Introduction

Historical Perspective Materials are so important in the development of civilization that we associate ages with them. In the origin of human life on earth, the Stone Age, people used only natural materials, like stone, clay, skins, and wood. When people found copper and how to make it harder by alloying, the Bronze Age started about 3000 BC. The use of iron and steel, a stronger material that gave advantage in wars started at about 1200 BC. The next big step was the discovery of a cheap process to make steel around 1850, which enabled the railroads and the building of the modern infrastructure of the industrial world. Materials Science and Engineering Understanding of how materials behave like they do, and why they differ in properties was only possible with the atomistic understanding allowed by quantum mechanics, that first explained atoms and then solids starting in the 1930s. The combination of physics, chemistry, and the focus on the relationship between the properties of a material and its microstructure is the domain of Materials Science. The development of this science allowed designing materials and provided a knowledge base for the engineering applications (Materials Engineering).

Why Study Materials Science and Engineering?

To be able to select a material for a given use based on considerations of cost

and performance. To understand the limits of materials and the change of their properties with use. To be able to create a new material that will have some desirable properties. All engineering disciplines need to know about materials. Even the most "immaterial", like software or system engineering depend on the development of new materials, which in turn alter the economics, like software-hardware trade-offs. Increasing applications of system engineering are in materials manufacturing (industrial engineering) and complex environmental systems. Classification of Materials Like many other things, materials are classified in groups, so that our brain can handle the complexity. One could classify them according to structure, or properties, or use. The one that we will use is according to the way the atoms are bound together: Metals: valence electrons are detached from atoms, and spread in an 'electron sea' that "glues" the ions together. Metals are usually strong, conduct electricity and heat well and are opaque to light (shiny if polished). Examples: aluminum, steel, brass, gold. Mixtures of metals are called ALLOYS. Semiconductors: the bonding is covalent (electrons are shared between atoms). Their electrical properties depend extremely strongly on minute proportions of contaminants. They are opaque to visible light but transparent to the infrared. Examples: Si, Ge, GaAs. Ceramics: atoms behave mostly like either positive or negative ions, and are bound by Coulomb forces between them. They are usually combinations of metals or semiconductors with oxygen, nitrogen or carbon (oxides, nitrides, and carbides). NonMetallic, inorganic materials. Originally considered to be oxides; from the Greek Keramos for burnt earth, traditional ceramics were clays. Modern ceramics can be carbides, borides etc., or can be based on non-metallic elements such as carbon. Certain ceramics can be amorphous/non-crystalline; they are termed glasses Examples: glass, porcelain, many minerals. Polymers: From the Greek, poly- many; meros- part. Polymers are organic materials consisting of chains of molecules containing carbon. Polymers are bound by covalent forces and also by weak van der Waals forces, and usually based on H, C and other nonmetallic elements. They decompose at moderate temperatures (100 400 C), and are lightweight. Other properties vary greatly. Examples: plastics (nylon, teflon, polyester) and rubber.

Other categories are not based on bonding. A particular microstructure identifies composites, made of different materials in intimate contact (example: fiberglass, concrete, wood) to achieve specific properties. Biomaterials can be any type of material that is biocompatible and used, for instance, to replace human body parts. Advanced Materials Materials used in "High-Tec" applications, usually designed for maximum performance, and normally expensive. Examples are titanium alloys for supersonic airplanes, magnetic alloys for computer disks, special ceramics for the heat shield of the space shuttle, etc. Modern Material's Needs

Engine efficiency increases at high temperatures: requires high temperature structural materials Use of nuclear energy requires solving problem with residues, or advances in nuclear waste processing. Hypersonic flight requires materials that are light, strong and resist high temperatures. Optical communications require optical fibers that absorb light negligibly. Civil construction materials for unbreakable windows. Structures: materials that are strong like metals and resist corrosion like plastics.

Mechanical properties of material Elasticity is the property of deformed solid to come to the original dimension upon unloading. Stress = Load/Area (P/A) Strain = L / L Youngs modulus of Elasticity (E) = Stress/Strain Stiffness is directly proportional to E Plasticity is the property of a material by virtue of which it may be permanently deformed when it has been subjected to force. Toughness is the ability of material to absorb energy during plastic deformation up to fracture i.e., ability to withstand shock load Resilience is capacity of material to absorb energy when it is elastically deformed and then upon unloading, to have this energy recovered. Modulus of resilience is the strain energy per unit volume required to stress a material from an unloaded state up to the point of yielding. Tensile strength (Kg/cm2) is the ratio of maximum load to original cross sectional area Yield strength is the point where stretch or elongation takes place suddenly without increase in stress. Impact strength is the capacity of material to resist energy before it fracture. It takes into consideration both toughness and strength. Ductility is the capacity of material to undergo deformation under tension with ruptures Eg., wire drawing Malleability is the capacity of material to withstand deformation under compression without rupture. Eg., Forging and rolling Both ductility and malleability are the elastic property of the material. Brittleness is the tendency to fracture without appreciable deformation. Hardness is the resistance of material to plastic deformation by indentation

Micro structure of materials

Introduction: The majority of engineering materials, many ceramics, plastics and all metals are crystalline in structure. The type of their crystal structure bears significantly on the physical properties of these materials. Crystal structure: A regular and repetitious pattern in which atoms or group of atoms (i.e molecules) of a crystalline material arrange themselves is known as a crystal structure. In other words, a crystal structure is one in which a unit of structure called the unit cell repeats at regular intervals in three dimension. Space lattice: The locations of atoms and their particular arrangement in a given crystal are described by means of a space lattice. It can be considered as an infinite array of points in space, so arranged that it divides space into equal volumes with no space excluded. Crystal systems: One of seven categories (cubic, hexagonal, tetragonal, trigonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic) into which a crystal may be classified according to the shape of the unit cell of its Bravais lattice, or according to the dominant symmetry elements of its crystal class. Cubic Structure: Three equal axes are at right angles.

Tetragonal Structure: Three axes are at right angles, two of these axes are equal while third one is different

Orthorhombic Structure: Three unequal axes are at right angles.

Rhombohedral Structure: Three equal axes are equally included but at an angle other than a right angle.

Hexagonal Structure: Three equal axes are in one plane at 120 to each other, and a fourth axis normal to this plane. The interval along the fourth axis is unique.

Monoclinic Structure: There are three unequal axes. One of these axes is at right angles to the other two axes, but the other two axes are not at right angles.

Triclinic Structure: Three unequal axes are unequally inclined and none being at right angles.

Crystal structures Metallic Elements

Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC) In this type of crystal structure, the unit cell has one atom at each corner of the cube and one at body centre of the cube.

Face centered cubic Structure (FCC) The unit cell has an atom at each corner of the cube and in addition has one atom at the centre of each face.

Hexagonal close packed structure (HCP) The unit cell has one atom at each of twelve corners of the hexagonal prism, one atom at the centre of the two hexagonal faces and three atoms symmetrically arranged in the body of the cell.

Miller Indices The Simple and universal notation for the designation of crystallographic planes and directions of crystal has been names as miller indices. Rules for Miller Indices: Determine the intercepts of the face along the crystallographic axes, in terms of unit cell dimensions. Take the reciprocals Clear fractions Reduce to lowest terms For example, if the x-, y-, and z- intercepts are 2, 1, and 3, the Miller indices are calculated as: Take reciprocals: 1/2, 1/1, 1/3 Clear fractions (multiply by 6): 3, 6, 2 Reduce to lowest terms (already there) Thus, the Miller indices are 3,6,2. If a plane is parallel to an axis, its intercept is at infinity and its Miller index is zero. A generic Miller index is denoted by (hkl).

If a plane has negative intercept, the negative number is denoted by a bar above the number. Never alter negative numbers. For example, do not divide -1, -1, -1 by -1 to get 1,1,1. This implies symmetry that the crystal may not have! Some General Principles If a Miller index is zero, the plane is parallel to that axis. The smaller a Miller index, the more nearly parallel the plane is to the axis. The larger a Miller index, the more nearly perpendicular a plane is to that axis. Multiplying or dividing a Miller index by a constant has no effect on the orientation of the plane Miller indices are almost always small. Why Miller Indices? Using reciprocals spares us the complication of infinite intercepts. Formulas involving Miller indices are very similar to related formulas from analytical geometry. Specifying dimensions in unit cell terms means that the same label can be applied to any face with a similar stacking pattern, regardless of the crystal class of the crystal. Face 111 always steps the same way regardless of crystal system.

Deformation and Tensile properties

Elastic deformation When the stress is removed, the material returns to the dimension it had before the load was applied. Valid for small strains (except the case of rubbers). Deformation is reversible, non permanent Plastic deformation When the stress is removed, the material does not return to its previous dimension but there is a permanent, irreversible deformation. In tensile tests, if the deformation is elastic, the stress-strain relationship is called Hooke's law: =E That is, E is the slope of the stress-strain curve. E is Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity.

Tension Test and Stress-Strain diagram

Tensile Properties Yield point. If the stress is too large, the strain deviates from being proportional to the stress. The point at which this happens is the yield point because there the material yields, deforming permanently (plastically). Yield stress. Hooke's law is not valid beyond the yield point. The stress at the yield point is called yield stress, and is an important measure of the mechanical properties of materials. In practice, the yield stress is chosen as that causing a permanent strain of 0.002 The yield stress measures the resistance to plastic deformation. The reason for plastic deformation, in normal materials, is not that the atomic bond is stretched beyond repair, but the motion of dislocations, which involves breaking and reforming bonds. Plastic deformation is caused by the motion of dislocations.

Tensile strength. When stress continues in the plastic regime, the stress-strain passes through a maximum, called the tensile strength (TS) , and then falls as the material starts to develop a neck and it finally breaks at the fracture point . For structural applications, the yield stress is usually a more important property than the tensile strength, since once the it is passed, the structure has deformed beyond acceptable limits. Ductility. The ability to deform before braking. It is the opposite of brittleness. Ductility can be given either as percent maximum elongation max or maximum area reduction. %EL = max x 100 % %AR = (A0 - Af)/A0 These are measured after fracture (repositioning the two pieces back together). Resilience. Capacity to absorb energy elastically. The energy per unit volume is the area under the strain-stress curve in the elastic region. Toughness. Ability to absorb energy up to fracture. The energy per unit volume is the total area under the strain-stress curve. It is measured by an impact test.

Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms

Basic Concept of dislocation Dislocations can be edge dislocations, screw dislocations and exist in combination of the two. Their motion (slip) occurs by sequential bond breaking and bond reforming. The number of dislocations per unit volume is the dislocation density, in a plane they are measured per unit area. Characteristics of Dislocations There is strain around a dislocation which influences how they interact with other dislocations, impurities, etc. There is compression near the extra plane (higher atomic density) and tension following the dislocation line. Dislocations interact among themselves. When they are in the same plane, they repel if they have the same sign and annihilate if they have opposite signs (leaving behind a perfect crystal). In general, when dislocations are close and their strain fields add to a larger value, they repel, because being close increases the potential energy (it takes energy to strain a region of the material). The number of dislocations increases dramatically during plastic deformation. Dislocations spawn from existing dislocations, and from defects, grain boundaries and surface irregularities. Plastic Deformation Slip directions vary from crystal to crystal. When plastic deformation occurs in a grain, it will be constrained by its neighbors, which may be less favorably oriented. As a result, polycrystalline metals are stronger than single crystals (the exception is the perfect single crystal, as in whiskers.)

Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals General principles. Ability to deform plastically depends on ability of dislocations to move. Strengthening consists in hindering dislocation motion. We discuss the methods of grain-size reduction, solid-solution alloying and strain hardening. These are for singlephase metals. We discuss others when treating alloys. Ordinarily, strengthening reduces ductility. Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction This is based on the fact that it is difficult for a dislocation to pass into another grain, especially if it is very misaligned. Atomic disorder at the boundary causes discontinuity in slip planes. For high-angle grain boundaries, stress at end of slip plane may trigger new dislocations in adjacent grains. Small angle grain boundaries are not effective in blocking dislocations.

The finer the grains, the larger the area of grain boundaries that impedes dislocation motion. Grain-size reduction usually improves toughness as well. Grain size can be controlled by the rate of solidification and by plastic deformation. Solid-Solution Strengthening Adding another element that goes into interstitial or substitutional positions in a solution increases strength. The impurity atoms cause lattice strain which can "anchor" dislocations. This occurs when the strain caused by the alloying element compensates that of the dislocation, thus achieving a state of low potential energy. It costs strain energy for the dislocation to move away from this state (which is like a potential well). The scarcity of energy at low temperatures is why slip is hindered. Pure metals are almost always softer than their alloys. Strain Hardening Ductile metals become stronger when they are deformed plastically at temperatures well below the melting point (cold working). (This is different from hot working is the shaping of materials at high temperatures where large deformation is possible.) Strain hardening (work hardening) is the reason for the elastic recovery. The reason for strain hardening is that the dislocation density increases with plastic deformation (cold work) due to multiplication. The average distance between dislocations then decreases and dislocations start blocking the motion of each one. The measure of strain hardening is the percent cold work (%CW), given by the relative reduction of the original area, A0 to the final value Ad : %CW = 100 (A0Ad)/A0

Recovery, recrystallization and Grain Growth

Plastic deformation causes 1) change in grain size, 2) strain hardening, 3) increase in the dislocation density. Restoration to the state before cold-work is done by heating through two processes: recovery and recrystallization. These may be followed by grain growth. Recovery Heating increased diffusion enhanced dislocation motion relieves internal strain energy and reduces the number of dislocation. The electrical and thermal conductivity are restored to the values existing before cold working. Recrystallization Strained grains of cold-worked metal are replaced, upon heating, by more regularly spaced grains. This occurs through short-range diffusion enabled by the high temperature. Since recrystallization occurs by diffusion, the important parameters are both temperature and time. Recrystallization temperature: is that at which the process is complete in one hour. It is typically 1/3 to 1/2 of the melting temperature. It falls as the %CW is increased. Below a "critical deformation", recrystallization does not occur. Grain Growth The growth of grain size with temperature can occur in all polycrystalline materials. It occurs by migration of atoms at grain boundaries by diffusion, thus grain growth is faster at higher temperatures. The "driving force" is the reduction of energy, which is proportional to the total area. Big grains grow at the expense of the small ones.

Failure
Fundamentals of Fracture Fracture is a form of failure where the material separates in pieces due to stress, at temperatures below the melting point. The fracture is termed ductile or brittle depending on whether the elongation is large or small. Steps in fracture (response to stress): Track formation Track propagation Ductile vs. brittle fracture Ductile Extensive Slow, needs stress Most metals (not too cold) Permanent elongation Higher Rough Yes Brittle Little Fast Ceramics, ice, cold metals None Lower Smoother No

Deformation Track propagation Type of materials Warning Strain energy Fractured surface Necking

Ductile Fracture Stages of ductile fracture Initial necking Small cavity formation (microvoids) Void growth (ellipsoid) by coalescence into a crack Fast crack propagation around neck. Shear strain at 45o Final shear fracture (cup and cone) The interior surface is fibrous, irregular, which signify plastic deformation. Brittle Fracture There is no appreciable deformation, and crack propagation is very fast. In most brittle materials, crack propagation (by bond breaking) is along specific crystallographic planes (cleavage planes). This type of fracture is transgranular (through grains) producing grainy texture (or faceted texture) when cleavage direction changes from grain to grain. In some materials, fracture is intergranular.

Impact Fracture: Impact fractures can best be described as a flute or strip of material that was cleanly sheared from a projectile point. The most common type of impact fracture starts at the tip of a point and runs down one blade edge possibly reaching the shoulder of a point. Some points were reworked into a useable point after having been damaged by an impact fracture. Normalized tests, like the Charpoy and Izod tests measure the impact energy required to fracture a notched specimen with a hammer mounted on a pendulum. The energy is measured by the change in potential energy (height) of the pendulum. This energy is called notch toughness. Ductile brittle transition: Ductile to brittle transition occurs in materials when the temperature is dropped below a transition temperature. Alloying usually increases the ductile-brittle transition temperature, for ceramics, this type of transition occurs at much higher temperatures than for metals. Fatigue: Fatigue is the catastrophic failure due to dynamic (fluctuating) stresses. It can happen in bridges, airplanes, machine components, etc. The characteristics are: long period of cyclic strain the most usual (90%) of metallic failures (happens also in ceramics and polymers) is brittle-like even in ductile metals, with little plastic deformation it occurs in stages involving the initiation and propagation of cracks. Cyclic Stresses These are characterized by maximum, minimum and mean stress, the stress amplitude, and the stress ratio. Crack Initiation and Propagation Stages in fatigue failure: I. crack initiation at high stress points (stress raisers) II. propagation (incremental in each cycle) III. final failure by fracture Nfinal = Ninitiation + Npropagation Stage I - propagation slow along crystallographic planes of high shear stress flat and featureless fatigue surface Stage II - propagation Crack propagates by repetitive plastic blunting and sharpening of the crack tip.

Creep Creep is the time-varying plastic deformation of a material stressed at high temperatures. Examples: turbine blades, steam generators. Keys are the time dependence of the strain and the high temperature. Generalized Creep Behavior At a constant stress, the strain increases initially fast with time (primary or transient deformation), then increases more slowly in the secondary region at a steady rate (creep rate). Finally the strain increases fast and leads to failure in the tertiary region. Characteristics: Creep rate: d/dt Time to failure. Stress and Temperature Effects: Both temperature and the level of the applied stress influence the creep characteristics. The results of creep rupture tests are most commonly presented as the logarithm of stress versus the logarithm of rupture lifetime. Creep becomes more pronounced at higher temperatures. There is essentially no creep at temperatures below 40% of the melting point. Creep increases at higher applied stresses. The behavior can be characterized by the following expression, where K, n and Qc are constants for a given material: d/dt = K n exp(-Qc/RT)

Hardness tests
Tests based on indentation or penetration Brinell hardness test for determining hardness of metallic materials to check the quality level of product or uniformity of samples of a metal or uniformity of the results of some treatment on the metal. Is not recommended for extremely hard metals Lead 4-8 BHN, Mile Steel 80-105 BHN, Nickel Chrome Steel 175-300 BHN Rockwell hardness test in situations similar to Brinell test. Its use is preferred when a quick and direct reading is desirable. Its also applicable to the testing of materials having hardness beyond the scope of Brinell test. Vickers hardness test when very accurate results of harness regarding metals needed such as research work. It is slow compared to Rockwell test. It may be used to determine hardness of metals varying in thickness from thin sheets to large sections.

Classification of Metals

Classification of metal alloys

Ferrous Non Ferrous

Steel %C is up to 2%

Cast iron %C is above 2%

Grey cast iron White cast iron Malleable iron Spheroidal Graphite cast iron (SG Iron) Carbon Steel Alloy Steel

Low carbon steel (mild steel) 0.08 to 0.3% C Medium carbon steel - .03 to 0.55 % C High carbon steel 0.55 to 1.5% C

Stainless steel Tool Steel

Cast Iron Cast iron is a general term applied to a wide range of iron carbon alloys. Their carbon content is such as to cause some liquid of eutectic composition (Ledeburite) to solidify. The max. Carbon content is therefore about 2%, while the practical max. is about 4.5%. Cast iron should not be thought of as a metal having single element. It rather has at least 6 elements. These are Iron, Carbon, Silicon, manganese, Phosphorus & Sulphur. Alloy Cast Iron has still other elements, which have important effects on its physical properties. Its melting point is approximately 1150C to 1250C. It is lower than that for steel. Consequently, it can be more rapidly and cheaply melted. It has the ability to take good casting impression. Grey cast iron (% C, 3 3.75%) Its name is derived from grayish appearance of its fracture because of presence of sufficient graphitic carbon. Graphite flakes act as stress raisers at their sharp tips making the grey iron brittle in tension. Cooling rate has its effect on the size of pearlite and graphite, and slow cooling produces coarse pearlite and graphite. Grey Cast Iron is machinable but its machinability varies with variation of micro constituents. Annealing improves its machinability. It can be welded by gas or electric arc welding. It possess good castability as it has low shrinkage during solidification. Applications: Ingot Moulds, Automobile cylinders and pistons, Machine castings water main pipes etc.

White cast iron (% C, 1.7-2.3%) This iron possess all its carbon as Iron carbide and it is this constituent which gives white appearance to the fracture of this iron. It is difficult to machine especially when with large percentage of Iron carbide. It has good castability but poor weldability. To produce white iron graphitising elements (like Silicon) are modified and the cooling rate is considerably increased (chilling). Applications: Ploughshares, Chilled rolls, balls, Stamp shoes, dies, Wearing plates and manufacture of malleable iron. Malleable iron Malleable iron castings are produced by proper annealing of white cast iron castings. This iron has a yield point of about 2300 kg/cm2, percentage elongation about 10, considerable shock resistance, good machinability, but practically no weldability. Applications: Automobile wheel hubs, differential housings, Brake drums, pedals, levers, pipe fittings, small parts of textile and agricultural machinery, gas and oil burners. Spheroidal graphite cast iron It is obtained by first desulphurising completely molten grey iron and then adding Magnesium in the form of nickel magnesium alloy to the ladle before casting. Magnesium causes graphite of grey iron to take a spheroidal shape. It transforms the brittle cast iron into a tough strong material with good castability. S.G. iron with a pearlitic matrix may be heat treated in a manner similar to steel. Its use enables reduced section thickness and consequently results I reduced weight. Toughness and ductility can be obtain in castings, which are too thick for malleabilising. Applications: Cast crank shafts, Agricultural and marine castings, heavy machinery frames, hand tools, gas and water pipes.

Carbon Steels Low-carbon steels by definition, contains less carbon than other steels and are inherently easier to cold-form due to their soft and ductile nature. When strength is not a major concern, low-carbon steels are good choices because they are easy to handle (draw, bend, punch, swage, etc.) and fairly inexpensive. Surface hardness can be improved by a process called carburizing which involves heating the alloys in a carbon-rich atmosphere. Medium-carbon steels can be heat treated to have a good balance of ductility and strength. These steels are typically used in large parts, forgings, and machined components. Bolts, rods, crankshafts, and tubings in the automotive industry and Axles, gears, and components that require higher hardness and wear resistance are generally made Medium carbon steel High-carbon steels are extremely strong yet more brittle. They offer better responses to heat treatment and longer service life than medium-carbon steels. High-carbon steels typically have high wear resistance due to their superior surface hardness.

Alloy Steels Alloy steels comprise a wide variety of steels which have compositions that exceed the limitations of C, Mn, Ni, Mo, Cr, Va, Si, and B which have been set for carbon steels. However, steels containing more than 3.99% chromium are classified differently as stainless and tool steels. Alloy steels are always killed, but can use unique deoxidization or melting processes for specific applications. Alloy steels are generally more responsive to heat and mechanical treatments than carbon steels. Classification Standard Alloy Steels H-Steels HSLA (High strength Low allow steel)

Stainless Steels Stainless steels are high-alloy steels that have superior corrosion resistance than other steels because they contain large amounts of chromium. Stainless steels can contain anywhere from 4-30 percent chromium, however most contain around 10 percent. Stainless steels can be divided into three basic groups based on their crystalline structure: austenitic, ferritic, and martensitic. Another group of stainless steels known as precipitation-hardened steels are a combination of austenitic and martensitic steels. Ferritic grades: Ferritic stainless steels are magnetic non heat-treatable steels that contain chromium but not nickel. They have good heat and corrosion resistance, in particular sea water, and good resistance to stress-corrosion cracking. Their mechanical properties are not as strong as the austenitic grades, however they have better decorative appeal. Martensitic grades: Martensitic grades are magnetic and can be heat-treated by quenching or tempering. They contain chromium but usually contain no nickel, except for 2 grades. Martensitic steels are not as corrosive resistant as austenitic or ferritic grades, but their hardness levels are among the highest of the all the stainless steels. Austenitic grades: Austenitic stainless steels are non-magnetic non heat-treatable steels that are usually annealed and cold worked. Some austenitic steels tend to become slightly magnetic after cold working. Austenitic steels have excellent corrosion and heat resistance with good mechanical properties over a wide range of temperatures. There are two subclasses of austenitic stainless steels: chromium-nickel and chromium-manganeselow nickel steels. Chromium-nickel steels are the most general widely used steels and are also known as 18-8(Cr-Ni) steels. The chromium nickel ratio can be modified to improve formability; carbon content can be reduced to improve intergranular corrosion resistance. Molybdenum can be added to improve corrosion resistance; additionally the Cr-Ni content can be increased.

Tool Steels Tool steels are steels that are primarily used to make tools used in manufacturing processes as well as for machining metals, woods, and plastics. Tool steels are generally ingot-cast wrought products, and must be able to withstand high specific loads as well as be stable at elevated temperatures. High-Speed Tool Steels: High-speed alloys include all molybdenum and tungsten alloys. High-speed tools steels can be hardenend to 62-67 HRC and can maintain this hardness in service temperatures as high as 540 C (1004F), making them very useful in high-speed machinery. Typical applications are end mills, drills, lathe tools, planar tools, punches, reamers, routers, taps, saws, broaches, chasers, and hobs. Hot-work Tool Steels: Hot-work tool steels include all chromium, tungsten, and molybdenum alloys. They are typically used for forging, die casting, heading, piercing, trim, extrusion, and hot-shear and punching blades. Cold-work Tool Steels: Cold-work tool steels include all high-chromium, medium-alloy air-hardening, water hardening, and oil hardening alloys. Typical applications include cold working operations such as stamping dies, draw dies, burnishing tools, coining tools, and shear blades. Shock-Resistant Tool Steels: Cold-work tool steels include all class S alloys. They are among the toughest of the tool steels, and are typically used for screw driver blades; shear blades, chisels, knockout pins, punches, and riveting tools. Mold Steels: Mold steels include all low-carbon and one medium-carbon class P tool steels. They are typically used for compression and injection molds for plastics, and die-casting dies. Special-Purpose Tool Steels: Special-Purpose Tool Steels include all low-alloy class L Tool steels. They are usually quenched, which makes them relatively tough and easily machinable. They are typically used for arbors, punches, taps, wrenches, drills, and brake-forming dies. Water-Hardening Tool Steels: Water-Hardening Tool steels include all class W tool steels, and while they do not retain hardness well at elevated temperatures, they do have high resistance to surface wear. Typical applications include blanking dies, files, drills, taps, countersinks, reamers, jewelry dies, and cold-striking dies

Nonferrous alloys Alloys of cobalt Stellite (chromium, tungsten, carbon) Talonite Alloys of nickel Mu-metal (iron) Monel metal (copper, iron, manganese) Nichrome (chromium, iron) Alloys of copper Brass (zinc) Prince's metal (zinc) Gilding metal (zinc) Bronze (tin, aluminium or any other element) Phosphor bronze (tin and phosphorus) Bell metal (tin) Beryllium copper (beryllium) Cupronickel (nickel) Nickel silver (nickel) Billon (silver) Nordic gold (aluminium, zinc, tin) Alloys of silver Sterling silver (copper) Alloys of tin Pewter (lead, copper) Solder (lead) Alloys of gold Electrum (silver, copper) Alloys of mercury Amalgam Alloys of lead Solder Type metal Alloys of bismuth Wood's metal

Ceramic
Ceramics offer a high temperature range. However, ceramics are not very strong. To compensate for their lack of strength ceramics are usually combined with some other material to form a ceramic composite. Industry of Ceramic Segments Structural clay products Brick, sewer pipe, roofing tile, clay floor and wall tile (i.e., quarry tile), flue linings Whitewares Dinnerware, floor and wall tile, sanitaryware, electrical porcelain, decorative ceramics Refractories Brick and monolithic products are used in iron and steel, non-ferrous metals, glass, cements, ceramics, energy conversion, petroleum, and chemicals industries Glasses Flat glass (windows), container glass (bottles), pressed and blown glass (dinnerware), glass fibers (home insulation), and advanced/specialty glass (optical fibers) Abrasives Natural (garnet, diamond, etc.) and synthetic (silicon carbide, diamond, fused alumina, etc.) abrasives are used for grinding, cutting, polishing, lapping, or pressure blasting of materials Cements Used to produce concrete roads, bridges, buildings, dams, and the like

Polymers
The description of stress-strain behavior is similar to that of metals, but a very important consideration for polymers is that the mechanical properties depend on the strain rate, temperature, and environmental conditions. The stress-strain behavior can be brittle, plastic and highly elastic (elastomeric or rubberlike). Tensile modulus (modulus) and tensile strengths are orders of magnitude smaller than those of metals, but elongation can be up to 1000 % in some cases. The tensile strength is defined at the fracture point and can be lower than the yield strength. Mechanical properties change dramatically with temperature, going from glass-like brittle behavior at low temperatures (like in the liquid-nitrogen demonstration) to a rubber-like behavior at high temperatures. Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers Thermoplastic polymers (thermoplasts) soften reversibly when heated (harden when cooled back)

Thermosetting polymers (thermosets) harden permanently when heated, as cross-linking hinder bending and rotations. Thermosets are harder, more dimensionally stable, and more brittle than thermoplasts.

Composites
Particle-reinforced composites These are the cheapest and most widely used. They fall in two categories depending on the size of the particles: large-particle composites, which act by restraining the movement of the matrix, if well bonded. dispersion-strengthened composites, containing 10-100 nm particles, similar to what was discussed under precipitation hardening. The matrix bears the major portion of the applied load and the small particles hinder dislocation motion, limiting plastic deformation. Large-Particle Composites Properties are a combination of those of the components. The rule of mixtures predicts that an upper limit of the elastic modulus of the composite is given in terms of the elastic moduli of the matrix (Em) and the particulate (Ep) phases by: Ec = EmVm + EpVp where Vm and Vp are the volume fraction of the two phases. A lower bound is given by: Ec = EmEp / (EpVm + EmVp) Concrete The most common large-particle composite is concrete, made of a cement matrix that bonds particles of different size (gravel and sand.) Cement was already known to the Egyptians and the Greek. Romans made cement by mixing lime (CaO) with volcanic ice. In its general from, cement is a fine mixture of lime, alumina, silica, and water. Portland cement is a fine powder of chalk, clay and lime-bearing minerals fired to 1500o C (calcinated). It forms a paste when dissolved in water. It sets into a solid in minutes and hardens slowly (takes 4 months for full strength). Properties depend on how well it is mixed, and the amount of water: too little - incomplete bonding, too much excessive porosity. The advantage of cement is that it can be poured in place, it hardens at room temperature and even under water, and it is very cheap. The disadvantages are that it is weak and brittle, and that water in the pores can produce crack when it freezes in cold weather. Concrete is cement strengthened by adding particulates. The use of different size (stone and sand) allows better packing factor than when using particles of similar size. Concrete is improved by making the pores smaller (using finer powder, adding polymeric lubricants, and applying pressure during hardening. Reinforced concrete is obtained by adding steel rods, wires, mesh. Steel has the advantage of a similar thermal expansion coefficient, so there is reduced danger of cracking due to thermal stresses. Pre-stressed concrete is obtained by applying tensile

stress to the steel rods while the cement is setting and hardening. When the tensile stress is removed, the concrete is left under compressive stress, enabling it to sustain tensile loads without fracturing. Pre-stressed concrete shapes are usually prefabricated. A common use is in railroad or highway bridges. Cermets are composites of ceramic particles (strong, brittle) in a metal matrix (soft, ductile) that enhances toughness. For instance, tungsten carbide or titanium carbide ceramics in Co or Ni. They are used for cutting tools for hardened steels. Reinforced rubber is obtained by strengthening with 20-50 nm carbon-black particles. Used in auto tires. Dispersion-Strengthened Composites Use of very hard, small particles to strengthen metals and metal alloys. The effect is like precipitation hardening but not so strong. Particles like oxides do not react so the strengthening action is retained at high temperatures. Fiber-reinforced composites In many applications, like in aircraft parts, there is a need for high strength per unit weight (specific strength). This can be achieved by composites consisting of a lowdensity (and soft) matrix reinforced with stiff fibers. The strength depends on the fiber length and its orientation with respect to the stress direction. The efficiency of load transfer between matrix and fiber depends on the interfacial bond. Structural Composites Largest and most diverse use of composites due to ease of fabrication, low cost and good properties. Glass-fiber reinforced composites (GFRC) are strong, corrosion resistant and lightweight, but not very stiff and cannot be used at high temperatures. Applications include auto and boat bodies, aircraft components Carbon-fiber reinforced composites (CFRC) use carbon fibers, which have the highest specific module (module divided by weight). CFRC are strong, inert, allow high temperature use. Applications include fishing rods, golf clubs, aircraft components. Kevlar, and aremid-fiber composite can be used as textile fibers. Applications include bullet-proof vests, tires, brake and clutch linings. Wood This is one of the oldest and the most widely used structural material. It is a composite of strong and flexible cellulose fibers (linear polymer) surrounded and held together by a matrix of lignin and other polymers. The properties are anisotropic and vary widely among types of wood. Wood is ten times stronger in the axial direction than in the radial or tangential directions.

Objectives of Heat Treatments

Heat Treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of metals to alter their physical and mechanical properties without changing the product shape. Heat treatment is sometimes done inadvertently due to manufacturing processes that either heat or cool the metal such as welding or forming. Heat Treatment is often associated with increasing the strength of material, but it can also be used to alter certain manufacturability objectives such as improve machining, improve formability, restore ductility after a cold working operation. Thus it is a very enabling manufacturing process that can not only help other manufacturing process, but can also improve product performance by increasing strength or other desirable characteristics. Steels are particularly suitable for heat treatment, since they respond well to heat treatment and the commercial use of steels exceeds that of any other material. Steels are heat treated for one of the following reasons: 1. Softening 2. Hardening 3. Material Modification Softening: Softening is done to reduce strength or hardness, remove residual stresses, improve toughnesss, restore ductility, refine grain size or change the electromagnetic properties of the steel. Restoring ductility or removing residual stresses is a necessary operation when a large amount of cold working is to be performed, such as in a cold-rolling operation or wiredrawing. The principal ways by which steel is softened are Annealing full Process, spheroidizing, normalizing Tempering austempering, martempering Hardening: Hardening of steels is done to increase the strength and wear properties. One of the pre-requisites for hardening is sufficient carbon and alloy content. If there is sufficient Carbon content then the steel can be directly hardened. Otherwise the surface of the part has to be Carbon enriched using some diffusion treatment hardening techniques. Three types of hardening process are Diffusion Treatments Direct Hardening Selective Hardening Material Modification: Heat treatment is used to modify properties of materials in addition to hardening and softening. These processes modify the behavior of the steels in a beneficial manner to maximize service life, e.g., stress relieving, or strength properties, e.g., cryogenic treatment, or some other desirable properties, e.g., spring aging.

Softening Annealing Full Annealing Full annealing is the process of slowly raising the temperature about 50 C (90 F) above the Austenitic temperature line A3 or line ACM in the case of Hypoeutectoid steels (steels with < 0.77% Carbon) and 50 C (90 F) into the Austenite-Cementite region in the case of Hypereutectoid steels (steels with > 0.77% Carbon). It is held at this temperature for sufficient time for all the material to transform into Austenite or Austenite-Cementite as the case may be. It is then slowly cooled at the rate of about 20 C/hr (36 F/hr) in a furnace to about 50 C (90 F) into the Ferrite-Cementite range. At this point, it can be cooled in room temperature air with natural convection.

The grain structure has coarse Pearlite with ferrite or Cementite (depending on whether hypo or hyper eutectoid). The steel becomes soft and ductile.

Normalizing Normalizing is the process of raising the temperature to over 60 C (108 F), above line A3 or line ACM fully into the Austenite range. It is held at this temperature to fully convert the structure into Austenite, and then removed form the furnace and cooled at room temperature under natural convection. This results in a grain structure of fine Pearlite with excess of Ferrite or Cementite. The resulting material is soft; the degree of softness depends on the actual ambient conditions of cooling. This process is considerably cheaper than full annealing since there is not the added cost of controlled furnace cooling. The main difference between full annealing and normalizing is that fully annealed parts are uniform in softness (and machinablilty) throughout the entire part; since the entire part is exposed to the controlled furnace cooling. In the case of the normalized part, depending on the part geometry, the cooling is non-uniform resulting in non-uniform material properties across the part. This may not be desirable if further machining is desired, since it makes the machining job somewhat unpredictable. In such a case it is better to do full annealing.

Process Annealing Process Annealing is used to treat work-hardened parts made out of low-Carbon steels (< 0.25% Carbon). This allows the parts to be soft enough to undergo further cold working without fracturing. Process annealing is done by raising the temperature to just below the Ferrite-Austenite region, line A1on the diagram. This temperature is about 727 C (1341 F) so heating it to about 700 C (1292 F) should suffice. This is held long enough to allow recrystallization of the ferrite phase, and then cooled in still air. Since the material stays in the same phase through out the process, the only change that occurs is the size, shape and distribution of the grain structure. This process is cheaper than either full annealing or normalizing since the material is not heated to a very high temperature or cooled in a furnace.

Stress Relief Annealing Stress Relief Anneal is used to reduce residual stresses in large castings, welded parts and cold-formed parts. Such parts tend to have stresses due to thermal cycling or work hardening. Parts are heated to temperatures of up to 600 - 650 C (1112 - 1202 F), and held for an extended time (about 1 hour or more) and then slowly cooled in still air.

Spheroidization Spheroidization is an annealing process used for high carbon steels (Carbon > 0.6%) that will be machined or cold formed subsequently. This is done by one of the following ways: 1. Heat the part to a temperature just below the Ferrite-Austenite line, line A1 or below the Austenite-Cementite line, essentially below the 727 C (1340 F) line. Hold the temperature for a prolonged time and follow by fairly slow cooling. Or 2. Cycle multiple times between temperatures slightly above and slightly below the 727 C (1340 F) line, say for example between 700 and 750 C (1292 - 1382 F), and slow cool. Or 3. For tool and alloy steels heat to 750 to 800 C (1382-1472 F) and hold for several hours followed by slow cooling.

All these methods result in a structure in which all the Cementite is in the form of small globules (spheroids) dispersed throughout the ferrite matrix. This structure allows for improved machining in continuous cutting operations such as lathes and screw machines. Spheroidization also improves resistance to abrasion.

Softening Tampering Tempering is a process done subsequent to quench hardening. Quench-hardened parts are often too brittle. This brittleness is caused by a predominance of Martensite. This brittleness is removed by tempering. Tempering results in a desired combination of hardness, ductility, toughness, strength, and structural stability. Tempering is not to be confused with tempers on rolled stock-these tempers are an indication of the degree of cold work performed.

The mechanism of tempering depends on the steel and the tempering temperature. The prevalent Martensite is a somewhat unstable structure. When heated, the Carbon atoms diffuse from Martensite to form a carbide precipitate and the concurrent formation of Ferrite and Cementite, which is the stable form. Tool steels for example, lose about 2 to 4 points of hardness on the Rockwell C scale. Even though a little strength is sacrificed, toughness (as measured by impact strength) is increased substantially. Springs and such parts need to be much tougher these are tempered to a much lower hardness. Tempering is done immediately after quench hardening. When the steel cools to about 40 C (104 F) after quenching, it is ready to be tempered. The part is reheated to a temperature of 150 to 400 C (302 to 752 F). In this region a softer and tougher structure Troostite is formed. Alternatively, the steel can be heated to a temperature of 400 to 700 C (752 to 1292 F) that results in a softer structure known as Sorbite. This has less strength than Troostite but more ductility and toughness. The heating for tempering is best done by immersing the parts in oil, for tempering upto 350 C (662 F) and then heating the oil with the parts to the appropriate temperature. Heating in a bath also ensures that the entire part has the same temperature and will undergo the same tempering. For temperatures above 350 C (662 F) it is best to use a bath of nitrate salts. The salt baths can be heated upto 625 C (1157 F). Regardless of the bath, gradual heating is important to avoid cracking the steel. After reaching the desired temperature, the parts are held at that temperature for about 2 hours, then removed from the bath and cooled in still air. Austempering Austempering is a quenching technique. The part is not quenched through the Martensite transformation. Instead the material is quenched above the temperature when Martensite forms MS, around 315 C (600 F). It is held till at this temperature till the entire part reaches this temperature. As the part is held longer at this temperature, the Austenite transforms into Bainite. Bainite is tough enough so that further tempering is not necessary, and the tendency to crack is severely reduced. Martempering Martempering is similar to Austempering except that the part is slowly cooled through the martensite transformation. The structure is martensite, which needs to tempered just as much as martensite that is formed through rapid quenching. The biggest advantage of Austempering over rapid quenching is that there is less distortion and tendency to crack.

Hardening - Diffusion Treatments The Carbon content in the steel determines whether it can be directly hardened. If the Carbon content is low (less than 0.25% for example) then an alternate means exists to increase the Carbon content of the surface. The part then can be heat-treated by either quenching in liquid or cooling in still air depending on the properties desired. Note that this method will only allow hardening on the surface, but not in the core, because the high carbon content is only on the surface. This is sometimes very desirable because it allows for a hard surface with good wear properties (as on gear teeth), but has a tough core that will perform well under impact loading. Carburizing Carburizing is a process of adding Carbon to the surface. This is done by exposing the part to a Carbon rich atmosphere at an elevated temperature and allows diffusion to transfer the Carbon atoms into steel. This diffusion will work only if the steel has low carbon content, because diffusion works on the differential of concentration principle. If, for example the steel had high carbon content to begin with, and is heated in a carbon free furnace, such as air, the carbon will tend to diffuse out of the steel resulting in Decarburization. Pack Carburizing: Parts are packed in a high carbon medium such as carbon powder or cast iron shavings and heated in a furnace for 12 to 72 hours at 900 C (1652 F). At this temperature CO gas is produced which is a strong reducing agent. The reduction reaction occurs on the surface of the steel releasing Carbon, which is then diffused into the surface due to the high temperature. When enough Carbon is absorbed inside the part (based on experience and theoretical calculations based on diffusion theory), the parts are removed and can be subject to the normal hardening methods. The Carbon on the surface is 0.7% to 1.2% depending on process conditions. The hardness achieved is 60 - 65 RC. The depth of the case ranges from about 0.1 mm (0.004 in) upto 1.5 mm (0.060 in). Some of the problems with pack carburizing is that the process is difficult to control as far as temperature uniformity is concerned, and the heating is inefficient. Gas Carburizing: Gas Carburizing is conceptually the same as pack carburizing, except that Carbon Monoxide (CO) gas is supplied to a heated furnace and the reduction reaction of deposition of carbon takes place on the surface of the part. This processes overcomes most of the problems of pack carburizing. The temperature diffusion is as good as it can be with a furnace. The only concern is to safely contain the CO gas. A variation of gas carburizing is when alcohol is dripped into the furnace and it volatilizes readily to provide the reducing reaction for the deposition of the carbon. Liquid Carburizing: The steel parts are immersed in a molten carbon rich bath. In the past, such baths have cyanide (CN) as the main component. However, safety concerns have led to non-toxic baths that achieve the same result.

Nitriding Nitriding is a process of diffusing Nitrogen into the surface of steel. The Nitrogen forms Nitrides with elements such as Aluminum, Chromium, Molybdenum, and Vanadium. The parts are heat-treated and tempered before nitriding. The parts are then cleaned and heated in a furnace in an atmosphere of dissociated Ammonia (containing N and H) for 10 to 40 hours at 500-625 C (932 - 1157 F). Nitrogen diffuses into the steel and forms nitride alloys, and goes to a depth of upto 0.65 mm (0.025 in). The case is very hard and distortion is low. No further heat treatment is required; in fact, further heat treatment can crack the hard case. Since the case is thin, surface grinding is not recommended. This can restrict the use of nitriding to surfaces that require a very smooth finish. Carbonitriding Carbonitriding process is most suitable for low carbon and low carbon alloy steels. In this process, both Carbon and Nitrogen are diffused into the surface. The parts are heated in an atmosphere of hydrocarbon (such as methane or propane) mixed with Ammonia (NH3). The process is a mix of Carburizing and Nitriding. Carburizing involves high temperatures (around 900 C, 1652 F) and Nitriding involves much lower temperatures (around 600 C, 1112 F). Carbonitriding is done at temperatures of 760 - 870 C (1400 - 1598 F), which is higher than the transformation temperatures of steel that is the region of the face-centered Austenite. It is then quenched in a natural gas (Oxygen free) atmosphere. This quench is less drastic than water or oil-thus less distortion. However this process is not suitable for high precision parts due to the distortions that are inherent. The hardness achieved is similar to carburizing (60 - 65 RC) but not as high as Nitriding (70 RC). The case depth is from 0.1 to 0.75 mm (0.004 to 0.030 in). The case is rich in Nitrides as well as Martensite. Tempering is necessary to reduce the brittleness.

Hardening - Direct Hardening Hardness is a function of the Carbon content of the steel. Hardening of a steel requires a change in structure from the body-centered cubic structure found at room temperature to the face-centered cubic structure found in the Austenitic region. The steel is heated to Austenitic region. When suddenly quenched, the Martensite is formed. This is a very strong and brittle structure. When slowly quenched it would form Austenite and Pearlite which is a partly hard and partly soft structure. When the cooling rate is extremely slow then it would be mostly Pearlite which is extremely soft.

Hardenability, which is a measure of the depth of full hardness achieved, is related to the type and amount of alloying elements. Different alloys, which have the same amount of Carbon content, will achieve the same amount of maximum hardness; however, the depth of full hardness will vary with the different alloys. The reason to alloy steels is not to increase their strength, but increase their hardenability the ease with which full hardness can be achieved throughout the material. Usually when hot steel is quenched, most of the cooling happens at the surface, as does the hardening. This propagates into the depth of the material. Alloying helps in the hardening and by determining the right alloy one can achieve the desired properties for the particular application. Such alloying also helps in reducing the need for a rapid quench cooling thereby eliminate distortions and potential cracking. In addition, thick sections can be hardened fully.

Quench Media Quenching is the act of rapidly cooling the hot steel to harden the steel. Water: Quenching can be done by plunging the hot steel in water. The water adjacent to the hot steel vaporizes, and there is no direct contact of the water with the steel. This slows down cooling until the bubbles break and allow water contact with the hot steel. As the water contacts and boils, a great amount of heat is removed from the steel. With good agitation, bubbles can be prevented from sticking to the steel, and thereby prevent soft spots. Water is a good rapid quenching medium, provided good agitation is done. However, water is corrosive with steel, and the rapid cooling can sometimes cause distortion or cracking. Salt Water: Salt water is a more rapid quench medium than plain water because the bubbles are broken easily and allow for rapid cooling of the part. However, salt water is even more corrosive than plain water, and hence must be rinsed off immediately. Oil: Oil is used when a slower cooling rate is desired. Since oil has a very high boiling point, the transition from start of Martensite formation to the finish is slow and this reduces the likelihood of cracking. Oil quenching results in fumes, spills, and sometimes a fire hazard. Polymer quench: Polymer quenches that will produce a cooling rate in between water and oil. The cooling rate can be altered by varying the components in the mixtureas these are composed of water and some glycol polymers. Polymer quenches are capable of producing repeatable results with less corrosion than water and less of a fire hazard than oil. But, these repeatable results are possible only with constant monitoring of the chemistry. Cryogenic Quench: Cryogenics or deep freezing is done to make sure there is no retained Austenite during quenching. The amount of Martensite formed at quenching is a function of the lowest temperature encountered. At any given temperature of quenching there is a certain amount of Martensite and the balance is untransformed Austenite. This untransformed Austenite is very brittle and can cause loss of strength or hardness, dimensional instability, or cracking. Quenches are usually done to room temperature. Most medium carbon steels and low alloy steels undergo transformation to 100% Martensite at room temperature. However, high carbon and high alloy steels have retained Austenite at room temperature. To eliminate retained Austenite, the quench temperature has to be lowered. This is the reason to use cryogenic quenching.

Hardening - Selective Hardening Carbon steels that have minimum carbon content of 0.4%, or alloy steels with a lower carbon content (hardenable stainless steels with only 0.1% Carbon), can be selectively hardenened in specific regions by applying heat and quench only to those regions. Parts that benefit by flame hardening include gear teeth, bushings etc. These techniques are best suited for medium carbon steels with a carbon content ranging from 0.4 to 0.6%. Flame Hardening: A high intensity oxy-acetylene flame is applied to the selective region. The temperature is raised high enough to be in the region of Austenite transformation. The "right" temperature is determined by the operator based on experience by watching the color of the steel. The overall heat transfer is limited by the torch and thus the interior never reaches the high temperature. The heated region is quenched to achieve the desired hardness. Tempering can be done to eliminate brittleness. The depth of hardening can be increased by increasing the heating time. As much as 6.3 mm (0.25 in) of depth can be achieved. In addition, large parts, which will not normally fit in a furnace, can be heat-treated. Induction Hardening: In Induction hardening, the steel part is placed inside a electrical coil which has alternating current through it. This energizes the steel part and heats it up. Depending on the frequency and amperage, the rate of heating as well as the depth of heating can be controlled. Hence, this is well suited for surface heat treatment. The details of heat treatment are similar to flame hardening.

Economic, Environmental, and Social Issues of Material Usage

Economic Considerations: It is essential for the engineer to know about and understand economic issues simply because the company/institution for which he or she works must realize a profit from the products it manufactures. Materials engineering decisions have economic consequences with regard to both material and production cost Environmental and Social considerations: Issues of environmental protection and sustainable development are gaining an increasing importance in everyday life, and nowhere is this more so than in the field of Materials Science and Engineering. Almost every aspect of materials usage, from extraction and production, through product design and ultimately disposal issues, is now subject to environmental considerations. Furthermore there are many cases where the developments of novel environmentally-friendly materials are providing new challenges for materials scientists and engineers. The growing awareness of environmental issues has increased the attention focused on the materials industry. There is a danger that this could give a negative picture, highlighting examples where materials production and use has led to environmental problems. In many of these cases, materials, additives and production methods were used for very good materials engineering reasons before environmental concerns were established. The more positive image of materials engineering that can be portrayed is one where the industry is at the forefront of technical advances - not only to 'deal with past mistakes', but also to drive sustainable and safe use of materials for the future. The topic of 'Environmental Materials' is broad and can touch on some relatively in-depth aspects of materials structure, chemical and physical properties, processing and design as well as more general areas such as legislative, economic and social aspects. Interesting topics within this area can be presented at a range of levels: for instance the sustainable use of materials in the IT sector can be discussed by 11 year olds with as much enthusiasm as by post-graduate students - although the latter would be expected to grasp the chemical details of identifying brominated flame-retardants, whereas the former would consider much simpler aspects, that are nonetheless important. Recycling issues: It could easily be argued that steel is a very sustainable material; it is abundant, takes relatively little energy to extract and is easy to recycle, however people living near a steelworks would argue against this. It is probably sensible to define such materials as those that have distinct differences that achieve environmental benefit compared to conventional materials. With this definition, the list would include: 1. Materials of a significantly plant-based nature, including wood, natural fiber composites, natural polymers. 2. Materials produced using a large proportion of waste material, including recycled polymers, composites made from waste mineral powders, and arguably also much steel and aluminum.

The most exciting developments in Materials Science are in the realm of functional materials, and many of these serve an environmentally-beneficial purpose, particularly in the production of green energy. These include: Solar-cell materials Fuel-cell technology Catalytic pollution control The figure below schematically shows how the disparate areas under the heading of 'environmental materials' can be linked via a life cycle analysis approach.

18.4 Life Cycle Analysis and its use in design: Life Cycle Analysis is essentially a method of considering the entire environmental impact, energy and resource usage of a material or product. It is often known as a cradle to-grave' analysis and can encompass the entire lifetime from extraction to end-of-life disposal. Life cycle analysis can be an extremely effective way of linking many different aspects of the environmental impacts of materials usage. The scope of a life cycle analysis can be adjusted to suit a particular case. For instance it could cover the environmental impact of the global aluminium industry or simply that of one single plastic injection moulding machine. In order to gain most learning benefit from this area, students would be expected to have a good grasp of the necessary underlying technical areas, which could be quite complex and so this ideally suits more advanced degree level students. The most conventional way of approaching a life cycle analysis is to follow a particular material or product through its lifetime. Therefore the first consideration would be the impact of materials extraction, and then production and manufacture, product use and finally end-of-life considerations. This approach is followed below. Various aspects, such as energy usage, economic and legislative issues occur throughout the cycle.