation techniques. Due to such changes the data might not be consistent. The consistency of the record then is required to be determined and the necessary adjustments be made. This can be achieved by the method called the double mass curve technique. The double mass curve is obtained by plotting the accumulated precipitation at the station in question along X-axis and the average accumulated precipitation of a number of other nearby stations which are situated under the same meteorological conditions along Y-axis. If the curve has a constant slope, the record of station X is consistent. However, if there is any break in the slope of the curve, the record of the station is inconsistent and has to be adjusted by the formula. Pa = (Sa / So)x Po

o o

Where

Pa = Adjusted precipitation.

Po = Observed precipitation.

Sa = Slope prior to the break in the curve So = Slope after the break in the curve. All values after break are to be adjusted.

o
Year

Example Check consistency of the data given in table below and adjust it if it is found to be inconsistent. Annual precipitatio n at x (mm) Mean of annual precipitation of 20 surrounding stations (mm) 264 228 386 297 284 350 236 371 234 290 282 246 Year Annual Mean of annual precipit precipitation of ation at 20 surrounding x (mm) stations (mm) 223 173 282 218 246 284 493 320 274 322 437 389 360 234 333 236 251 284 361 282 252 274 302 350

1972 1971 1970 1969 1968 1967 1966 1965 1964 1963 1962 1961

188 185 310 295 208 287 183 304 228 216 224 203

1954 1953 1952 1951 1950 1949 1948 1947 1946 1945 1944 1943

1960 1959 1958 1957 1956 1955

284 295 206 269 241 284

264 332 231 234 231 312

1942 1941 1940 1939 1938 1937

305 320 328 308 302 414

228 312 284 315 280 343

Solution A double mass curve is plotted by taking cumulative of average precipitation of surrounding stations along x-axis and accumulative precipitation of station X along y-axis for which consistency of data is being investigated. The double mass curve is shown in Figure

Year

Cummulative Annual precipitation at x (mm)

Cummulative ppt: of 20 srndg, stations (mm)

Corrected Precipitation 188 185 310 295 208 287

Remarks

1972 1971 1970 1969 1968 1967

188 373 683 978 1186 1473

264 492 878 1175 1459 1809

No correcti on

1966 1965 1964 1963 1962 1961 1960 1959 1958 1957 1956 1955 1954 1953 1952 1951 1950 1949 1948 1947

1656 1960 2188 2404 2628 2831 3115 3410 3616 3885 4126 4410 4633 4806 5088 5306 5552 5836 6329 6649

2045 2416 2650 2940 3222 3468 3732 4064 4295 4529 4760 5072 5432 5666 5999 6235 6486 6770 7131 7413

183 304 228 216 224 203 284 295 206 269 241 284 223 173 282 218 246 190.8 345 224 Precipitatio n of Station 'X' x 0.7

1946 1945 1944 1943 1942 1941 1940 1939 1938 1937

6923 7245 7682 8071 8376 8696 9024 9332 9634 10048

7665 7939 8241 8591 8819 9131 9415 9730 10010 10353

192 225.4 306 272.3 213.5 224 229.6 215.6 211.4 290

Where Pa = (Sa / So)x Po Pa = Adjusted precipitation. Po = Observed precipitation. Sa = Slope prior to the break in the curve So = Slope after the break in the curve.

The correction for slope is applied to readings beyond break in slope. The calculations are shown in table. Slope of 1st line = Sa = 0.854 Slope of deviating line = So = 1.176 Correction to values (multiplying factor) = 0.854/1.176 = 0.70 So up to 1950 no correction is required. readings are multiplied by slopes ratio corrected precipitation. Note that data in (1973-1950) is considered more authentic so reach of the graph. Before 1950 all of 0.7 to get latter interval kept in initial

Estimation of Average Precipitation over a Basin

To find out runoff from a catchment and most of other hydrologic analyses, it is important to know the average precipitation of a certain part of catchment or for the whole of the catchment area. To find out average precipitation of watershed, records of precipitation from different rain gauge stations is used. There are many factors which affect the reliability of average precipitation of watershed determined by using the data from individual stations in the watershed. For example : the total number of rain gauges and their distribution in the catchment (larger the number of rain gauges, the reliable will be the calculated average precipitation), the size and shape of area of catchment, distribution of rainfall over the area and topography of the area and the method used for calculating average precipitation. There are three methods to find average precipitation over a basin. Accuracy of estimated average precipitation will depend upon the choice of an appropriate method. These methods are described below: Arithmetic Mean Method Thiessen Polygon Method Isohyetal Method

o o o o

Arithmetic Mean Method

In this method the average precipitation over an area is the arithmetic average of the gauge precipitation values. We take data for only those stations which are within the boundary. This is the simplest method but is applicable only for flat areas and not for hilly areas i.e. this method is used when:

o Basin area is flat. o All o The

stations are uniformly practical limits) over the area. distributed (within

rainfall is also nearly uniformly distributed over the area.

According to this method

1 n Pi n i =1
1 n

P
i= 1

P (average) =
i

Or Pav = [P1+P2+P3++Pn]/n Where Pi is precipitation at station i and there are n number of gauges installed in the catchment area from where the data has been collected.

o Example
Six rain gauges were installed in a relatively flat area and storm precipitation from these gauges was recorded as 3.7, 4.9, 6.8, 11.4, 7.6 and 12.7 cm respectively from gauges 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Find average precipitation over the catchment.

o Solution
As the area is relatively flat so we apply the arithmetic mean method. According to arithmetic mean method

P(average) = (3.7 + 4.9 + 6.8 + 11.4 + 7.6 + 12.7)/6 = 7.85 cm.

Thiessen Polygon Method

The fundamental principle followed in this method consists of weighing the values at each station by a suitable proportion of the basin area. In this method, a special weighing factor is considered. The following steps are used to precipitation by Thiessen Polygon Method. determine average

Draw the given area according to a certain scale and locate the stations where measuring devices are installed. all the stations to get a network of non-intersecting system of triangles. perpendicular bisectors of all the lines joining the stations and get a suitable network of polygons, each enclosing one station. It is assumed that precipitation over the area enclosed by the polygon is uniform.

o Join o Draw

o Measure area of the each polygon. o Calculate

the average precipitation. For the whole basin by the formula.

(average)

(P1 A1 + P2 A2 + ...........+ Pn An)/A

Where, P1 = Precipitation. at station enclosed by polygon of area A1 P2 = Precipitation. at station enclosed by polygon of area A2 and so on Pn = Precipitation. at station enclosed by polygon of area An And A represents the total area of the catchment.

Example : Following is shown map of a catchment having 6 rainfall recording stations. Find the Average Precipitation over the whole catchment.

The precipitation and polygon area are given below.

Solution: The calculations are done in tabular form

Station

Precipitation (mm)

Polygon Area (km)

Daggar Besham Shinkiari Phulra Tarbela Oghi

48 33 25 32 56 30

5,068.76 4,349.17 1,399.25 1,693.80 2,196.33 2,234.29

PiAi
i =1 i =n i =1

i=n

Ai

PiAi
i= 1 i =n i= 1

i =n

Mean Precipitation = 666.02x106x10/16941.60x106

Ai
Mean Precipitation = 39.3 mm

Example : From the data given in Table below, which was obtained from Thiessen Polygon map of a catchment, find out the average precipitation of the catchment.

Solution : According to Thiessen Polygon Method P

(average)

= (P1 A1 + P2 A2 + ...........+ Pn An)/A

The calculations are shown in tabular form in Table.

Station Daggar Besham Shinkiari Phulra Tarbela Oghi

Precipitation P (mm) 48 33 25 32 56 30

Polygon Area A (km) 5,068.76 4,349.17 1,399.25 1,693.80 2,196.33 2,234.29

P x A (x106 m) 243.30 143.52 34.98 54.20 122.99 67.03

Total

16,941.60

666.02

(average)

= 27890.20 10.9=2561 cm

Example : There are 10 observation stations, 7 being inside and 3 in neighborhood of a catchment. Thiessen Polygons were drawn for a storm data from these observation stations and the data given in Table below was obtained. Find out the average precipitation of the catchment. Gauge precipitat ion (cm) Area of Thiessen Polygon enclosing the station (sq. km) Sr No Gauge precipitat ion (cm) Area of Thiessen Polygon enclosing the station (sq. km) 4 5 6 9.4 15.2 7.6 520 390 325

Sr No

1 2 3

10.2 8.1 12.7

416 260 650

Solution : According to Thiessen Polygon Method P

(average)

= (P1 A1 + P2 A2 + ...........+ Pn An)/A

(average)

= 5157.5 4.3 = 1200 cm

Isohyetal Method The most accurate method of averaging precipitation over an area is the isohyetal method. For estimation of average precipitation of the catchment by isohyetal method the following steps are used: 1. Draw the map of the area according to a certain scale. 2. Locate the points on map where precipitation measuring gauges are installed. 3. Write the amount of precipitation for stations. 4. Draw isohyets (Lines joining points of equal precipitation). 5. Measure area enclosed between every two isohyets or the area enclosed by an isohyet and boundary of the catchment. 6. Find average precipitation by the formula. P (average) = (P1 A1 + P2 A2 + ...........+ Pn An)/A Where, P1= Mean precipitation of two isohyets 1 and 2 A1= Area between these two isohyets. P2 = Mean precipitation of two isohyets 2 and 3

A2 = the area b/w these two isohyets. and, so on Pn = Mean precipitation of isohyets n-1 and n An = the area between these two isohyets. It may be noted that the last and first areas mentioned above may be between an isohyet and boundary of the catchment. In this case the precipitation at the boundary line is required which may be extrapolated or interpolated. Example: From the data given in table below, which was obtained from isohyetal map of a catchment, find out the average precipitation of the catchment. Isohyet No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Isohyetal precipitation (cm) 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 10.0 7.5 5.0 2.5 Area enclosed between two isohyets. (sq km) 390 520 650 390 390 442 546

Note that the isohyet No. 1 and 8 were out of the boundary of the catchment. The area between isohyet No. 2 and the boundary was estimated to be 312 sq. km and that of between isohyet No. 7 and boundary was 494 sq. km. Precipitation on these boundaries was interpolated as 3.0 and 3.1 cm, respectively.

 Solution: In isohyetal method we have to calculate the average precipitation of every two consecutive isohyets. This is given in Table below. Isohye t No. Isohyetal precipitation (cm) (2) 3 Average of precipitation of two consecutive isohyets (cm) (3) 4 (for isohyet and boundary) 6.25 8.75 10.0 8.75 6.25 4.05(for isohyet and boundary) Area enclosed between two isohyets (sq km) (4) 312 (for isohyet and boundary) 520 650 390 390 442 494 (for isohyet and boundary) Volume (x104 m) (5) = (3) x (4) 1248.00

(1) Boundary

2 3 4 5 6 7

5.0 7.5 10.0 10.0 7.5 5.0

3250.00 5687.50 3900.00 3412.50 2762.50 2000.70

Boundary

3.1 3198 22260.2

P (average) = (P1 A1 + P2 A2 + ...........+ Pn An)/A = 22260.2/3198= 6.96 cm Example : In a catchment of area 1,000 sq km, there are 8 rain gauges, 5 inside the area and 3 outside, in its surroundings. Isohyets were drawn from the data of these rain gauges for a storm. From the isohyetal map the following information was obtained: areas between 1 and 2 cm isohyets, 2 and 3 cm, 3 and 4 cm and 4 and 5 cm isohyets was 105, 230, 150 and 220 sq. km, respectively. The area between one end boundary which has

0.75 cm rainfall and 1 cm isohyet was 120 sq. km and the other end boundary which has precipitation of 5.5 cm and isohyet of 5 cm was 175 sq. km. Find average precipitation. Solution Isohyet No Isohyetal precipitation (cm) 0.75 Average of precipitation of two consecutive isohyets (cm) 0.875 (for isohyet and boundary) 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.25 (for isohyet and boundary) Area enclosed between two isohyets(sq km) 120 (for isohyet and boundary) 105 230 150 220 175 Volume(x104 m)

Boundar y 1 2 3 4 5

105.00

1 2 3 4 5

157.50 575.00 525.00 990.00 918.75

Boundar y

5.5 1000.00 3271.25

P (average) = (P1 A1 + P2 A2 + ...........+ Pn An)/A = 3271.25/1000 = 3.27 cm Example : From the isohyetal map shown in Fig. below find out average precipitation.

The isohyets are drawn on the topographic map by interpolating rainfall depths at given stations. Once isohyets are drawn, the area enclosed between consecutive isohyets is determined either by planimeter or other suitable more precise method Isohyte value (mm) Boundary and 25 25 and 30 30 and 35 35 and 40 40 and 45 45 and 50 50 and 55 55 and Boundary Av. Isohyte Value (mm) Area Between Consecutive Isohytes (km) 310.53 2220.71 2968.38 2231.86 2303.52 2731.90 2689.70 1484.99 16,941.60 Volume (x106 m)

25.0 27.5 32.5 37.5 42.5 47.5 52.5 55 Total

7.76 61.07 96.47 83.69 97.90 129.77 141.21 81.67 699.54

Mean Precipitation Depth = Volume/Area = 699.54x106x10/16941.60x106 = 41.29 mm

References: Hydrology for Engineers by Linsely, Kohler, Paulhus Applied Hydrology by Dr. Abdur Razzaq Ghumman Wikipedia