AD HOC NETWORKS

by
Dr.P.SAMUNDISWARY Dept. of Electronics Engineering Pondicherry University

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CELLULAR NETWORK AND AD HOC NETWORK

CELLULAR NETWORK AD HOC NETWORK Fixed, pre-located cell sites No fixed base stations, very and base stations rapid deployment Static backbone network topology Relatively environment connectivity High dynamic network topologies with multi-hop

and

benign Hostile environment(losses, stable noise) and sporadic connectivity

Detailed planning before Ad hoc network base stations can be automatically forms and installed adapts to changes

AD HOC NETWORK
Collection of mobile wireless nodes forming a network without the aid of any infrastructure or centralized administration Nodes have limited transmission range Nodes act as a routers

CHARACTERISTICS OF AD HOC NETWORKS

Dynamic topologies Limited channel bandwidth Variable capacity links Energy-constrained operation Limited physical security

APPLICATIONS

Military battlefield networks Personal Area Networks (PAN) Disaster and rescue operation Peer to peer networks

Challenges
Limited wireless transmission range Broadcast nature of the wireless medium Packet losses due to transmission errors Mobility-induced route changes Mobility-induced packet losses Battery constraints Potentially frequent network partitions Ease of snooping on wireless transmissions (security hazard)

TYPES OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS

DESTINATION-SEQUENCED DISTANCEVECTOR ROUTING (DSDV)

Table-driven algorithm based on the classical Bellman-Ford routing mechanism Improvements freedom of loops in routing tables Routing is achieved by using routing tables maintained by each node The main complexity in DSDV is in generating and maintaining these routing tables

CLUSTER-HEAD GATEWAY SWITCH ROUTING (CGSR)

Uses DSDV as an underlying protocol and Least Cluster Change (LCC) clustering algorithm A cluster-head is able to control a group of ad-hoc hosts Each node maintains 2 tables:
1.
2.

The routing principle:

A cluster member table, containing the cluster head for each destination node A DV-routing table, containing the next hop to the destination
Lookup of the cluster-head of the destination node Lookup of next hop Packet send to destination Destination: cluster-head delivers packet

CGSR

CGSR
Drawbacks: Too frequent cluster head selection can be an overhead and cluster nodes and Gateway can be a bottleneck

WIRELESS ROUTING PROTOCOL (WRP)

Table-based protocol with the goal of maintaining routing information among all nodes in the network Each node is responsible for four tables:

Distance table Routing table Link-cost table Message retransmission list (MRL) table

Link exchanges are propagated using update messages sent between neighboring nodes Hello messages are periodically exchanged between neighbors This protocol avoids count-to-infinity problem by forcing each node to check predecessor information Drawbacks: 4 tables requires a large amount of memory and periodic hello message consumes power and bandwidth

Source-Initiated On-Demand Routing Protocols

DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING (DSR)

Based on the concept of source routing Mobile nodes are required to maintain route caches that contain the source routes of which the mobile is aware 2 major phases:
Route discovery uses route request and route reply packets Route maintenance uses route error packets and acknowledgments

Advantages: No periodic hello message and fast recovery - cache can store multiple paths to a destination Drawbacks: the packets m ay be forwarded along stale cached routes. It has a major scalability problem due to the nature of source routing. Same as AODV, nodes use the routing caches to reply to route queries

ROUTE DISCOVERY WITH ROUTE REQUEST

Destination

N1-N2
N2 N5

N1-N2-N5
N8

N1-N3-N4-N7 Source N1 N1-N3-N4 N1-N3-N4

N7
N1 N4 N1-N3 N1 N1-N3-N4 N6 N3 N1-N3-N4-N6

ROUTE DISCOVERY WITH ROUTE REPLY

Destination N1-N2-N5-N8 N2 N1-N2-N5-N8 N8

N5

N1-N2-N5-N8 Source

N7 N1

N4

N6 N3

AD-HOC ON-DEMAND DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING (AODV)

Builds on DSDV algorithm and the improvement is on minimising the number of required broadcasts by creating routes on an on-demand basis (not maintaining a complete list of routes) Broadcast is used for route request Advantages: uses bandwidth efficiently, is responsive to changes in topology, is scalable and ensures loop free routing Drawbacks: nodes use the routing caches to reply to route queries. Result: uncontrolled replies and repetitive updates in hosts caches yet early queries cannot stop the propagation of all query messages which are flooded all over the network

TEMPORALLY-ORDERED ROUTING ALGORITHM (TORA)

Highly adaptive, loop-free, distributed routing algorithm based on the concept of link reversal Proposed to operate in a highly dynamic mobile networking environment It is source initiated and provides multiple routes for any desired source/ destination pair This algorithm requires the need for synchronized clocks

basic functions:
Route creation Route maintenance Route erasure

TEMPORALLY-ORDERED ROUTING ALGORITHM (TORA)

Advantages:

provides loop free paths at all instants and multiple routes so that if one path is not available, other is readily available. It establishes routes quickly so that they may be used before the topology changes. Drawbacks: exhibits instability behavior similar to "count-to-infinity" problem in distance vector routing protocols.

ASSOCIATIVITY-BASED ROUTING (ABR)

Free from loops, deadlock, and packet duplicates, and defines a new routing metric for ad-hoc mobile networks Each node generates periodic beacons (hello messages) to signify its existence to the neighbors These beacons are used to update the associativity table of each node With the temporal stability and the associativity table the nodes are able to classify each neighbor link as stable or unstable

ABR

ABR consists of 3 phases:

Route Discovery Route Repair/Reconstruction Route Delete

If node A has in his Route Cache a route to the destination E, this route is immediately used. If not, the Route Discovery protocol is started

ABR

ABR
Advantages: free from duplicate packets Drawbacks: Short beaconing interval to reflect association degree precisely

SIGNAL STABILITY ROUTING (SSR)

descendent of ABR and ABR predates SSR it selects routes based on signal strength between nodes and on a nodes location stability thus offers little novelty SSR route selection criteria has effect of choosing routes that have stronger connectivity and it can be divided into:

Dynamic Routing Protocol (DRP) or Static Routing Protocol (SRP)

SBR
DRP is responsible for maintenance of signal stability table and routing table SRP processes packets by passing the packets up the stack if it is the intended receiver and forwarding the packet if it is not Advantages: to select strong connection leads to fewer route reconstruction Drawbacks: long delay since intermediate nodes cant answer the path (unlike AODV, DSR)

CLASSIFICATION OF MAC PROTOCOLS

Contention free MAC TDMA,FDMA,CDMA divides the channel by time, frequency and code. Contention based MAC Nodes compete to access the shared medium (channel) through random access

CLASSIFICATION

Other criteria for classification

Power-aware Directional or omnidirectional antennas QoS-aware

NON QOS MAC PROTOCOLS

General MAC protocols

MACA (Multiple Access Collision Avoidance) IEEE 802.11 MACA-BI

Power aware MAC protocols

PAMAS (Power aware medium access control with signaling) PCM (Power control medium access control) PCMA (Power controlled multiple access)

Multiple channel protocols

DBMA (Dual busy tone multiple access), Multichannel CSMA MAC protocol, etc.

MACA
If node A wants to transmit to B, it first sends an RTS packet to B, indicating the length of the data transmission to follow B returns A a CTS packet with the expected length of the transmission A starts transmission when it receives CTS

RTS, CTS packets are much shorter than data packets

A neighboring node overhearing an RTS defers its own transmission until the corresponding CTS would have been finished A node hearing the CTS defers for the expected length of the data transmission

Contd..

MACA can handle hidden node & exposed node problems unsolved by CSMA
Hidden node: A sends to B; C sends to B -> Collision at B -> In MACA, B sends CTS to A; C can hear the CTS & defer its own transmission to B in MACA Exposed node: B sends to A; C unnecessarily delays transmission to B -> In MACA, C can overhear Bs RTS sent to A but C cannot hear CTS from A; So, C transmits to B

Contd..

Limitations
MACA does not provide ACK RTS-CTS approach does not always solve the hidden node problem Example

A sends RTS to B B sends CTS to A; At the same time, D sends RTS to C The CTS & RTS packets collide at C A transmits data to B; D resends RTS to C; C sends CTS to D The data & CTS packets collide at B

MACAW (MACA for Wireless)

RTS-CTS-DS-DATA-ACK

RTS from A to B CTS from B to A Data Sending (DS) from A to B Data from A to B ACK from B to A Random wait after any successful/unsuccessful transmission

Significantly higher throughput than MACA Does not completely solve hidden & exposed node problems

IEEE 802.11 MAC

Very popular wireless MAC protocol Two modes: DCF (distributed coordination function) & PCF (point coordination function) DCF is based on CSMA/CA CSMA + MACA
RTS-CTS-DATA-ACK Physical carrier sensing + NAV (network allocation vector) containing time value that indicates the duration up to which the medium is expected to be busy due to transmissions by other nodes Every packet contains the duration info for the remainder of the message Every node overhearing a packet continuously updates its own NAV

MACA-BI
Receiver initiated Reduce number of control packets

RTR (Ready To Receive) & DATA rather than RTSCTS-DATA

Receiver needs a traffic prediction algorithm Works well given predictable traffic patterns

POWER AWARE MAC PROTOCOLS

Minimize expensive retransmissions due to collisions Transceivers should be kept in standby mode as much as possible Switch to low power mode sufficient for the destination to receive the packet Two categories

Alternate between sleep and awake cycles Vary transmission power

PAMAS (Power aware medium access control with signaling)

RTS-CTS exchanges over a signaling channeling Data transmission over a separate data channel Receiver sends out a busy tone, while receiving a data packet over the signaling channel Nodes listen to the signaling channel to determine when it is optimal to power down transceivers A node powers itself off if it has nothing to transmit and its neighbor is transmitting A node powers off if at least one neighbor is transmitting and another is receiving Use of ACK and transmission of multiple packets can enhance performance Radio transceiver turnaround time was not considered

PCM: POWER CONTROL MEDIUM

ACCESS CONTROL
Send RTS & CTS packets using max available power Send DATA & ACK with the min power required to communicate between the sender and receiver Based on the received signal strength of the RTS/CTS packet, adjust the power level for DATA transmission Drawbacks Requires rather accurate estimation of the received signal strength, which is hard in wireless communication Difficult to implement frequent changes in the transmission power level

PCMA: POWER CONTROLLED MULTIPLE

ACCESS
Control

transmit power of the sender

The receiver is just able to receive the packet Avoid interfering other neighboring nodes not involved in the packet exchange Two channels: one for busy tone & another for data

Request

Power To Send (RTPS) & Accept Power To Send (APTS) on the data channel Every receiver periodically sends out a busy tone Sender does carrier sensing

QOS-AWARE MAC PROTOCOLS

For real-time (RT) applications, MAC protocols should support resource reservation for RT traffic in addition to addressing hidden/exposed terminal problems Synchronous schemes: TDM variations requiring time synchronization Asynchronous approaches: No need for global time synchronization

Categories of QoS-aware MAC protocols

Use shorter inter-frame spacing & smaller backoff contention window for RT traffic

Extension of 802.11 DCF (e.g., 802.11e)

Black burst contention

RT nodes jam the channel in proportion to waiting time Observe the channel Node with the longest jam transmits

Use reserved time slots to provide bounded & required bandwidth for RT traffic; Non-RT traffic is treated like 802.11

SECURITY GOALS
Authentication Confidentiality Integrity Freshness Access control Privacy

Security Threats in Ad hoc Networks

Passive Attacks Eavedropping Traffic analysis i) traffic analysis at the physical layer ii) traffic analysis at the MAC layer iii) Traffic analysis by event correlation Active Attacks Physical i) Tampering and ii) EMI Masquerade, Message modification Denial of service

Difference between ad hoc networks and sensor networks

Factor Ad hoc Network Sensor Network

Networking regime
Traffic

random one to-one

Random, Multimedia

One to many Many to many

Temporally and spatially correlated data Generally fixed Order of thousands High fault-tolerance requirement Hostile and harsh Tiny, low processing

Mobility Scalability Fault tolerance Operating Environment Hardware constraints

Mobile Order of hundreds No critical point of failure Day-to-day Laptops, PDAs