Teachers Mannual

HYDROPOWER PLANTS
for Engineering Diploma Programme Elective Course
(for Branches in Mechanical Chemical Engineering)

For Department of Technical Education Govt. of Uttarakhand

ALTERNATE HYDRO ENERGY CENTRE INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, ROORKEE

July 2008

PREFACE

Lecture notes for the proposed Engineering Diploma Level Course entitled Hydropower Plants for branches in Mechanical and Chemical Engineering is in accordance with the approved syllabus. Modern trends in design are brought out. Copies of some relevant published/unpublished papers on various aspects of design are included. It may be noted that published design papers are relevant to the design practice at the time of publication/design and must be used/modified with relevant to current practice as per references given in the text.

(ARUN KUMAR) HEAD, AHEC, IIT, ROORKEE

APPENDIX 9 FOR ENGINEERING DIPLOMA LEVEL ELECTIVE COURSE For the branches in Mechanical, Chemical Engineering 1. 2.* 3.* 4.* Course Title: Hydro Power Plants Contact Hours: L: T: P: Practical: MTE ETE

Examination Duration (Hrs.): Theory: Relative Weightage : CWS PRE Credit: Pre-requisite: NIL Details of Course: Particulars 6.* PRS

5.* 7. 8. Sl. No. 1.

Semester: Autumn Spring Both

HYDROLOGY : Introduction The hydrological cycle, Measurement of run off, Hydrograph, flow duration curve, mass curve, Numerical Problems. 2. Essential Elements of Hydro Power Plants: Catchment area, Reservoir, dams, Spillways, conduits, Surge Tank, Prime movers, Draft tubes, powerhouse equipment. Government Hydropower policies, environmental issues, SWOT-(Strength weakness opportunity threatening) of hydropower projects, type of clearance required for Hydropower project, master plan, topography, catchments area, types of streams, allotment of site-(Open bid, Mou, Joint venture). Survey & investigation, PFR-(Pre-feasibility report), DPR (Detailed Project Report), Process of development of site (announcement, allotment, clearance, agreement, commissioning).Types of surveyTopographical, metrological, hydrological, ecological, geological. Arial Rainfall Measurement, Type of flow measurement Devices(Notch, weir, flume), dilution method, and Flow duration curve (important), flood discharge estimation kripitech formula, dickens formula, English formula, hydrograph, unit hydrograph. Financial institution, SOI Map, Cost / Estimation wheeling charges, Banking, Moratorium, PPA-(Power purchase agreement), SERC-(State electricity regulatory commission) Hydrological cycle. 3. Types of Hydro Power Plants: High, medium and low head plants, Base load and peak load plants, Run-or-river plant with pondage, Runof-river plant without pondage, Storage type plant and pump storage plants, Mini and microhydro plants, Under ground hydropower plants. * These are to be decided by the respective University/Board

Contact Hours 3

10

ii

Sl. No. 4.

Particulars Hydraulic Turbines: Classifications of water turbines, principles of working. Impulse turbine constructional details, velocity triangles power and calculations, governing of impulse turbines. Reaction Turbines --, Francis turbines, propeller and Kaplan turbines, construction details, velocity triangles, power and calculations, degree of reaction, draft tubes, sp speed of turbine, cavitation and methods of prevention, principle of similarity, unit and sp. Quantity, selection of turbines, governing of reaction turbines. Auxiliaries of Hydro Power Plants: Exciter, governor oil system, lubricating oil system, coolant pumps, air compressors, drainage pump, cranes, gate hoists, valves etc. Control of Hydraulic Power Plants: Hydraulic control-different types, Machine control-starting and stopping of voltage control of generators and system. Protection of machine against break down. Automatic and remote control of hydro plants-fully automatic plants, partially automatic plant, remote control of plants. Electrical and Mechanical Equipment in Hydro Power Plant: Electrical Equipment-Generator, exciter, voltage regulators, transformers, switch gears, control room equipments. Mech. EquipmentsCompressors, air duets, shafts, couplings, bearings, braking equipments for generator, oil circuits and pumps, cranes and other lifting devices, ventilations and cooling system, equipment for water supply and drainage equipment for power house lighting. Safety Measures in Hydro Power Plants: Surge tanks, screens, sand traps, jets dispersers, pressure regulators, Preventative maintenance, erosion of blades and prevention. Lay out of Hydro Power Plant: Types of layouts on the basis of types of plants. Schematic arrangement of different elements in a hydropower plant. Cost of Hydro Power : Calculations of hydropower, cost of hydro plant economics of hydro power generation (fixed cost, running cost, transmission cost) etc.

Contact Hours 5

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Suggested Readings: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Morse, F.T., Power Plant Engg., East West Press Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi/Madras Nag, P.K., Power Plant Engg., TMH Pub. New Delhi Rajput, R.K., Power Plant Engg., Laxmi publications New Delhi Ed. Vakil, Power Plant Technology, TMH Pub. New Delhi Verma, Mahesh, Power Plant Engg., Metropolitan Book Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi

iii

CONTENTS
TITLE PREFACE COURSE SYLLABUS CONTENT CHAPTER -1 HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENT 1.1 Scenario of Hydropower Development at National Level 1.2 Hydropower Development in Uttarakhand 1.3 Planning of Small Hydropower Projects 1.4 Planning of small Hydropower Projects 1.5 References INTRODUCTION 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Runoff and Hydrograph 2.3 Stream Flow Measurement HYDROPOWER PLANTS 3.1 Classification of Hydropower Plants 3.2 Major Civil Works of Hydropower Plants 3.3 Design Calculations of a Small Hydro Projects HYDRAULIC TURBINES, GOVERNING SYSTEM & INLET VALVES 4.1 Classification and Types of Turbines 4.2 Constructional Details of Various Types of Turbines 4.3 Selection of Hydraulic Turbine 4.4 Turbine Setting and Excavation Requirement 4.5 Similarity Considerations, Unit Quantities 4.6 Cavitation in Reaction Turbines 4.7 Governing System of Hydro Turbines 4.8 Speed Rise and Pressure Rise on Load Throw-off 4.9 Erosion of Under-Water Parts Due to Excessive Silt 4.10 Turbine Inlet Valves at the Powerhouse 4.11 Unit Auxiliaries HYDRO GENERATORS, EXCITATION CONTROLS 5.1 General 5.2 Applicable Standards 5.3 Generator Specification 5.4 Types of Generators 5.5 Constructional Features 5.6 Generator Service Systems 5.7 Condition Monitoring of Generators 5.8 Control, Monitoring and Protection
iv

PAGE NO. i ii iv 1 1 10 19 21 34 35 35 38 48 54 54 59 59 70 70 72 90 96 97 98 101 108 109 111 114 115 115 115 116 121 124 130 133 134

CHAPTER-2

CHAPTER-3

CHAPTER-4

CHAPTER-5

SYSTEM

AND

TITLE 5.9 5.10 5.11 CHAPTER-6 Small Hydro Generators Static Excitation System Testing of Generators

PAGE NO. 135 138 144 146 146 147 149 151 153 153 153 154 154 154 154 156 156 157 157 158 158 158 158 159 159 159 162 166 169 177 180 182 183 184 186 187 187 187 187 188 188

UNIT AND STATION CONTROL SYSTEM FOR GENERATING UNITS AND AUXILIARIES 6.1 System Elements 6.2 General Requirements of Control System 6.3 Unit control Boards (UCB) 6.4 Station Control Centre 6.5 Remote Terminal Units (RTU) 6.6 Station Bus Field Bus 6.7 Mobile (Portable) Man-machine Communication System 6.8 Transducers for Electrical Measurement 6.9 Temperature Monitoring Device 6.10 Synchronizing Equipment 6.11 Database Management System (DBMS), Real Time Energy Management System 6.12 Closed Circuit TV 6.13 Mosaic Mimic Board 6.14 Data Acquisition and Control Station for Common Auxiliary System 6.15 Data Acquisition and Control Station for Switchgear 6.16 Vibration Monitoring and Air Gap Monitoring Devices 6.17 Operation and Maintenance Manuals 6.18 Software Documentation 6.19 As Built Documents MECHANICAL AUXILIARIES IN HYDROPOWER STATIONS 7.1 General 7.2 Compressed Air Systems 7.3 Cooling Water Supply Systems 7.4 Dewatering and Drainage System 7.5 Cranes and Hoists 7.6 Ventilation and Air Conditioning System 7.7 Oil Storage and Handling Systems 7.8 Diesel Engine-Generator Set 7.9 Elevators 7.10 Lighting/ Illumination System of Powerhouse 7.11 References COSTING, ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL ANALYSIS OF SMALL HYDRO ELECTRIC PROJECTS 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Discount Rate 8.3 Net Present Value 8.4 Internal Rate of Return (IRR) 8.5 Benefit-cost Ratio (B/C)
v

CHAPTER-7

CHAPTER-8

TITLE 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 Economic Evaluation Costs Financial Feasibility Abstract of Preliminary Cost Estimates for Pre-feasibility Study (Cast Study) (2x300 kW) Abstract of Project Cost for Detailed Project Report (Case Study) (2x9000 kW) Civil Cost Appraisal of Hydro Electric Projects

PAGE NO. 188 189 189 189 190 191

vi

CHAPER 1 HYDRO POWER DEVELOPMENT

1.1 1.1.1

SCENARIO OF HYDRO POWER DEVELOPMENT AT NATIONAL LEVEL Background

India has immense economically exploitable hydropower potential of over 84,000 MW at 60% load factor (148700 MW installed capacity), with Brahmaputra, Indus and Ganges basins contributing about 80% of it. In addition to this, small, mini and micro hydropower schemes (with capacity less than 3 MW) have been assessed to have 6781.81 MW of installed capacity. Of this enormous hydro potential, India has harnessed only about 15% so far, with another 7% under various stages of development. The remaining 78% remains un-harnessed due to many issues and barriers to the large scale development of Hydropower in the subcontinent. Various studies have established the ideal Thermal - Hydro power mix for India at to be at 60:40. The present mix of 75:45 is creating much problem in the Indian power system with country facing energy shortage of 9.3% and peaking shortage of 12.8%. The total requirement ending XI plan is set to be 206000 MW. The current installed thermal and hydropower capacity stands at 66% and 26% of the total power generated with 83272 and 32726 MW respectively. Remaining 8% of 10091 MW is achieved from other forms including wind and nuclear. The current captive generation amounts to 14636 MW. Indias power system is divided into five major region namely, the Northern region, Western region, Southern region, Eastern region and North-Eastern region, with each region facing separate issues. While the Eastern and North-Eastern regions are power abundant, the Northern and Western regions have greater power demands. The hydropower potential is largest in NE region with 98% of it still untapped. Northern, Eastern, Western and Southern regions have 79%, 77%, 23% and 33% untapped hydropower potential respectively. The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) and Ministry of Power (MoP) are the nodal agencies involved in planning and development of power sector at the central level. Being a concurrent subject under the Indian Constitution, electricity is generated, transmitted, maintained and developed both by central and state authorities, with the primary role with the states. With the central policy providing the overall direction for development, State determines the power generation, distribution and management systems. The development of water resources lies with the State Government. Since hydropower development involves water resources, the responsibility of its development stays primarily with State agencies. The power sector in India is still largely public with 89% share in the total installed capacity.

1.1.2

Hydro Power Generation Capacity

MAJOR RIVER SYSTEMS OF INDIA

360 680 72
0

760 800 840

INDUS RIVER SYSTEM

S DU IN

320

M LU B JHE ENA CH

880
YAMUNA

920
KAMENG

280

S DU IN

DELHI

GANGA RIVER SYSTEM

GA NG

SUBA NSIRI

NEPAL
A

BHUTAN
A ST TI

BET WA

BA

SA BA RM AT

240

NA

S
I

AM CH

GA GA N
NR SO

DAMODAR
HA K I RE RN RN ITA BE BA NI SU HMA BRA

BANGLA DESH

A M

HI

200

A DA RM NA PI TA

MA HA NA

DI

BA RA K

L BA

TRA PU MA AH BR

MYANMAR
CENTRAL INDIAN RIVER SYSTEM

GODA VA RI

WEST FLOWING RIVER SYSTEM

KRIS HNA
PENN ER

EAST FLOWING RIVER SYSTEM

SHARAVATHI

KUTTIYADI

PERIYAR

Table 1.1 Basin-Wise Identified Hydro-Electric Potential ( Reassessment Studies - 1978 1987 ) S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total Basin Indus Ganga Central Indian West Flowing East Flowing Brahmaputra Potential in MW 33832 20711 4152 9430 14511 66065 148702

DIB AN G
NG HA DI

VI RA AS BE

EJ TL SU

C H I N ( T I B E

A T )

BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER SYSTEM

960
T HI LU

ER UV CA Y

Table 1.2: Shares in Power Generating Capacity MW

Owner State Private Central Total

Hydro 25565 1106 6422 33193

Thermal 42379 10502 30891 83772

Renewable 2568 3623 0 6191

Nuclear 0 0 3900 3900

Total 70512 15231 41213 127056

Table 1.3: Opportunities In Hydro Power Sector In Himalayan States

States Arunachal Himachal Pradesh Uttaranchal Jammu & Kashmir Mizoram Meghala Manipur Nagaland

Potential MW 50328 18820 18175 14146 2196 2394 1784 1574

Utilised MW 3016 10022 4206 2763 60 269 195 99

Potential to be Utilised MW 47313 8798 13969 11383 2136 2125 1589 1475 % 94 47 77 81 97 89 89 94

Table 1.4: List of Hydro Electric Stations with capacity above 3 MW

Region Northern Western Southern Eastern North Eastern Total

No. of Stations 78 45 92 26 15 256

No. of Units 234 117 286 82 42 761

Capacity in MW 11070.30 6588.80 11004.35 2424.10 1094.70 32182.25

1.1.3

Capacity Addition Scenario in XIth Plan ( 2007-12 )

In support to the 1998 National Hydropower policy, GoI plans to wipe out all energy shortage by the end of 2011-12, i.e. by end of XIth Plan and ensure uninterrupted quality power at affordable cost. With coal based power plant as the backbone of Indian Power sector, during the XIth Plan capacity addition of about 40200 MW coal based plant is planned with introduction of Super Critical Technology. Table 1.5 : Sector wise plan of capacity addition in XI Plan Prime Mover State Sector Central Sector Private Sector Total Hydro (MW) 3957 11080 3744 18781 Thermal (MW) 15538 19880 11145 46563 Nuclear (MW) -3160 -3160 Total (MW) 19495 34120 14889 68504

1.1.4 1.1.5

Features of Power Sector India endowed with rich sources of energy .but energy resources unevenly dispersed. Power sector joint responsibility of the State and Central Governments. The State and Central Government sectors account for 58% and 32% of the generation capacity respectively. while the private sector accounts for about 10%. Transmission & distribution mainly with State. The private sector has a small but growing presence in distribution, is making an entry into transmission. Power Sector which had been funded mainly through budgetary support and external borrowings, was opened to private sector in 1991. All Urban Areas (Cities and Towns) Electrified Total Number of Villages 593732* Total Number of Villages Electrified 474162 Number of villages not electrified 119570 Of 138 million rural households Electrified households are 60.2 million or 43.52% National grid operated by Power Grid Corporation Benefits of Hydro Power and Reasons for its Slow Development

Hydropower has immense benefits and has been brought forward as a preferred option for power generation over the last decade. The reasons for these can be summed as follows: Abundant potential of hydropower development in India as discussed above With relative independence from international market like oil prices, hydropower involves no extra foreign exchange outgo Hydropower is a no-inflation power as Water- the raw material for power generation is free of inflation Environment friendly

Hydropower projects support socio economic development of remote areas as the project site is developed Hydropower is cost effective and renewable form of energy It has additional benefits like irrigation, flood control, tourism etc.

Even with these benefits, Hydropower has had slow development in India especially in last few decades. This has primarily been due to: Long gestation period Time consuming process for project clearances Until recently, the national focus has been on thermal generation Highly capital intensive and absence of committed funds Poor financial health of State Electricity Boards (SEBs) Technical constraints due to complex geological nature of the projects Inter-state disputes as Water is a state subject Absence of long tenure loans makes it difficult for private investors Advance against depreciation is disallowed 14% return on Capital employed (RoCE) is not attractive enough for investors Dearth of competent contracting agencies to construct the project site Presently, the national focus on thermal generation has been shifting towards hydropower development. To this effect, Government of India introduced a national policy on Hydropower development in 1998, in which hydropower has been accepted a national priority with emphasis on un-harnessed potential especially in the NE region. Key policy initiatives to accelerate hydropower have been introduced in the policy document, which are discussed in detail in the following section. 1.1.6 National Policy on Hydro Power Development in India

With the aim to accelerate the development of Hydropower, the Ministry of Power (MoP), Government of India (GoI) introduced the National Policy on Hydropower Development in 1998. The policy document has identified and responded to the major issues and barriers. The objectives of the National Policy document on Hydro Power Development, 1998 are (as stated in the document): To ensure targeted capacity addition during 9th Plan (and the subsequent plans) With Central, State and Private hydropower projects contributing 3455 MW, 5810 and 550 MW respectively, the GoI aims to reach the total capacity of 9815 MW during the ninth plan. (The XIth Plan aims capacity addition of 18781 MW in the hydropower sector) Exploitation of vast Hydro Electric potential at faster pace The government would take steps like execution of all CEA cleared projects, update and clear pending DPRs, survey new green field sites and resolve inter-state disputes. Promotion of small and mini hydro projects Small and mini hydro projects are especially viable for remote and hilly areas where extension of grid system is comparatively uneconomical Strengthening the role of PSUs and SEBs in taking up new hydro projects

1.1.7

The government aims at enlarging Public sectors involvement in mega hydro projects and multi-purpose projects involving inter-state issues, projects for peaking power and those with rehabilitation and resettlement issues. Increasing private investments for development of hydropower in India The public sector would be supported by greater private investment through IPPs and joint ventures. Project Clearance by Govt. Agencies

A three stage clearance system has been set up to enable relatively faster and hindrance free clearance of suitable projects and includes survey, investigation and pre-construction activities. The three stage clearance system works as under: Stage I : Survey and preparation of pre-feasibility reports Stage II : Detailed investigation, preparation of DPR and pre-construction activity including land acquisition Stage III : Execution of the project after investment decision through PIB/CCEA Small hydro power projects up to 25 MW can be set up in private sector without Central governments involvement. Techno-economic clearance needs to be obtained from CEA if the estimated cost of the project exceeds Rs 2500 million and/or there are inter-state issues involved. 1.1.8 Allotment of Hydro Power Projects To develop a Hydro Project, State Government identifies potential sites, prepare PreFeasibility Report (PFR) and declare hydro policy which gives the guideline for allotment of projects to public and private investors or companies. i) Basis of Prequalification for Allotment Qualification Financial capacity Technical capacity Past experience Local factor Weightage (60-80) % (20-30) % (10-15) % ( 5-10) %

ii) Method of allotment : There are two methods for allotment of Hydro Power Projects: 1. By signing MOU (Memorandum of Understanding). 2. By inviting Bids. The projects are advertised in order to seek bid of possible sites. All bidder will be subjected to pre-qualification. Applications from bidders in response to the advertisement should be accompanied by a non-refundable upfront premium.

Upfront will be per MW for each project, subjected to a minimum threshold premium. If bids received beneath the threshold premium will be rejected. Projects will be allotted to the bidder making highest bid. The successful bidder shall be required to deposit the premium within a reasonable period. If more than one bidder bids the identical premium, a gradation list based on pre-qualification criterion is made and allotted to highest priority bid. In case there is no bid for two times, the site is allotted to govt. agency.

1.1.9 Sale of Power The bidder can contract to sell power to any HT consumer, local rural grids, main grid to rural power distribution entities or any consumer outside the state. All sale is approved by SRC, or CRC in case inter-state matter. 1.1.10 Wheeling Charges Wheeling charges for wheeling the generated energy to third party consumers or outside the State will be as determined by the SRC. No wheeling charges are applicable in cases of sales to the state govt. or for sale to rural power distribution entities or local rural grids within state. 1.1.11 Grid Interfacing / Transmission Line

The IPP shall be responsible for laying lines for connectivity to the nearest grid substation at the appropriate voltage, depending on the capacity of the power station and the distance from the power station to the Grid sub-station. The State Govt. will determine the specifications of the evacuation facilities required, including the inter-connection point and voltage. and the same would be specified in the project information document provided with the application form. On specific request from the IPP, the State Govt. will carry out the implementation of evacuation facilities at charges to be mutually negotiated. 1.1.12 Royalty

On all projects governed by policy, royalty payment for the first 15 years of operation is exempted in all cases of sale of power outside the state or to the state or to consumers in rural areas not served or inadequately served by the concerned existing distribution licensee. In case of sale to other parties, a royalty of 12% of net energy wheeled (after deducting wheeling charges) or supplied directly without wheeling is charged. Beyond the 15th year of operation, a royalty of 18% of net energy wheeled or supplied directly without wheeling will be made available to the govt. free of charge by all IPPS. 1.1.13 Incentive by State Govt.

The state government will levy no entry tax on power generation, transmission equipment and building material for projects. 1.1.14 Strength of Hydro Power Environmental friendly, clean renewable High degree of flexibility

 1.1.15 1.1.16 1.1.17 1.1.18

Part of multi purpose project with additional benefits. Pumped storage for optimal integrate operation of grid Least operational and maintenance cost Additional benefits of Flood control, Tourism, fishery. Well recognized for obtaining financial support. Weakness of Hydro Power Mainly depends on rainfall/snowmelt. Run of river not for peaking High capital intensive. Remotely located Gestation period is very large. Relatively smaller units. Non standard occurrence. Opportunities in Hydro Power Vast potential untapped Requirement for power peaking Greater concern towards increasing pollutions on land, water and in air causes leading inclination towards hydro Depletion of fossil fuels. Threats for Hydro Power Ambitious plan for thermal/nuclear programme for power. Growing concern of environment. Prone to natural calamities. Submergence of land and displacement of population Apprehension on seismic disturbance Over emphasis of other renewable energy sources development Institutional Arrangements for Development The Ministry of Power responsible for policy and programme and all matters in the sector of Power. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy is responsible for all matters of new and renewable energy including hydropower development. The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) is the technical wing of the ministry. Central Electricity Regulatory Commission is to regulate the tariff of generating companies, to regulate interstate transmission of electricity, to issue licenses to function as transmission licensees, to adjudicate upon disputes involving distribution companies or transmission licensee, to specify grid code etc. Central Transmission Utility is a government company to undertake transmission of electricity through the interstate transmission system. Power Grid Corporation of India Limited (PGCIL), which is a Government of India company, is entrusted with the responsibility of creating a national transmission grid.

The PTC is to purchase power from the identified private projects and sell it to the identified State Electricity Boards or supply power directly to a 'cluster' . Rural Electrification Corporation, a Government of India company to assist the Departments of Energy and Power of various State Governments, State Electricity Boards in the development and financing of programme of rural electrification. Power Finance Corporation, a central public sector undertaking, to assist various electricity Boards in the power sector. Central Water Commission is an autonomous Commission under the Ministry of Water Other Organisations

1.1.19 1.1.20 1.1.21

Central Power Research Institute, Power Engineers Training Society, Energy Management Centre etc. Central Board of Irrigation and Power, Council of Power Utility, Other Stake Holders Power Trading companies Private developers Regulatory commission Financial Institutions Manufacturers Consultants EPC contractors and construction firms NGOs Sources of Information State Nodal Agencies for renewable energy in states State Electricity Boards, Deptt. of Power of states Central Government MNES, CEA, CWC, NHPC etc Individuals having background in such data calculation Survey of India including Digital Mapping Centre Forest Survey of India Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun Regional Centre for Remote Sensing, Dehradun NATMO, Calcutta

1.2 HYDRO POWER DEVELOPMENT IN UTTARAKHAND

UTTARAKHAND

1.2.1

Vision of State in Respect of Power Generation Access to electricity for all at affordable price . Quality power supply for 24 hour. Electrification of 100% villages by 2007 and access to electricity to 100% households by 2009. Harness hydroelectric potential in the State. Increase efficiency in generation and distribution including private sector participation. Sufficient grid/evacuation system within Uttaranchal. Status of Achievements of Vision Supply hour increased, almost upto 24 hours (deficiency in winter season still exist). Electrification of villages - 92%. Households electrification about 56%. Hydroelectric Projects of :Harnessed capacity 1400 MW.

1.2.2

10

 1.2.3 1.2.4

Allocated capacity 13000 MW. Involvement of State, Central & Private Sector. Extension/up-gradation of transmission network NABARD/REC funded projects under implementation. Major river valley based integrated transmission system proposed for ADB funding. APDRP work for distribution sector under final stage of implementation. Village Electrification Status in State (Bharat Nirman) Total revenue villages - 15761 Villages electrified at the time of creation of State - 12690 (81%) Villages electrified till 31.03.2005 - 14602 (92%) Villages that remain to be electrified as on 31.03.2005 - 1159 Re-electrification of de-electrified villages - 504 100% Villages to be electrified by 2007. Now village electrification under RGGVY. Projects for all 13 districts costing to Rs.658.80 Cr. submitted. Sanction for 4 districts costing to Rs.220.00 Cr. received, against which first installment of 30% Rs.5944.00 Cr. received. Work awarded for 12 districts & started in 8 districts.

Proactive Policy Uttarakhand has adopted a proactive policy for development of Hydro Power. Four major CPSUs-THDC, NTPC, NHPC & SJVNL are partners in hydro power development efforts. Govt. of Uttarakhand allocated 14 projects total 2400 MW in November, 2005 to these 4 CPSUs. The philosophy enshrined was valley based concentration Bhagirathi Valley to THDC, Alaknanda Valley to NTPC, Sharda Valley to NHPC and Yamuna Valley to SJVNL. Transparent competitive bidding policy adopted to allocate projects to IPPs. Four large hydro projects (>100 MW) have been allotted to GVK, GMR and Reliance Group. 10 Small hydro power projects (<100 MW) have been allotted through bid route to L&T, Lanco Kondapalli, Krishna Knitwear, Sun Flag, PES Engineers Ltd. and Vishal Exports & Overseas Ltd. for development.

1.2.5

Main Features of Hydro Power Policy of Uttarakhand Maximum threshold premium fixed Two stage bidding - RFQ and RFP Allotment on the basis of highest upfront premium Exemption from free power provision for earlier 15 years, barring in few cases, to the projects upto 25 Mw Policy in 3 categories viz under 25 Mw, 25-100 Mw and above 100 Mw 11

 1.2.6

Time schedule for various stages and completion

Generation Status Assessed Potential - > 20000 MW Harnessed Potential - 2819 MW Allotted Projects to various Developers - 11560 MW a) State Undertaking (UJVNL) - 2596 MW b) CPSUs - 7335 MW c) Private Developers - 1635 MW Proposed Capacity addition in XIth Plan - 5000 MW Mix of players - 20% State Undettaking (UJVNL) - 65% CPSUs (NHPC, THDC, NTPC, SJVNL) - 15% IPPs

Table 1.6: Details of Generation Status Details Assessed Potential Developed Projects till now UJVNL CPSUs Private Developers Allotted/Under Construction Projects UJVNL CPSUs Private Developers Present Status > 20,000 MW 2819 MW 1010 MW 1400 MW 408 MW 11560 MW 2596 MW 7335 MW 1635 MW

12

1.2.7

Details of Projects Allotted and Under Construction

Table 1.6: Details of Projects Allotted and Under Construction DETAILS UJVNL : - 5 to 25 MW - 25 to 100 MW - Above 100 MW CPSUs : - 5 to 25 MW - 25 to 100 MW - Above 100 MW PRIVATE DEVELOPERS : - 5 to 25 MW - 25 to 100 MW - Above 100 MW NO. OF PROJECTS 17 04 09 07 15 39 03 05 CAPACITY (MW) 61 218 2317 00 348 6987 312 168 1140

Table 1.7: Details of Allotted & Under Construction Projects to UJVN Sl. A B 1 2 3 4. Name of the Project 5 to 25 MW 25 to 100 MW Arakot Tyuni Tyuni Plasu Rishiganga-I Rishiganga TOTAL :C 1 2 3 4 5 Above 100 MW Pala Maneri Bowala Nandparayag Bhaironghati Tamak Lata Nandprayag Langrasu 09 Nos 480.00 132.00 400.00 280.00 141.00 - 17 Nos. 04 Nos. 70.00 42.00 70.00 35.00 217.00 Capacity (MW) 61.50 MW

13

6 7 8 9

Sela Urthing Sirkari Bhyol Rupsiyabagar Taluka Sankri Maneri Bhali-II TOTAL

230.00 210.00 140.00 304.00 2317.00

Table 1.8: Details of Allotted & Under Constructed Projects Of PSUs Sl. Name of the Project A B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 5 to 25 MW 25 to 100 MW Gohana Tal Jadhganga Maleri Jhelam Jhelam Tamak Karmoli Lumti Talli Jakhol Sankri Devra Mori Total C 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Above 100 MW Rupsiyabagar Khasiyabara Lata Tapovan Vishnugad Pipalkoti Karmoli Bokang Beiling Kotli Bhel Garba Tawaghat Chungar Chal Loharinagpala Tapovan Vishnugad Kishau 15 Nos. 260.00 162.00 340.00 140.00 330.00 1045.00 630.00 240.00 600.00 520.00 600.00 Nil 7 Nos. 60.00 50.00 55.00 60.00 55.00 35.00 33.00 348.00 Capacity (MW)

14

12 13 14 15

Devsari Tehri Stage-II Koteshwar Lakhwar Vyasi Total

300.00 1000.00 400.00 420.00 6987.00

Table 1.9: Details of Allotted and Under Construction Projects of Private Developers Sl. A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Name of the Project 5 to 25 MW Bhilangana-III Rupin-III Rupin-IV Rupin-V Rishiganga Jalandharigad Jhalakoti Agunda Thati Kotbudakedar Badiar Rayat Kakoragad Syanagad Birahiganga Langrasu Dewal Kailganga Khiraoganga Loharkhet Saryu-I Saryu-II Saryu-III Tanga Motighat Bhyundar Ganga Pulna 39 Nos 24.00 3.00 3.00 15.00 8.25 11.80 3.00 3.00 3.00 4.90 3.00 5.00 4.90 4.80 3.00 5.00 5.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 15.00 13.00 Capacity (MW)

15

Sl. 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 B 1 2 3

Name of the Project Melkhet Madkini Bhilangana Gangani Dewali Vanala Rambara Gaurikund Phata Byung Nandakini-III Birahiganga-I Birahiganga-II Jimbagad Total :25to 100 MW Hanol Tyuni Singoli Bhatwari Mori Hanol Total - 3 Nos

Capacity (MW) 15.00 9.00 22.50 8.00 9.00 15.00 24.00 18.60 10.80 5.60 3.80 5.60 7.70 312.25 60.00 60.00 63.00 183.00 - 5 Nos. 140.00 200.00 280.00 190.00 330.00 1140.00

C 1 2 3 4 5

Above 100 MW Alaknanda Mapang Bogudiyar

Bogudiyar Sirkari Bhyol Urthing Sobla Srinagar Total

1.2.8

Status of Renovated Old Hydro Power Projects of Uttaranchal Jal Vidyut Nigam Ltd.

Table 1.10: Proposed Financial Aided Projects under Germanys KFW (through PFC) Sl. 1 2 Name of Project Chhibro Khodri Capacity (MW) 240 120 Proposed Cost (Rs. in lacs) 14200 8700

16

Sl. 3 4 5 6

Name of Project Dhakrani Dhalipur Kulhaal Tiloth

Capacity (MW) 33.75 51 30 90

Proposed Cost (Rs. in lacs) 5400 7800 2900 11854

1.2.9 Details of Transmission System Table 1.11: Details of Transmission System Details As on 11/2000 (At the time of formation of Uttarakhand) No./MVA 1/480 2/225 14/832.5 Km. 98.94 357.685 1002.335 Present Capacity Under Construction

Voltage Levels 400 KV S/s 220 KV S/s 132 KV S/s Voltage Levels 400 KV Line 220 KV Line 132 KV Line

No./MVA 1/480 6/1410 20/1422.5 Km. 98.94 447.65 1138.83

No./MVA 1/630 11/800 Km. 60 161 667.64

1.2.10

Transmission & Distribution Integrated Transmission Network planned for evacuating power to load centers. ADB sanctioned a loan assistance of $ 300 Million for Uttarakhand Power Network (Phase-I). This is to be implemented in the period 2006-2012. Targeted implementation of Accelerated Power Development Reform Progress (APDRP) to effect efficiency in Distribution System by reduction of T&D lossess and AT&C losses. a) Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana (RGGVY) is being implemented in all 13 districts of State. b) 100% Village Electrification is expected to be achieved by end of 2007. c) Franchisee mechanism to be introduced in phases.

17

1.2.11

Power Distribution Status

Table 1.12: Power Distribution Year 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07* 2007-08* 2008-09* 2009-10* 2010-11* 2011-12* T&D Losses (%) AT&C Losses (%) Demand 26.65 29.20 29.52 26.71 28.35 25.00 22.50 20.00 19.00 18.00 17.00 45.07 45.71 51.38 43.82 38.80 33.25 28.70 24.80 22.24 19.64 18.50 3309 3588 4035 4516 5062 6046 6813 7677 8652 9752 9952 Consumers 841113 868448 901041 968200 1060040 1152074 1255761 1368780 1491970 1626247 1772609

* Projection 1.2.12 Renewable Energy Micro Hydel (upto 500 KW) activities development through Village Energy Committees (VECs). 30 stand alone systems being maintained and 10 micro hydel projects under execution by VECs. Such Micro Hydro Projects are 35-60 Kms. On foot from road ahead. Gharats (Traditional Water Mills) are sought to be modernized through cooperative mechanism.

Presently 10 Gharats are being modernized under ADB funded scheme. Gharat Census undertaken indicate potential to modernize over 10000 Gharats. Project formulated to develop Gharats as a Clean Energy initiative. 1.2.13 Capacity Building Water for Welfare forum constituted under aegies of IIT, Roorkee to synergise activities of Policy planners, Project Developers, Academics and stakeholders for propelling Hydro Power initiatives in the State. As a first initiative syllabi of ITIs/Polytechnics and Engineering Collages have been reserved to specifically provide for inputs on Hydro Power Engineering.

18

Forward backward linkage being developed between Project Developers and Technical Institutes for skills up-gradations locally. Executive MBA launched in Sep., 2006 in association with University of Petroleum & Energy Studies, Dehradun. 33 young Engineers of Power Utilities (UJVNL, PTCUL & UPCL) will be the first batch of E-MBA students to pursue the programme on parctitioner mode. The objective of this programme is to build a nuclei of power leaders for the future. 1.2.14 Cynosure of Investors ADB has sanctioned $ 300 Million loan for Integrated Transmission Network to be built by PTCUL. Kfw has sanctioned Euro 100 Million loan for Renovation, Modernization and Upgradation of Old power stations of UJVNL. World Bank is funding green site hydro power projects of UJVNL. Canadian Commercial Corporation (CCC) is working alongside UJVNL for preparing DPR for a green site hydro power projects and renovation of an existing power station. ADB is keen to work on a cycle of new projects for Hydro Power Generation. PFC and REC funding projects is Generation & Transmission at present. Dialogue on to fund distribution projects.

1.3

PLANNNING OF SMALL HYDRO POWER PROJECTS

1.3.1 Stages in Development of a Hydro Project Administrative including advertising to offer sites to Power Producers; Allotment of Site and Signing of Agreement Pre-implementation Implementation Post Commissioning

i) Pre-Implementation Activities i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. Detailed Investigation & surveys Pre feasibility Report (PFR) Detailed Project Report (DPR) Approval of DPR Land Acquisition Forest Land Acquisition Civil Land Acquisition Private Clearance for Environment Power purchase agreement Clearance from different Preparation of plan for Resettlement & rehabilitation Financing

Activities v to x can be done in parallel. The most time consuming is Preparation of Resettlement and Rehabilitation Plan which may take 12 to 24 months. 19

ii) Implementation & Post Commissioning Activities i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Construction License Engineering design & construction drawings Equipment supply Civil works construction Resettlement & rehabilitation of project affected families commissioning Post commissioning Receipt of payment from utility / trading / user Refund of borrowing to FIs

1.3.2

Estimated Time Taken for Activities

Table 1.13: Estimated Time Taken For Activities Activities A. Administrative Advertisement Allotment Signing of implementation agreement B. Pre- implementation Detailed Investigation & surveys Pre feasibility Report (PFR) Detailed Project Report (DPR Approval of DPR Land Acquision Forest Land Acquision Civil Land Acquision - Private Clearance for Environment Power purchase agreement Clearance from different Preparation of plan for Resettlement & rehabilitation Financing C- Implimentation Construction License Engineering design & construction drawings Equipment supply Civil works construction Resettlement & rehabilitation Large & Medium HP Small HP

Few times 6 months to one year 2 - 3 months

Yearly 6 months to one year 1-3 months

6 months 2 years 3 - 6 months 6 - 12 months 4-6 months 6-18 months concurrently 6-12 months concurrently 4-12 months concurrently 6-12 months concurrently 3-6 month concurrently 12 months concurrently 12 -24 months concurrently 4-12 months concurrently 2-6 months 4-18 month concurrently 4-18 month concurrently 4-18 month concurrently 4-18 month concurrently

4 months 2 years 1 - 3 months 3- 6 months 4-6 months 6 4 12 months 4 12 months 4-12 months concurrently 2-4 month concurrently Six months concurrently Normally not involved

3-6 months concurrently 2-3 months 3-6 month concurrently 8-16 month concurrently 10-18 month concurrently Normally not involved

20

Activities Commissioning D. Post commissioning Receipt of payment from utility / trading / user Refund of borrowing to FIs 1.3.3

Large & Medium HP

Small HP

36-60 month concurrently 12-24 month concurrently 1 month As per Schedule 1 month As per Schedule

Independence Power Producer Hydropower

DEVELOPMENT FLOW CHART

1.4. PLANNNING OF SMALL HYDRO POWER PROJECTS 1.4.1 Master Plan For a systematic, time bound, duly shared between Government, Social and Private Sectors, Master Plans are required. Master plan consists of the following information : Assessment of SHP potential of existing irrigation dams and canals. Assessment of potential as run off river schemes Assessment of potential sites for rural electrification. Compilation of above mentioned activities with prioritization of identified sites.

21

Creating spatial database using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for the state incorporating various themes including identified SHP sites. Provides financial requirement of projects

Sources of Information for preparation of Master Plans are : 1.4.2 State Nodal Agencies for renewable energy in States State Electricity Boards, Deptt. of Power of States Central Government MNES, CEA, CWC, NHPC etc Individuals having background in such data calculation Survey of India including Digital Mapping Centre Forest Survey of India, Dehradun Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun Regional Centre for Remote Sensing, Dehradun NATMO, Calcutta

Financing Planning for SHP i) Modes of Financing Grant, Term loan - (a) Commercial term loan, (b) Soft term loan, Venture capital, Equity investment.

ii) Amount of fund required Total cash cost of facilities required for basic completion, The initial investment in working capital, Cash to cover salary,

Sufficient funds must be arranged to provide a margin of safety beyond this estimated total. iii) Financial Modeling iv) Ensuring the availability for sufficient financial resources to complete the project. Securing the necessary funds at the lowest predictable cost. Establish dividend policy that maximizes the rate of return. Maximizing the value of tax benefits of ownership to which the project will give rise. Achieving the most beneficial regulatory treatment.

Risk Factors to be considered Foreign exchange variation, Political risk,

22

Meteorological risk (no rain, earthquake etc).

v) Financial Institutions National Financial Institutions Commercial Banks-SBI, Andhra Bank, PNB, ICICI ,HDFC Devlopement banks : Rural Electrification Corp. Ltd, IDBI, NABARD, Exim Bank, HUDCO, IFCI, PFC, IREDA etc International Financial Institutions - IMF, JICA, KfW, Asian Development Bank, African Development Bank

1.4.3 Investigation for SHP Projects i) GENERAL SCOPE

Data collection or investigation is a very important fundamental work for the project design. Comparing with large and medium hydropower projects, method of data collection for small hydro projects must be simplified, fast, economic and appropriate with the project scale. Some people look down on SHP and omit the necessary investigations. For SHP, it becomes more important to go into a reasonable investigation as most of the time, the desired data is not available and the cost economics would not permit to go far longer duration investigation. If the investigations are insufficient, following main problems are encountered in implementing SHP development; Due to inaccurate calculation of the annual run off or improper adoption of water flow for generating power, the installed capacity of power station become abnormally large or small, so it cause to either the utilization factor of equipment dropped below a certain level or hydro power potential had not been utilized effectively. Due to under estimation of the flood on insufficient capacity of spillway, the flood over the dam crest may cause serious damage to the dam/intake structure and sometime power house may also be failed. Due to neglecting the geological exploration work or failing is taking appropriate measures in design, some hydraulic structures had been damaged by piping of material from foundation, uneven settlement and serious downstream scouring (erosion).

As evident from above, it will be very important to carry out a series of field or site investigations. These investigations may entail the collection and recording of a wide range of information, possibly from an extensive area of the country and may invite the attention of a number of people over a considerable period of time. It is, therefore, be advisable at the very outset, to initiate a well considered program of investigations at the site, so that the available time, personnel and equipment may be employed to the greatest advantage. ii) INVESTIGATION STAGES

For planning, which may be regarded as a 2 or 3 stage process, investigations also are done in stages progressively by increasing degree of reliability and reports prepared. The following stages of study/report are commonly used. 23

a) Reconnaissance level (Preliminary) study/report b) Feasibility/Detailed Level (Pre-Investment)/report a) Reconnaissance Level (Preliminary) Report consisting of Technical feasibility of the project Identification of critical issues and their possible solutions First economic evaluation

Following studies are carried out at this stage : Hydrological Studies : Overall rainfall, run off data, principal river flow data, flood characteristic etc. from records of Govt. deptts. Establishment of approximate figures on minimum, average and flood discharges. Topographical Studies: Tachometric Surveys and survey required depending upon the existing information and maps. Geological Studies : Overall geological characteristics and local features and some surface investigation, preliminary reconnaissance surveys for construction material etc. Power demand assessment: Overall power demand scenario in the project nearby area and existing facilities/infrastructure for power evacuation. Based on the above studies, following decisions are to be taken and included in the report : Define power potential Estimate power output Assess market potential Identify physical works needed Develop project hydrology and hydraulics Formulate and cost project Develop power benefit stream Determine economic feasibility Identify critical issues, i.e. environmental and social Assess legal/institutional issues Assess site issues as land, construction material etc. Assess facility integrity such as access and power evacuation arrangement. Assess financial issues Document findings

b) Feasibility/Detailed Level Study/Report Hydrological: The most complete and detailed extension possible of the preliminary hydrological studies. Topographical: Preparation of accurate large scale maps for the sites of all important structures.

24

Geological : detailed sub-surface investigations by excavation, boring etc. rigorous sampling and testing of materials, water tightness and grouting test etc. Power demand : For grid connected projects, the investigation on location and facilities at the power evacuation project is required. For isolated projects the load demand in nearby area is to be forecasted based on the population, type of industries, distance from power house etc.

With above said investigations, it is expected that following will be achieved. Formulate power features Refine power output estimates Recomputed the benefit streams Cost project power features Select project power features Preliminary project components designs and specifications Project cost estimates Perform sequential power routing Refine power features and performance characteristics Complete project benefit cost analysis Assess financial requirements Application for permissions on load transfer, power evacuation, power purchase agreement (PPA) etc. Environmental factors require continuous evaluation at all study levels.

It determines whether or not the proposed development merits investment decision.

25

26

1.4.4 i)

Hydrological Investigations Data of Catchment

"Remote sensing is the science of acquiring information about the Earth's surface without actually being in contact with it. This is done by sensing and recording reflected or emitted energy and processing, analyzing, and applying that information. GIS is a system of hardware, software and procedures designed for capturing, storing, displaying, querying, and analyzing geographically or spatially referenced (or geospatial) data. [ C.P. Lo , Albert K.W. Yeung ] A GIS coverage is a set of points, arcs, or polygons which can be assigned attributes. Geographic information system (GIS) assists handling temporal and spatial information, and improves pre and post processing of hydrological modeling. The basic GIS function as a tool for coordinate correction will ensure the improved positional accuracy in entered data.

Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is a surface definition data structure and is a popular source for digital terrain modeling and watershed characterization. It is a two-dimensional array of elevation points with a constant x and y spacing.

CLASSIFICATION OF

HYDRO POWER PLANTS

27

ii)

Utility of Remote Sensing Data for Catchment Analysis:

Remote Sensing data available in the near infrared region (0.8 um - 1.1 um) provides clearly the contrast between land and water features and therefore is best suited for mapping perennial streams. IRS-LISS III - Geocoded False Colour Composites (FCCs) data may be used for identification of catchment boundary, drainage network; perennial streams, land use and vegetation cover for HP projects. The catchment boundary, drainage network and location of major habitation may be overlaid on the DEM for further analysis. iii) Available Flow Data

The most urgent hydrological investigation is to be undertaken to determine the run off or flow of water available for power. It often happens that more is known about the rainfall over large catchment areas that about the flow in individual streams and rivers and preliminary office studies are often based on analysis of rainfall gauging and comparisons of catchment characteristics. The most reliable method of determining run of is by accurate flow gauging of rivers preferably at the actual points proposed for interception. iv) Stage Discharge Data

Full range of hydraulic conditions for which various structures must be designed as correctly as possible. These investigations concise principally the determination of natural water level corresponding to various discharge conditions of flow. The accuracy of this information affects the degree of safety or economy with which any individual structure must be designed. Most of SHP stations are run-of-river or daily regulation type. There are several ways to approach the solution of hydrological problems to following data conditions: There are flow data with long sequence of observation on site under study: this condition is very rare for small rivers. There are flow data with short sequence of observations on site, supplemented by indirect data correlated with reference gauging stations. Neither flow data at site nor that of reference station are available.

In the third condition, there are five main methods usually adopted to approach the solution: correlation analysis, hydrological analogy, regional synthesis, hydrological investigations and mixture of above methods. For run-of-river schemes, especially for micro/mini projects, there might be only meager data available for assessing dependable flow. In such cases, discharge observations should be commenced immediately at appropriately located site. The data collected on this basis should be analysed for deriving a long term run-off-series based on rainfall to obtain as best a reliable corelation as possible. The rain gauges considered should preferably be located in the catchment in the vicinity of a particular scheme or in the absence of such location, the rain gauge stations of neighboring catchment should be considered for arriving at proper correlation between rain fall and run-off.

28

Discharge measurement in the vicinity of the site chosen for hydroelectric scheme should be taken in as accurate a manner as possible. Any of the following methods may be employed for discharge measurements, as considered appropriate for the particular location. Flow measuring, structures such as notches, weirs and flumes (Ref. IS:1193-1959) Velocity area method (Ref: IS:1192-1959): Use of current meters. Slope area method (Ref : IS:2912-1964)

The discharge measurements should preferably cover a minimum period of two lean seasons. In addition to above following are also to be investigated 1.4.5 Suspended sediment Tail water levels Dissolved oxygen daily and average Water temperature, daily and average Topographical Investigations

The topographical maps available from respective government agencies such Survey of India and other state agency should be collected as far as possible in the first instance. In India the generally the maps of 1:50,000 scale with contour interval of 40 m and 1:25,000 with contour interval of 10 m are available for almost all of the area. The topographical surveys should be conducted to fix the location of particular structures. The surveys should be connected to a GTs bench mark. In the absence of GTs bench mark at a reasonable distance from the project site, a suitably located permanent point within the project are may be chosen with a suitable value assigned to it to serve as datum for reference. 1.4.6 Survey Plan for Medium/High Head Scheme The various requirements are as per table given below: Norms for Survey for SHP Development
S. No.
1.

Site
General layout

Area to be surveyed/extent of Scale surveys

The survey should extend from 1 km u/s of diversion structure to 0.5 km d/s of the junction of tailrace channel with the river and should cover all the components of the project River cross-section @ 200 m intervals to cover both the banks well above the highest flood marks and include power channel if the channel alignment is close to river course 1:2000

Cont our
2m

Remarks
If the terrain is hilly, spot levels should be taken by tachometer, if the area is reasonably plain, block leveling on a suitable grid should be done. On the river X-Section at the axis of the diversion structure, following informations should be indicated. i. Date of survey and water level on that data. ii. Maximum observed HFL. iii. Minimum water level, on the river X-section at the junction of tailrace channel and the river, maximum and minimum water levels in river should indicated.

1:1000

29

S. No.
2.

Site
Diversion Structure

Area to be surveyed/extent of Scale surveys

In area covering 50 m u/s and 50 m d/s of the structure and 10 m above highest flood level. Contour plan of an area covering 10 m towards the hill side and 10 m towards the valley side At 100 m interval and at locations where topography changes abruptly. 1:200

Cont our
2m

Remarks

3.

Water Conductor System L-Section X-Section Penstocks

1:1000

2m

1:1000 -

4.

The area for contour plan should include intake, forebay, length of penstock and a width of 20 m on either side of penstock alignment. L-Section Contour plan should cover sufficient area to include different alternative layouts of power house & switchyard, and tailrace channel if length is short. If the length of the tailrace channel is large, the area to be surveyed should be governed by the norms described in 3). Contour plan of the required area

1:200

1m

5.

Power House

1:200 1:200

2m

6.

Tailrace Channel

1:1000

2m

7.

Colony (if any)

1:200

1m

1.4.7 Survey Plan for Low Head Schemes Survey required for low head schemes are relatively much less. In the case of existing small dams, diversion structures, where penstock pipes are already embedded no survey would be required. In case penstock embodiment does not exist, water would be required to be led through suitable channel to the power house site and from there back to the existing canal system. If a powerhouse is to be located on an existing canal at a point where suitable fall is available, then bypass with similar arrangement as above would be necessary. Surveys would be done over a short starch to fix the suitable channels/bypass etc. However, it a suitable fall is to be created in the existing run of a canal, remodeling of the existing canal would be necessary. As this might involve considerable length in re-alignment of the canal which would make the scheme rather costly. Field surveys should include preparation of contour plans of the proposed arrangement covering sufficient area to a scale of 1:500 with a contour interval of 2 m. The L-section and Cross section of the canal should also be obtained. 1.4.8 Geological Investigations

Based on a geological traverse of the area the following minimum geological investigation shall be carried out: -

30

i) Diversion structure: It is desirable to ascertain the type of strata underlying the proposed structure by means of at least one borehole trial pit at a suitable location, as advised by the geologist, with geological logging. The report should also include the type of strata of the abutments. ii) Power channel : As the power channel in a micro/mini hydel scheme has comparatively small cross-section, detailed geological investigation by drill holes/test pits may not be required. However, the geological mapping of the hill slopes along the alignment is essential for assessing the stability of hill slopes, particularly the reaches where falling of the loose material in the canal is apprehended, should be identified in order to enable the designer to consider the remedial measures, like providing covered conduit or duct in these reaches. Cross drainage works : A geological assessment of the strata, particularly of the abutments and bed of the drain at the proposed site of structure is required. Such a report would assist the designer to take care of the geological factors for the foundation of the abutment of the structure. Penstock intake and penstocks : Geological mapping of the penstock slopes should be carried out. Particular attention should be given for geological sections at saddle and anchor block locations with indication of strata at the foundation level of the structure. One test pit at the location of intake and two or more test pits on the penstock slope with geological logging may sufficient.

iii)

iv)

v) Power House : One test pit at power house site with geological logging should be carried out. In particular, geological mapping of the slopes of the power house excavation should be prepared, indicating the stability of the construction slopes and any adverse geological feature, so that this could be taken care of in the design for stability of slopes. The geological investigation for small schemes on canal falls may include the geotechnical assessment of the site, indicating the type of rock, if available, or type of soil likely to be met at the foundation level of the power station by test pits. In case rock is not available at foundation grade, permeability tests should be carried out. There are given in table below. GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS S. No. 1. Structure Conventional weir/Trench Weir Trial Pits 3 Depth of trial pits One trial pit at middle 1.5 m 2 and two trial pits, one m each on either abatement end Trial pits at every 500 1.5 m 2 m. c/c and at critical m locations One trial pit in forebay 1.5 m area and another trial m pit at penstock intake Location of trial pits Additional Requirement Geological assessment of stability of rock slope on either abatement. Geological assessment of stability of rock slopes along the alignment reach-wise 2 Geological assessment of rock slope on hill side of forebay.

2.

Water Conductor

3.

Forebay

31

S. No. 4.

Structure

Trial Pits 2

Location of trial pits

Depth of Additional trial pits Requirement 2 Geological assessment of penstock slope. 2 Geological assessment of excavation slope 2 Geological assessment of excavation slope.

Penstock

5. 6.

Power House Tailrace

1 1

location. Along the alignment of 1.5 m penstock preferably at m another block locations. Power House area 1.5 m m Along the alignment 1.5 m m

1.4.9

Load Demand Investigations

Load demand and market survey is required to assess the energy sale and financial analysis of the scheme. These may of two types. Grid Connected: The investigations will involve the details on the nearest sub station for trouble free power evacuation, its capacity, the length of transmission line required, land required etc. Isolated Status: The daily, seasonal and annual consumption of domestic/commercial/ community/industrial and irrigation needs are to be worked. The load curve will decide the size and number of units. 1.4.10 Socio Economic Investigations Investigations on power consumers are important for determining the installed capacity of SHP. The design load for SHP is assumed in five years after commissioning of the plant i.e. under that load level the plant will be in full output. Investigation of existent power stations such as existing SHP stations diesel electric stations and sub-stations is necessary in order to make the comparison between alternative of power sources. Data relating to irrigation, urban and rural water supply and aquatic breeding concerning the multi purpose utilisation of project should be collected as well. 1.4.11 ENVIRONMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS Affect of foundation and submergence after the creation of reservoir. Impact of deforestation. Scaring or defacing of natural surrounding, especially in the region of borrow pits and quarry sites. Preservation of cultural and ancient relics. Affect on stream flow. Change of water quality/ (organise matter content, temperature, dissolved solids contents etc.)

32

1.4.12 Flow Duration Analysis After measuring the discharge, a flow duration curve is plotted. This curve is the first basic analysis for designing a hydropower scheme. For plotting a flow duration curve, about 2 to 10 years data should be used. However in case of SHPs, less years data can also be used. A flow duration curve shows the percent of time that flow is equal to or less than or more than various rates during the period of study. The same data may also be plotted to show the percent of time of various flows are equaled or exceeded. A duration curve may be constructed on daily, monthly or yearly basis. As the length of time unit increases, the range of the curve decreases. The selection of the time unit depends upon the purpose of the curve. If a project for diversion without storage is under study, the time unit should be daily so that absolute minimum flows will be indicated. For reservoir design, the month or year may be sufficient depending upon reservoir size in relation to flow. The main defect of the flow duration curve as a design tool is that it does not present flow in natural sequence. It is not possible to tell whether lowest flows occurred in consecutive periods or were scattered through out the record. Duration curves are most useful for preliminary studies and comparisons between streams. The exact storage requirements are dependent on the actual sequence of flow and can not be accurately estimated from duration curves. The shape of the flow duration curve will mainly depend on the time unit selected (i.e. daily, monthly or yearly) and the type of stream (i.e. highly variable discharge, small flow variability, large flood plains, or considerable base flow). Techniques of plotting flow duration curve are given in Chapter 2 Hydology. 1.4.13 Conclusions Regarding Data Collection Data collection is indispensable to SHP design and construction. To some extent we can say that the failure and success of a SHP project mainly depend upon the failure or success of data collection. The amount of work of data collection depends upon the project size and natural site condition. What affects data collection the most respects of amount of work and degree of difficulty are hydrological and geological investigations. Hydrological investigation should be conducted in accordance with the requirements of design criteria of SHP such as flood standard, dependability of power output, the requirements put forward to the run off calculation and methods of hydrological analysis recommended by norms. In region where there is no data available for hydrological analysis, some provisional gauging station should be set up at the very beginning of the investigations so as to get flow and precipitation data directly from the site under study, the observation period is at least 1-2 years. Geological investigation for SHP differs that of large/medium hydro not only in amount of work and depends in research, but also exploration method. Socio-economic data are also important for determining the installed capacity and annual power generation of SHP. An appropriate attention should be paid to environmental impact of SHP construction specially when a dam should be constructed on a river.

33

1.5

REFERENCES

i) Publications of Ministry of Power, govt. of India (www.powermin.nic.in) Electricity Act 2003 National Electricity Policy, Feb. 2005 Tariff Policy under Electricity Act 2003-March 2006 Policy on Hydropower Development, Aug. 1998 Indias Electricity Sector-Widening Scope for Private Participation, Investment Promotion Cell. Ministry of Power, Government of India, Jan. 2006 Guidelines for Development of Hydro Electric Projects Sites, May 2006 Guidelines for Formulation of Detailed Project Reports for Hydro Electric Schemes. Their Acceptance and Examination for concurrence, Central Electricity Authority, New Delhi, Jan 2007. ii) iii) National Environment Policy 2006 Foreign Director investment Policy, Department of Industrial Policy & Promotion, Ministry of Commerce & Industry, Government of India, April 2006 iv) v) vi) vii) New and Renewable Energy Policy Statement 2005 National water policy 2002 National resettlement and rehabilitation policy at 2003 and 2006 (draft) Norwegian Business in India, Royal Norwegian Embassy, New Delhi Sept 2006 Information Booklet about Norwegian Trade and Industry, Norwegian Ministry of Trade and Industry 2005

viii) Small Hydro Stations (Publication No. 175), Central Board of Irrigation and Power,
ix) New Delhi R.S. Vashney, Hydropower Structures, Nem Chand & Bros., Roorkee

34

CHAPTER - 2 HYDROLOGY
2.1 2.1.1 INTRODUCTION Definition and Scope

The word hydrology is derived from the Greek words hydor, which means water, and logos, which means science. Thus in this broad sense hydrology is the science which is concerned with all waters on Earth, its occurrence, distribution and circulation, its physical and chemical properties, its effects on the environment and on life of all forms. However, in customary usage, the word hydrology is rather used in a restricted sense in many respects. For example, it may not cover all studies of ocean waters and it is not concerned with medical uses of water. There are various elaborate definitions of hydrology. But from the view point of practical applications, Wisler and Brater have aptly defined hydrology as the science that deals with processes governing the depletion and replenishment of water resources of the land areas of the earth. It is concerned with the transportation of water through the air, over the ground surface and through the strata of the earth. It is the science that treats of the various phases of the hydrologic cycle. Since, hydrology is a science that underlies the development and control of water resources it has its important influence on Agriculture, Forestry, Geography, Watershed Management, Political Science, Economics and Sociology. It has practical applications in Structural Design, Water Supply, and Irrigation (through use of surface and ground waters), Wastewater Disposal and Treatment, Drainage, Hydropower, Flood Control, Navigation, Erosion and Sediment Control, Salinity Control, Pollution Abatement, Recreational uses of water, Fish and Wild Life Preservation, Insect Control and Coastal Works. 2.1.2 Importance of Hydrology The basic knowledge of Hydrology is a must for every civil engineer, particularly the one who is engaged in the design, planning or construction for irrigation and hydropower structures, bridges and highway culverts, or flood control works, etc. Some of the various questions, which hydrology will be called upon to answer, while designing the above engineering feats, are: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) What maximum flows, after different years, are executed at a spillway or a highway culvert, in a city drainage system ? What minimum reservoir capacity will be sufficient to assure adequate water for irrigation or municipal water supply, during droughts ? How much quantity of water will become available at a reservoir site, and when will it become available ? In other words, what will be the available possible supplies at the reservoir site ? What effects on the river water levels will be produced, after the construction of proposed reservoirs, levees, or any other controlling structures ?

35

2.1.3 Hydrologic Cycle Water exists on planet earth in its three forms viz. gaseous, liquid and solid forms and is circulated mainly by Solar and Planetary forces. The Sun provides the energy for the evaporation of sea water and earth's gravitational field and coriolis force contributes to the circulation of water. The different paths through which the water in nature circulates are the three parts of the total earth system, namely, Atmosphere, Hydrosphere and Lithosphere. The atmosphere is the gaseous envelope above the hydrosphere. Hydrosphere is the bodies of water that cover the surface of the earth. Lithosphere is the solid rock below the hydrosphere. The activities of water extend through these three parts of the earth system from an average depth of about 1 km in the lithosphere to a height of about 15 km in the atmosphere. Most of the earth's water sources, such us, rivers, lakes, oceans and underground sources, etc. get their supplies from the rains, while the rain water in itself is the evaporation from these sources. Water is lost to the atmosphere as vapour from the earth, which is then precipitated back in the form of rain, snow, hail, dew, sleet or frost, etc. This evaporation and precipitation continues for ever, and thereby, a balance is maintained between the two. This process is known as Hydrologic Cycle. The hydrologic cycle can be represented in many different ways in pictorial or diagrammatic forms. It depends on the view point it represents and is simplified in general as it is difficult to represent all aspects of the cycle. Fig. 1 is a descriptive representation of the hydrologic cycle where many of the details are skipped. Though these figures are selfexplanatory, a detailed qualitative description of the hydrologic cycle is given below. The hydrologic cycle has no beginning or end as the water in nature is continuously kept in cyclic motion. However, for the purpose of description the cycle may be visualised to commence with the precipitation from the atmosphere. Precipitation may take place in liquid form as rain and also in solid form as hail, snow, dew, frost etc. While precipitation is taking place, a part of it may evaporate and reach back the atmosphere. Some more precipitation is intercepted by the trees and vegetation and the rest of it only would reach the ground. The intercepted precipitation eventually evaporates into the atmosphere. The precipitation reaching the ground surface is called the throughfall. Considerable portion of the throughfall gets infiltrated into the ground and that in excess of infiltration would be detained temporarily on the ground before it becomes overland flow and subsequently surface runoff. The precipitation falling directly over the streams is called the channel precipitation and it readily becomes runoff without any delay. The precipitation falling on the water bodies like ponds and lakes may be disposed of either as surface runoff to streams if the water bodies overflow or as evaporation or as infiltration. The evaporation would also be taking place from stream surfaces. The infiltrated water may be distributed in different ways. First, it supplies moisture to the vegetation and after utilising it for the sustenance of their life, the vegetation sends this moisture back into the atmosphere through the leaves by a process known as transpiration. Secondly, the infiltrated water may percolate deep and become groundwater supply to surface streams known as the groundwater runoff (Fig. 2 and 3), or it may become groundwater supply to oceans. The groundwater runoff is sometimes referred to as the baseflow or the interflow. The total streamflow which is the sum of the surface runoff and the groundwater runoff ultimately joins the oceans wherefrom it again evaporates into the atmosphere thus

36

completing the hydrologic cycle. The entire cycle repeats when the atmospheric moisture precipitates on to the ground after cloud formation. Thus the hydrologic cycle consists of various complicated processes such as precipitation, interception, evaporation and transpiration, infiltration, percolation, storage and runoff.

Fig. 1 Descriptive representation of hydrologic cycle

Fig. 2 Ground water movement

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Fig. 3 Ground water base flow 2.2 RUNOFF AND HYDROGRAPH 2.2.1 Runoff The portion of precipitation which appears in the surface streams of either perennial or intermittent nature is called the runoff. This is the flow collected from a drainage basin and appearing at an outlet of the basin. In a general sense it is the precipitation excess after meeting the evapotranspiration demands. While the precipitation is sporadic and irregular in nature, the runoff is more uniform compared to precipitation. This contrast between precipitation and runoff is due to the storage effects of the surface layers of the earth. Runoff is usually expressed as volume per unit time, the common unit being m3/s or cumec. When runoff from different drainage basins is to be compared, a convenient way of expressing the runoff is, perhaps, cumec/sq. km. Runoff may also be expressed as depth equivalent over a basin, that is, mm/day, mm/month or mm/year. This is a particularly useful unit for comparing runoff rate or runoff volume with precipitation since precipitation is almost invariably expressed in this way. According to the source from which the flow is derived, the total runoff is visualised to consist of surface runoff, subsurface runoff, and groundwater runoff. Before reaching the ground a small portion of precipitation evaporates and joins back the atmosphere while another small portion is intercepted which also eventually becomes atmospheric moisture through evaporation. This portion is usually small and insignificant in the runoff analysis. The remaining precipitation reaching the ground is called the throughfall. It may fall either on land surface or directly on to the water surfaces of streams, lakes, and reservoirs. The precipitation falling on water surfaces is called channel precipitation and it immediately becomes the streamflow. A very small fraction of the precipitation falling on the land surface may be absorbed in the storage like small ponds, swamps etc., before it becomes evaporation and infiltration. This is called the depression storage. The rest of the precipitation falling on land surface, after satisfying the infiltration demand, is temporarily detained on the ground surface and when sufficient depth is built-up it travels over the ground surface

38

towards the stream channels either as quasi-laminar sheet flow or in the form of minor rivulets. This is called the overland flow. The overland flow ceases shortly after the rainfall stops. Surface runoff may then be defined as that part of the total runoff which travels over the ground surface to reach a stream channel and then through the channel to reach the basin outlet. It is the combination of the overland flow and the channel precipitation. Water which infiltrates the soil surface and then moves laterally through the upper soil horizons towards the stream channels above the main groundwater table is known as the interflow. It is also known as subsurface runoff, subsurface storm flow, storm seepage, and secondary base flow. If the lateral hydraulic conductivity of the surface layers is substantially greater than the overall vertical hydraulic conductivity, it is a favorable condition for the generation of interflow. Generally interflow moves more slowly than surface runoff and therefore it may take longer period to reach the stream. In certain formations a part of interflow may enter the stream rapidly. The infiltrated water which percolates deeply becomes groundwater and when groundwater table rises and intersects the stream channels of the basin it discharges into streams as the groundwater runoff. Since the movement of groundwater is very slow the groundwater runoff to streams may lag behind the occurrence of precipitation by several days, or weeks. The groundwater flow also tends to be very regular and in general it represents the main long-term component of total runoff and is particularly important during dry spells when surface runoff is absent. For the practical purpose of analysis total runoff in stream channels is generally classified as direct runoff and base flow. The direct runoff or the quick flow is that part of runoff which enters the stream promptly and is equal to the sum of surface runoff and rapid interflow. This clearly represents the major runoff contribution during storm periods and is also the major contribution to most floods. The baseflow is defined as the sustained or fairleathered runoff and it is composed of groundwater runoff and delayed interflow. Some hydrologists prefer to include the entire interflow as a pan of base flow. The distinction between direct runoff and base flow is on the basis of time of arrival of the runoff in the stream rather than on the path followed by the runoff. The- precipitation excess is that part of total precipitation which contributes directly to the surface runoff. When the precipitation is in the form of rainfall only it is known as rainfall excess. That part of precipitation which contributes to the direct runoff may be called the effective precipitation or effective rainfall if only rainfall is involved. 2.2.2 Hydrograph

The runoff measured at the basin outlet, when plotted against time gives the hydrograph. In other words it is the time distribution of runoff produced by a given precipitation on a basin. As the runoff includes the contributions from surface runoff, interflow and groundwater runoff, the hydrograph can be regarded as an integral expression of the physiographic and climatic characteristics that govern the relations between rainfall and runoff. Thus it forms a basis to relate rainfall and the time distribution of runoff produced by it. Detailed analysis of flood hydrographs is usually important in flood control and flood forecasting, or in establishing design flows for hydraulic structures which must pass flood waters.

39

The shape of a hydrograph resulting from a single short duration storm occurring over the drainage area follows a general pattern. If the subsequent storm burst does not occur before the direct runoff of the present storm, ceases, a typical single peaked hydrograph as shown in Fig. 1 results. Such a storm is known as an isolated storm. On the other hand if the next rainfall occurs before the direct runoff of the pervious rainfall ceases, there will be a multi-peaked hydrograph. Such a storm may be called a complex storm. A complex hydrograph may be resolved into the corresponding simple hydrographs. However, single peaked hydrographs resulting from isolated storms are generally preferred for hydrograph analysis. As shown in Fig. 4, a typical single peaked hydrograph produced by an isolated storm consists of a rising limb, a crest segment and a recession limb. The rising limb BC has a well defined point of rise B followed by increasing discharge. The crest segment CE contains the peak discharge within it, and from E it is the recession limb with decreasing discharge. The recession limb is also known as falling limb or the depletion curve. Points C and E are the inflection points on the rising and recession limbs, respectively. The segment AB is called the approach segment which indicates the base flow in the river prior to the storm. The shape of the rising limb depends mainly on the duration and the intensity distribution of rainfall, and to some extent on the antecedent condition and the shape of the basin. The peak discharge, included in the crest segment, represents the highest concentration of runoff from the basin. It occurs usually at a certain time after the rainfall has ended and this time depends on the aerial distribution of rainfall. The point of inflection on the recession limb is commonly assumed to mark the time at which surface inflow to the channel system or the overland flow ceases. Thereafter the recession curve represents withdrawal of water from storage within the channel system. Therefore, it is more or less independent of variations in rainfall and infiltration. On large basins where the storms produce rainfall only locally the shape of the recession curve may vary from storm to storm. The recession curve is also called a depletion curve since it represents the depletion from the channel-storage. Though there are number of equations to describe the recession curve, the following is most generally used.

Q t = Q o K (rt t o )
or

(1) (2)

Q t = Q o e a (t t o )

where Qo and Qt are the flows at time to and t and Kr is a recession constant with a value of less than unity, and a = -ln Kr. The value of the recession constant Kr depends on the time unit selected. The recession curve starting from E represents the depletion from the channel storage. When the direct runoff ceases after some time, it represents the depletion from groundwater storage since the discharge in the stream then is essentially due to base flow. When a time unit of one day is adopted the value of Kr for the direct runoff recession curve will be between 0.05 to 0.20 and for the base flow recession curve it will be between 0.85 to 0.9.

40

Fig. 4 Typical single peaked hydrograph 2.2.3 Flood Flow Estimation Using Empirical Formulae

Many formulae have been devised for purpose of estimating flood flows. They can be safely applied to the areas for which they were specifically derived, but some of them have found a general existence. But these formulae must be used with great prudence and must never be used unless their origin has been investigated. No particular formula will give precise results for all the places. This is because of the fact that the magnitude of the flood of a given frequency depends upon fifteen to twenty factors, and no formula involves all these variables. Hence, a formula involving only two or three variables in place of twenty variables, cannot be expected to give generalised precise results. Some of these important formulae are given below: (a) The formula involving drainage area only. (i) Dickens Formula: This formula is generally useful for the catchments of North India. It states that Qp =CA3/4 (3)

where Qp = High flood or peak discharge in cumecs. A = Catchment area in sq. kilo metres. C = Constant depending upon all those fifteen to twenty factors affecting high flood discharge. The value of C must be ascertained for each catchment depending upon the nature of the catchment and the intensity of rainfall. An average value of C equal to 11.5 is generally used, and it should be increased for hilly catchments, and vice-versa. Secondly, for the same type of catchment, greater is the rainfall, greater will be the value of C and vice-versa. (ii) Ryve's formula: This formula is almost similar to that of Dickens, the only difference is in the values of the constants. It is applicable to South Indian catchments, and states that

41

Qp = C1A2/3 in cumecs where Qp, C1, and A have the same meaning as in Dickens formula.

(4)

The average value of Cl to be used is 6.8, with less value for flat catchments and more for hilly catchments. Different values of C1 must be ascertained for different catchments, as given below: Location of Catchment Area within 80 km from the coast Area within 80-2400 km from the coast Limited areas near hills Actual observed values are Values of C1 in Ryves formula 6.8 8.8 10.1 Upto 40

(iii) Inglis formula: This is applicable to fan-shaped catchments in old Bombay state. It states that

Qp =

123 A A + 10 4

in cumecs 123 A

(5)

where A = The area of the catchment in sq. kilometers. (iv) Nawab Jung Bahadur formula: This has been derived for Hyderabad Deccan catchments. It states that Qp = C.A [0.92 (1/14) log A] C = 48 to 60, maximum value 86 A = Area in square miles = 0.39 A Where A = Area in sq. km. This formula is widely used in India. (v) Jarvis formula: It states that in cumecs (6)

Qp = C A

in cumecs

(8)

where C varies between 177 as minimum and 177 as maximum. Limiting or 100 percent chance floods are given by the value of C of 177. (vi) Modified Myers formula: It states that

Q p = 177 p A in cumecs

(9)

42

where p has a value of unity for stream that has the greatest flood flow of the area. For any other stream, p is the fraction that the flood flow of that stream is, of the maximum given above. For different streams, values of p vary from 0.002 to 1.0; usually taken as 1. (b) Formulas Involving Drainage Area and its Shape

The previous formulae were based only upon the more important variable, i.e., the area of the drainage system. But here are presented certain formulae making use of the area as well as the shape of the basin. (i) Dredge or Burge formula: It is based on Indian records and states that

A in cumecs (10) L2/3 where A and Qp have the same meaning, and L is the length of the drainage basin in kilometres. Q p = 19 6 If B is the average width of the basin in km; then The above formula can then be reduced to : Qp = A = B.L 19 6(B.L ) = 19.6 B.L1/3 2/3 L

(c) Formulae Involving Rainfall and Drainage Area Variables: (i)

Pettis formula: It was originated for Northern United States, Ohio to Connecticut, by Pettis and it states that

Qp = C (P.B5/4)

cumecs

(11)

where P = Probable 100 year maximum 1 day rainfall in cm. B = Average width of the basin in kilometers C = Constant and is equal to 1.5 for humid areas and 0.2 for desert areas. This formula is generally applicable to areas ranging from 1,600 to 16,000 square kms, with no storage effect and fairly uniform width. If the area is wider at the lower end, the formula gives too small results, and if it is wider at its upper ends, the results obtained are too large. A correction of 10 to 13 percent may be required for width variations. (d) (i) Formulae Involving Total Runoff and Drainage Area: Boston Society of Civil Engineers Formula: The committee on floods of Boston Society of Civil Engineers made a study of floods, and based on the new England flood of November 1927, it stated that
q p = 0.0056.

D (12) t where qp = peak flow in cumecs/square km D = Total depth of flood runoff on the basin in cm. t = Total flood period in hours or the base of the flood hydrograph.

43

This formula was evolved by assuming the flood hydrograph as a triangle. This formula was found to have given reasonable satisfactory results when checked for numerous rivers. It was also found that the base of the hydrograph, i.e., t remains almost constant irrespective of the size of the flood. Where no flood hydrographs are available, the committee suggested

qp =

CF D A
= C f D. A

(13)

or

Qp

C F .D.A. A

(14)

where CF = Coefficient of the stream or flood characteristics generally varies from 0.7 to 3.5, but upto 7 in mountains and less than 0.7 for very flat streams. A = drainage area in sq.kms. Qp = Peak flow in cumecs For new England, values of D generally varies from 7.5 cm to 15 cm for occasional floods to rare floods, and is not over 20 cm even for maximum floods. (e) (i) Formulae Involving Rainfall Intensity and Drainage Area

Rational method: This is the oldest and best known formula for determining peak flow from a given catchment, and has been extensively used for the storm-sewer designs. 1 Q p = (K p c A ) (15) 36 where K = The percentage of rainfall that becomes surface runoff, called runoff coefficient.
2.2.4 Mass Curve (Rippl Diagram)

A mass curve of inflows at a reservoir (refer Fig. 1) is a time plot of cumulative inflows obtained from an historical recorded inflows. For example, if I1, I2, , It, , In is a historical record with time, the ordinates of the mass curve are given by

M t = I n , where t = 1, 2, ......., N.
n =1

(16)

2.2.5

Flow Duration Curve

The natural stream flow characteristics of a river are frequently summarized (Heitz, 1978) in a flow duration curve (Fig. 5). Flow duration curve is most frequently used for determining various dependable flows (water availability of a given dependability). A flow duration curve is also used for project planning, for determining characteristics of hydropower, for designing drainage system, for flood control studies, for finding sediment load and dissolved solid load. A flow duration shows the percent of time various flows are

44

equaled or exceeded. A flow duration curve may be constructed on daily, monthly or yearly basis. The selection of the time unit depends upon the purpose of the project planning. A time unit of daily or ten daily for a diversion project and month or year for a reservoir project. An annual flow of 75% and 50% dependability for an irrigation project under normal and drought conditions, respectively; and 90%, 70% and 100% annual dependable flows are used for hydropower, multipurpose, and water supply projects, respectively. The flow-duration curve can be computed by (i) rank ordered technique and (ii) class interval technique.
(i) Rank Ordered Technique

The flow data are ranked according to magnitude (in descending order) and the frequency of occurrence, FX, is given by, FXm = (m/n) 100 FXm = (m/n + 1) 100 (California formula), or (Weibull formula)

where, n = number of records, m = the order number in the rank (m = 1 for the highest ranked value), and FXm = frequency of occurrence (% dependable flow or the probability of flow being equaled or exceeded).
(ii) Class Interval Technique

A useful first step is to plot the data as a frequency histogram. This is done by grouping the data into classes and then plotting a bar graph with the number or relative frequency of observations in a class versus the mid point of the class interval. The mid point of a class is called the class mark. The class interval is the difference between the upper and lower class boundaries. Another method of presenting data is in the form of a cumulative frequency distribution. Cumulative frequency distributions show the frequency or events less than (greater than) some given value. They are formed by summing the relative frequencies and plotting the accumulated sum against the corresponding data value. If the ordinates are summed from the smaller (larger) data values to the larger (smaller) values, the resulting cumulative frequency refers to the frequency of observations less (more) than the corresponding data value. Points on the cumulative curve should be plotted on the right (left) boundary. If the relative frequency of the ith class of the frequency histogram is denoted by [fXi], then one property of the histogram is,

fX
i =1

=1

(17)

where, k is the number of classes. Similarly, if the cumulative relative frequency at the end of the ith class interval is FXi, then

45

fXi = FXi FXi-1 and

FX i = fX i
j=1

(18)

Using the data of Table 1, the relative and the cumulative relative frequencies (duration curve) for a class interval of 5 cumecs are as given in Table 3.
Table 1 Monthly Flow Data Month January February March April May June July August September October November December Discharge in Cumecs 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 4.50 12.00 45.00 19.50 27.00 12.00 6.00 6.00

Table 2 : Flow-Duration Curve by Rank Ordered Technique

Rank m

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Flow in Descending order (Cumecs) 45.00 27.00 19.50 12.00 12.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 4.50

m/n x 100

8.33 16.67 25.00 33.33 41.67 50.00 58.33 66.67 75.00 83.33 91.67 100.00

46

Table 3: Flow-Duration Curve by Class Interval Technique Class, I Class mark xi No. of Occurrences ni Cumulative Frequency % of time
Cum. frequency x 100 no. of data

0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45

2.5 2.5 12.5 17.5 22.5 27.5 32.5 37.5 42.5

1 6 2 1 0 1 0 0 1

12 11 5 3 2 2 1 1 1

100 91.60 41.67 25.00 16.67 16.67 8.33 8.33 8.33

Fig. 5 Typical Flow Duration Curve

47

2.3 2.3.1

STREAM FLOW MEASUREMENT Introduction

The water which constitutes the flow in the surface stream is called streamflow. If the streamflow is unaffected by the artificial diversions, storage, or other works of man in or on the stream channels, then it is called as runoff. In other words runoff means the virgin (natural) stream flow. Streamflow forms the most important data for engineers and hydrologists since they are concerned mainly with estimating rates and volumes of the streamflow to be used in the design of water resources projects, or the changes in these values resulting from the man-made causes. It is, therefore, to be noted that whenever the streamflow data is used in the scientific investigations such as establishing the rainfall-runoff relations, unit hydrograph studies, design flood estimation etc., it has to be adjusted for artificial changes using suitable techniques (e.g. water balance) till it resembles very nearly the virgin flow. In this chapter the techniques of streamflow measurement are presented. It is rather difficult to measure the discharge of flow in the natural streams directly as it is done in the ease of flow in pipes or laboratory flumes using the flow meters such as venturimeter, venturiflume, notches etc. But it is very easy to make a direct and continuous measurement of stage in the river which is nothing but the height of the water surface in the river above some arbitrary datum. Obviously the higher the stage in the river, the higher is the discharge. The general practice in the streamflow measurement is, therefore, to record the river stage and to convert the data on stage into the discharge data. This is accomplished through the stage-discharge relationship which is first established by actual measurement of discharge in the river at different stages. Once a stable stage-discharge relationship is established at a gauging site, the discharge measurement is discontinued and only the stage is recorded continuously.
2.3.2 Measurement of Stage

The river stage has been defined as the height of the water surface in the river at a given section above any arbitrary datum. It is usually expressed in metres. In many cases, the datum is taken as the mean sea level. Sometimes the datum may be selected at or slightly below the lowest point on the river bed. The stage can be very easily measured by installing a non-recording gauge which is nothing but a graduated scale such that a portion of it is always in the water at all times. It can be conveniently attached to a bridge pier or any other existing structure. It is read manually by noting the level of water surface in contact with it. Sometimes the gauge may be placed in an inclined portion up the stream bank as shown in Fig. 6. It must be properly anchored to the slope of the natural bank of the river channel. It is calibrated in the site by precise leveling and graduated accordingly. Inclined gauges may be constructed on one continuous slope or on more slopes. A flight of steps constructed alongside the inclined gauge proves to be convenient and facilitates taking of observations easily. Another non-recording device is called suspended weight gauge. For continuous recording of stages an automatic stage (float type) recorder is used (Fig. 7).

48

2.3.3 Discharge Measurement by Area-Velocity Method

Though there arc several methods of discharge measurement, perhaps the most accurate of all of them is the area-velocity method. In this method the discharge is obtained as the product of the cross-sectional area of flow in the river and the average velocity of flow. That is Q=A.V (1)

The measurement of discharge thus involves obtaining information at a number of points over the cross-section sufficient to determine the average velocity and also the area of flow. The number of points selected should be such that the measurements are completed within a reasonably quick time. This is essentially required when the stage in the river is changing rapidly at the time of discharge measurement. The procedure consists of dividing the flow area into a number of strips by means of verticals selected along the width of the river and measuring the depths at these verticals. The velocities are also measured at one or more points on the verticals to obtain the mean velocity for any vertical. The velocity at any point in the river is measured by inserting the current meter at that point facing the flow.
Current meter: There are mainly two types of current meters which arc in common use, namely, cup type current meter (also known as the price current meter, Fig. 8) and the propeller type current meter, Fig. 9. The principle involved in both the meters is that the water flowing past the rotating element of the meter makes it revolve due to the unbalanced drag force acting on it and the speed of the rotating element is directly proportional to the velocity of water.

The number of rotations counted (taking the first as zero) divided by the elapsed time gives the speed of the meter N in revolutions per second. Then the velocity measured by the meter is given by
= a + bN

(2)

where a and b are the calibration constants of the meter supplied by the manufacturer. The average velocity in a vertical can be obtained by any one of the following three methods (Fig. 10). First the depth at the selected vertical is measured by lowering the cable along with the meter till it touches the bottom of the river bed. Next the meter is raised such that it occupies the position at 0.4 d from the bottom (d is depth of water in the river). Now the speed of the meter is recorded by noting the number of revolutions made by the meter and the corresponding time. Then the velocity is computed using Eq. (2) and this velocity itself is taken as the average velocity for the vertical. That is V = 0.4 (3)

This method is known as single point method or six-tenth method and is generally preferred for shallow depths. In the two point method, after knowing the depth of flow d at the vertical the velocities are obtained at 0.2 d and 0.8 d from the bottom. The average of these two velocities is then taken as the mean velocity for the-vertical. That is, 49

V=

0.2 + 0.8 2

(4)

This method is supposed to give a better result of average velocity than the single point method. In the three point method, the velocities are obtained at 0.2 d, 0.4 d and 0.8 d from the bottom and the average velocity for the vertical is given by

V=

0.2 + 2 0.4 + 0.8 4

(5)

This method is preferred in very deep streams.

Fig. 6 Measurement of stage in the river

50

Fig. 7 Shelter for automatic stage recorder

51

Fig. 8 Cup type current meter

Fig. 9 Propeller type current meter

52

Fig. 10 Velocity distribution at a vertical

53

CHAPTER - 3 HYDRO POWER PLANTS

3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRO POWER PLANTS As such there are no hard and fast rules to classify Hydro Power Plants. Some of the basc classifications of Hydro Power Plants are as under: i.) ii.) iii.) iv.) v.) vi.) Based on Hydraulic Characteristics Based on Head Based on Capacity Based on Turbine Characteristics Based on Load Characteristics Based on Interconnection

i) Based on Hydraulic Characteristics: a) b) c) d) Runoff river plant (Diversion plant) Storage plant (Impoundment plant) Pumped storage plant Tidal plant

a) Runoff River Plants Run-off-river (ROR) hydropower implies that there is no (or minimal) storage reservoir for storing water during flood periods as well as during low electricity demand periods, hence water is wasted. The instantaneous flows that are passed through the powerhouse are essentially the flows that occur in the stream at the intake and flows downstream of the powerhouse are virtually identical to predevelopment flows. Small pondage is provided with a barrage to store the water to take care of intraday flow variation. Water is diverted to water conductor system of the powerhouse through a diversion structure. During good flow conditions can supply base load and during low flow conditions - can supply peak load Seasonal changes in river flow and weather conditions affect the plants output, hence it is in limited use.

54

Canal Based Plants A Canal based scheme utilises the drops on existing/proposed irrigation canals. The energy generated by water flowing through the canal fall (located in the canal) is tapped for power generation. Powerhouse is located at the main canal or a bye pass canal is constructed where the powerhouse can be located.

55

b)

Storage Plants / Dam Toe Plants This is most common type of hydro power plant and is generally constructed in mountainous regions It involves a water reservoir provided by constructing a dam across the river. The storage of water takes care of fluctuations of water supply during flood and draught period as well as during load fluctuations, hence it can supply electricity more constantly than any other plants Suitable for both base load and peak load. Powerhouse is located at the toe of the dam and it utilizes the discharge release through sluice primarily meant for irrigation and the head available (water level difference between upstream and downstream of reservoir) for power generation. The dam can add to the height of the source of water thereby effectively increasing the head (H). Other benefits of this plant are:

56

Flood control Improved navigation

Irrigation Drinking water Improved fish breeding etc.

c)

Pumped Storage Plant Water is utilized for generation of power during peak demand, while same water is pumped back in the reservoir during off peak demand period when excess power is available for this purpose. If turbine is reversible, it can be used as a pump to supply water back to reservoir, otherwise separate pump can be used. Based on operating cycle it can be classified as: a) Plant with a daily cycle: water is pumped up from mid night to early morning as well as near lunch time.
57

b) Plant with a weekly cycle: water is pumped up during weekend. c) Plant with a seasonal cycle: water is pumped up in the winter continuously for several days to be utilized for a continuous power generation in the high demand summer period. d) Tidal Plant Tide is a periodic rise and fall of water level of the sea due to gravitational attraction between moon and earth and sun and earth. Regions which comes nearer to moon are subjected to high tide and regions which are away from moon are subjected to low tide. The level difference between high tide and low tide is called Range of Tide, which is responsible for power generation. Head upto 30 m between 30 to 300 m more than 300 m

ii)

Classification Based on Head (i) (ii) (iii) Low Head Plant Medium head plant High head plant

iii) Classification Based on Installed Capacity (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Micro Mini Small Medium Large : : : : : Upto 100 kW 101 kW to 2000 kW 2001 kW to 25000 kW ( with unit size 1001 kW to 5000 kW) Unit size above 5 MW to 50 MW Unit size above 50 MW

iv) Classification Based on Turbine Characteristics (i.e. *Specific Speed) [*Specific speed is the speed of a turbine which is similar to the actual turbine but of such a size that it will develop unit power when working under unit head.] Specific Speed between 10 to 60 between 60 to 300 between 300 to 1000

(i) (ii) (iii)

Low specific speed Medium specific speed High specific speed

v) Classification Based on Load Characteristics (i) (ii) Base load plant: operates continuously and generate constant power throughout the year. e.g. Storage plant, Run off river plant without pondage. Peak load plant: which supply the power during the peak hours only. e.g. Pumped storage plant, Run off river plant with pondage.

58

vi)

Classification Based on Interconnection (i) (ii) Isolated plants: If a power station works independently it is referred as an isolated plant. Generally installed in industries (i.e. Captive power plant) Interconnected plants: If a power station is connected with grid, it is called interconnected plant.

3.2

MAJOR CIVIL WORKS OF HYDRO POWER PLANTS Small Hydro Project comprises of the following Civil Works. Diversion Weir and Intake Intake Channel Desilting Tank Head Race Channel Forebay Tank, Spillway and Spilling Channel Penstock Power House Building Tailrace Channel

3.3 DESIGN CALCULATIONS OF A SMALL HYDRO PROJECT (AN EXAMPLE) 3.3.1 Design Data F.S.L. at Forbay Water level in tail race channel Gross head Head loss Net head 50% dependable discharge 75% dependable discharge 90% dependable discharge 100% dependable discharge 3.3.2 Power Potential Available = = = = = = = = = = 607.54 = 511.21 607.54 511.21 96.33 m 4.33 m 96.33 4.33 92.0 m 8.38 cumecs 6.96 cumecs 5.65 cumecs 5.10 cumecs

Taking efficiency of turbine and generator as 0.88 & 0.94 respectively. The power potential (P) available at site. (i) At 50 % dependable discharge P = = (ii) At 75 % dependable discharge P = = (iii) At 90 % dependable discharge P = = 9.81 x 92.0 x 8.38 x 0.88 x 0.94 6256.21 kW 9.81 x 0.88 x 92.0 x 0.94 x 6.96 5196.08 kW 9.81 x 5.65 x 92.0 x 0.88 x 0.94 4225.55 kW
59

Discharge required for 4500 kW generation = 6.0 cumecs Rated Discharge = 6.0 cumecs It is proposed to provide 3 machines of 1500 kW each for the generation. 3.3.3 Fixing of Discharging Capacity for Various Civil Structures (i) Design discharge for forebay, Penstock, Spillway and Tailrace Channel (5% over rating capacity) = Design discharge for head race channel (5% for seepage loss) =

6.0 x 1.05 = 6.30 cumecs 6.30x100/95= 6.63 cumecs

(ii) (iii)

Design discharge of intake channel upto desilting tank (Add 15% discharge for silt flushing ) Design discharge for Trench Weir (Add 5% of item iii) =

6.63 x100/85 = 7.80cumecs

(iv)

7.80x100/95 = 8.21cumecs

3.3. 4 Calculation of HFL at Weir Site High flood discharge = 447.0 cumecs Natural cross section of river upto 622.50m (at 60 m U/s of proposed diversion site) Area = 60.34 m2 Wetted perimeter = 37.8 m Taking value of N = 0.035 River bed slope = 1 in 27 Discharge comes out = 453.0 m Therefore, H.F.L. at diversion site = 622.50 60 x 1/27 = 620.27 m Bed level at diversion site = 617.70 m H.F.L. = 620.27 m Calculation For Scour Depth Scour depth (Ds) Discharge per unit width = 1.35 x

= 447/40 m3/sec. = 11.175 m3/s/m (Silt factor varies form 1.0 for sandy rivers to 20.0 for rivers having big boulder movement) Take f = 8.0 Ds = 1.35 x (11.1752 /8)1/3 = 3.37 m U/s cut off wall depth = 1.25 x Scour depth = 1.25 x 3.37 = 4.21 m

60

= HFL U/s cut off wall depth = 620.27 4.21 = 616.06 m The U/s cut off wall has been provided upto the level of 616.06 m. HFL 25 m D/s = 620.27-25/27 = 619.344 m The D/s cut off wall depth = 1.5 (Scour depth) = 1.5 x 3.37 = 5.055 m The D/s cut off level = 619.344 5.055 = 614.289 m The D/s cut off wall has been provided upto the level of = 614.289 m 3.3.5 Design of Trench Weir and Intake High flood discharge of Nala is 447.0m3/sec. (refer Chapter II) Laceys water way = 4.75 x = 4.75 x = 100.426 m 40% of Laceys = 40.17 m Provide length of weir = 40.0 m Section of trench of weir = Trapezoidal Design discharge = 8.21 cumecs B =
Q E1 E2CdL 2 gE

U/s cut off wall level

= = = =

Coefficient of discharge of broad crested weir 1.543

E B

8.21 = 0.260 1.543 40 8.21 0.5 0.5 0.46 40 2 9.81 0.260

2/3

= 0.789 m Provide a width of 2.0 m from practical consideration Check-Width Width of trash rack for 0.40 m/s velocity of water. Allowable width through trash rack = =

Q V L 8.21 0.40 40

61

0.513 m

Width required for 50% clogging = 2 x 0.513 = 1.02 m

1.02 m is less than 2.0 meter provided and hence safe

Check discharge capacity of trench weir

Discharge Length L Width of trench Let d Area

= = = = =

8.21 m3/s 40 m 2.0 m water depth along section of channel 2.0 x d h

Velocity head at the end of trench = h Where n = = h Q 8.21 =

= =

n n +1

A 2T

Constant depending upon the bottom profile of the channel 0.50 0.5 2.0 d 0.5 + 1 2 2.0 0.166 d A 2.0 d
2 g 0.166 d

d = 1.76 m How ever provide total water depth = 1.0 m at the start increasing to 2.60 m towards the intake end
3.3.6 Intake Channel/ Feeder Channel

Length of channel = 90 m Q = 7.80 m3/s S = 1 in 25 0 n = 0.018 Rectangular reinforced cement concrete section has been provided. Area A Wetted perimeter P R = = = Bd B + 2d A/P

62

Q Provide B D

= = = = = = = = =

AR 2 / 3 S 1 / 2 n

Free board Flow velocity Area A Wetted perimeter P Hydraulic Radius Design discharge
3.3.7

2.490 m 1.24 m 0.45 m 2.55 m/s 3.08 m2 4.97m 0.62 m 7.89 m3/s

Desilting Tank (Design Calculation Of Desilting Tank)

The recommend particle size to be removed for power projects having gross head of 96.33 m and above is 0.25 mm. Design discharge Flow Velocity (Vf) Particle size to be removed Settling velocity (Vs) Width proposed (W) Depth required
Q W V f

= = = = = =

7.80 m3/s 0.22 m/s 0.25 mm & above 2.75 cm/sec 12.0 m 7.80 12.0 0.22 3.0 m

= 2.95 m Depth provided Moderate settling velocity = = = = Settling length = = Provided length Depth idth = = = = = = 3.0 m
Vs

0.132 Vs D 0.132 2.75 2.75 3.0 2.75 0.2095 2.54 cm/s 0.0254 m/s Depth Vs 0.22 3.0 0.0254 25.98 m 26.0 m 3.0 m 12.0 m
Vf

63

Provide U/s transition length = =

12.0 2.490 3 2 14.26 m 14.50 m

12 . 0 1 . 60 2 2

Provide D/s transition length = = Provide Free Board

3.3.8 Head Race Channel Trapezoidal Channel

10.40 m Say = 10.50 m 0.40 m

Length of channel = 4500 m Q = 6.63 m3/s S = 1 in 500 Side Slope = 1:1 n = 0.018 Trapezoidal stone masonry section has been provided Hydraulic Radius Discharge
Provide bottom width

R Q B = = = = = = = = = = =

= = =

A/P
AR 2 / 3 S 1/ 2 n 1.60 m

Provide Top width Water depth Free board Area A Wetted perimeter Hydraulic Radius Velocity Discharge capacity Q S n

4.06 m 1.23 m 450 mm 3.48 m2 5.07 m 0.68 m 1.93 m/s 6.72 m3/s 6.63 m3/s 1 in 500 0.018

Rectangular RCC

Area Wetted perimeter

A (P) R

= = =

Bxd B+2d A/P

AR 2 / 3 S 1/ 2 n
64

Q Provide B

= = = = = = = = 2.66m 1.33m 0.45 m 1.89m/s 3.53 m 5.32 6.69 m3/s

Water depth D Free board Flow velocity Area A Wetted perimeter Discharge Capacity
3.3.9

Design Calculation of Forebay Tank

Design discharge Storage required Capacity of tank Taking water depth Area A

= = = = = = = = = =

6.30 m3/s 2 minute 6.30 x 2 x 60 756.0 m3 3.0 m 756756 3.0 3.0 252.0 m2 LxB 23.0 m 224.80 23 224.80 23 10.95 m 23.0 m 11.0 m 3.0 m

Area Taking length

Width B Provide Length Provide width Provide Depth

3.3.10 Design Calculation of Spillway

= = = = =

Discharge capacity

Q Q C H L

= = = = = = = = =

6.30 m3/s CLH3/2 2.0 Head over the crest of spillway 0.40 m (Assume) Length of spillway 6.30 3/ 2 2.0 (0.40) 12.45 m Say 12.50 m

65

Design of Spillway Channel

Length of channel = 60.0 m Q = 6.30 m3/s S = 1 in 250 n = 0.018 Rectangular stone masonry section has been provided Area A = Bxd Wetted perimeter (P) = B+2d R = A/P Q Provide Water depth Free board Flow velocity Area Wetted perimeter Discharge Capacity
3.3.11 Penstock

= = = = = = = =

B D V A

AR 2 / 3 S 1/ 2 n 2.40 m 1.10 m 0.30 m

2.42 m/s 2.64 m2 4.60 m 6.40 m3/s

Economical Diameter of Penstock D = = Where De Q0 H0 C1 C2 D = = = = = = = = =

C1C2Q 0.43 (H )0.12

1.20 1.0 (2.10) 0.43

(92.0)0.14

Economical diameter in m Design discharge of the penstock in m3/s Design head in m Coefficient taking into consideration the energy cost in the area, 1.2 to area where energy cost is low. Coefficient taking into account the material of penstock, 1 for steel penstock 0.876 m 0.880 m 880 m
Q

D2 2.10

= =

4 3.454 m/s

(0.880)

66

Calculation for thickness of penstock

Gross Head Stress in steel Diameter of Main penstock Pressure rise due to water hummer Total Head

= = = = = = = = = = =

96.33 m 1050 kg/cm2 88.0 cm 50% (Assured) 96.33 + 48.165 144.495 m 14.44 kg/ cm2 P D 2 14.44 88 2 1050 0.605 cm 6.05 mm

Thickness of steel liner Penstock

Add 1.5 mm corrosion & 1.5 mm corrosion allowances = 6.05 mm Thickness of penstock = 6.05 mm + 1.50 + 1.50 = 9.05 mm 10.0 mm Penstock Inner Dia = 880 mm Outer Dia = 900 mm Thickness from handling criteria t D t = = = =
Loss in Penstock

D + 50 400 Diameter in cm 88.0 + 50 400 0.345 or 3.45 mm (O.K.)

The friction factor depends upon Reynolds number of flow and relative roughness of pipe. Reynolds number (Re) = VD Where = Kinematic viscosity of water 3.454 Re = 1 10 6 = Relative Roughness = = = 3.45 x 106 k/D 0.045 0.880 1000 0.000051

67

Friction factor ( f) from Moodys diagram 1. 3. Length of Penstock 2. No. of Anchor block Friction Loss in penstock = = = = 4. Trash Rack Loss = = =
Kt

0.011

162.0 m 7.0 0.011 162.0 3.454 2 2 9.81 0.88 1.13 m

V2 2g kt = 0.35

0.35 3.454 2 2 9.81 0.212m

0.25 V 2 2g

1. Intake entrance loss

= = =

0.25 (3.454 ) 2 9.81 0.1520 m

KE V2 2g
2

6.

Exit loss

= =

kE = 1.0

1.0 (3.454) 2 9.81

V2 2g
68

= 0.608

7. Bend losses (7 bends) =

n Kb

= = 8. (a) Valve losses Near forebay for gate value (hvg)

7 0.20 3.454 2 2 9.81 0.85 m = =

0 .5 V 2 2g

0.5 3.454 2 2 2.98 0.5 3.454 2 2 2.98

(b) Inside power house (hvb)

0.30 m 0 .5 V 2 = = 2g 0.30 V2 0.60 2g =

= 9. For butterfly valve (hvg) =

2 = 0.60 3.454 2 9.81

0.360

10. Transition losses

= =

0.65

V2 2g

0.65 3.454 2 2 2.98

Total Loss

= 0.390 m = 1.13 + 0.212 +0.152 + 0.608 +0.85 + 0.30 + 0.30 + 0.360 + 0.390 = 4.302 m 4.33 m

3.3.12

Power House Building

The layout of the powerhouse building has been worked out on the basis of IS code Horizontal Francis turbine of size 31.0 m x 13.50 m x 9.50 m . is proposed.
3.3.13 Tail Race Channel

Each unit will have its own Tailrace. Tailrace channel is designed as rectangular section to cater design discharge 6.30 m3/s. Rectangular section with bed slope as per the terrain is proposed for tailrace channel. The tailrace channel length is about 20 m. Bed Slope n Water Depth Bed Width Area Perimeter Hydraulic Radius Velocity = = = = = = = = 1 in 380 m 0.018 1.158 m 2.65 m 3.06 m2 4.96 m 0.619 2.07 m/s

69

CHAPTER 4 HYDRAULIC TURBINES, GOVERNING SYSTEM & INLET VALVES

The hydraulic turbine is a mechanical device that converts the potential energy contained in an elevated body of water (a river or reservoir) into rotational mechanical energy by the dynamic action of water particles flowing over the blades or vanes mounted on a wheel free to rotate about the axis. The wheel or rotor carrying a number of blades or vanes is called runner. 4.1 CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF TURBINES The turbines in general are classified in two ways : (a) (b) (a) according to the direction of flow of water through the runner, and according to the action of water on the runner blades. Type of Turbines According to Direction of Flow :

In order to classify turbines according to the direction of flow of water through the runner, three mutually perpendicular directions for flow of water are chosen : (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Axial flow : The water mainly flows through the runner in a direction parallel to the axis of ration as shown in Fig. 1.0 (a). Radial flow : The path of water particles is wholly or mainly in the plane of rotation, i.e., the water enters the runner at the outer periphery, flows inwards in the radial direction and leaves at a different radius as shown in Fig. 1.0 (b). Tangential flow : The water strikes the blades or buckets of the runner in a direction tangential to the path of rotation. The tangential direction is perpendicular to both axial and radial directions as shown in Fig.1.0 (c). Mixed flow : The flow in the runner may not be merely in one direction. In mixed flow turbines, water enters radially inwards and emerges out axially so that the discharge is parallel to the axis of the shaft as shown in Fig. 1.0 (d).

70

Fig.1.0: (b)

Classification of turbine (a) Axial flow (b) Radial flow (c) Tangential flow (axis to the plane of paper) (d) Mixed flow

Type of Turbines According to the Action of Water on the Runner Blades

According to the action of water on moving blades, the turbine may be placed in one of the two general categories: (i) Impulse Turbine: In an impulse turbine, the water is brought to the turbine entrance through penstock pipes ending in one or more fixed nozzles The entire pressure energy of water is converted into the kinetic energy of an unconfined jet. The jet of fluid then strikes the blades of the runner and loses practically all of its kinetic energy, i.e., the velocity of water at the exit of the runner is just sufficient to enable it to move out the runner. The static pressure of water at the entrance to the runner is equal to the static pressure at exit and the rotation of the wheel is caused purely due to the tangential force created by the impact of the jet, hence an impulse turbine. The most common impulse turbine is called Pelton turbine. (ii) Reaction Turbines: Reaction turbines operate with their runners fully flooded and develop torque because of the reaction of water pressure against runner blades. In reaction turbine, a penstock pipe feeds water to a row of fixed blades through a casing. These fixed blades convert a part of the pressure energy into kinetic energy before water enters the runner. Thus the water entering the runner of a reaction turbine has kinetic and pressure energy as well. The static pressure at inlet to the runner is higher than the static pressure at the exit and there is gradual conversion of static pressure into kinetic energy while water is flowing through the runner. The rotation of the runner is partly due to impulse action and partly due to change in pressure over the runner blades, hence the turbine is called reaction turbine. The reaction Turbines in use are Francis and Kaplan turbines. Reaction turbines are further classified as mixed flow (Francis) or axial flow (Kaplan or Propeller). Axial flow turbines with both fixed blades are known as Propeller and those

71

with variable pitch blades are Kaplan. Both axial flow (Propeller & Kaplan) and mixed flow (Francis) turbines may be mounted either horizontally or vertically. 4.2 CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF VARIOUS TYPES OF TURBINES

4.2.1 Pelton Turbines Pelton turbine is the only impulse turbine, named in honour of L.A. Pelton (18291908) of California, USA. It is an efficient turbine particularly suited to high heads with efficiencies often more than 90%. Single nozzle impulse turbines have a flat efficiency curve and may be operated down to loads of 20% of rated capacity with good efficiency. For multinozzle units, the range is even broader because the number of operating jets can be varied. In Pelton turbines, water from the reservoir is carried to the turbine through penstock pipes. The penstock is joined to a branch pipe or to a lower bend fitted with a nozzle at the end. Water comes out of the nozzle in the form of a free jet, because all the pressure energy has been converted into kinetic energy. The high velocity jet of water strikes the buckets attached around the periphery of a wheel mounted on a shaft. The impact of water on the surface of the buckets produces a force which causes the wheel to rotate by supplying a torque or mechanical power on the shaft. After performing work on the buckets, water is discharged into the tail race. The runner is so located that the buckets do not splash into the tail race water when the runner rotates. The turbine drives an electrical generator mounted on the same shaft or coupled to the shaft. The main components of a Pelton turbine are: (i) water distributor and casing, (ii) nozzle and deflector with their operating mechanism, (iii) runner with buckets, (iv) shaft with bearing, (v) auxiliary nozzle. The turbine with its main components is shown in Fig. 2.0 (a). Auxiliary nozzle is used as brake for reducing the speed during shut down. Draft tubes are not required for Pelton turbines. The runner is located above maximum tail water to permit operation at atmospheric pressure. Usually the shaft of a Pelton turbine of low/medium capacity is horizontal and one or two jets/nozzles are used whereas vertical shaft multi-jet turbines are selected for large capacity installations. The number of jets depend upon the specific speed selected. In multijet units, the nozzles are so spaced that a jet, after striking a bucket, does not interfere with another jet. If the runner is mounted on a vertical shaft, it is possible to use large number of nozzles (up to six). For the same rated head and flow conditions, increasing the number of jets results in a smaller runner and a higher operating speed. Therefore multi-jet turbines tend to be less costly for comparable outputs because the cost of the runner represents up to 20% of the cost of the entire turbine. Abrasive martial contained in the water will erode the buckets of a multi-jet turbine more rapidly than in the case of a single jet per runner.

72

Fig. 2.0 :

(a) Main components of a Pelton turbine (b) Spear valve to alter jet diameter (c) Jet deflected from buckets

Runner with Buckets: The runner consists of a circular disc with a number (usually more than 15) of buckets evenly spaced around its periphery. Each bucket is divided vertically into two parts by a splitter that has a sharp edge at the centre and the buckets look like a double hemispherical cup, as shown in Fig. 3.0. The striking jet of water is divided into two parts by the splitter and each part of the jet flows sideways round the smooth inner surface of the bucket and leaves it with a relative velocity almost opposite in direction to the original jet. A notch made near the edge of the outer rim of each bucket is carefully sharpened to ensure a loss-free entry of the jet into the buckets, i.e., the path of the jet is not obstructed by the incoming buckets.

73

Fig. 3.0: Bucket of Pelton turbine The maximum change in momentum is obtained when the jet is deflected by 180, but the angle of deflection of the jet is limited to 165 so that the fluid leaving one bucket does not strike the back of the succeeding bucket. The rear profile of the buckets is designed in such a way that it does not interfere with the passage of the water to the preceding bucket. Buckets are properly polished so that water jets undergo a smooth change in direction and the losses due to friction are minimized. The buckets form is designed to withstand the full force of the jet. Runners of medium and small size turbines are generally one-piece integrally cast. They are difficult to cast, costly and require long delivery times. In large size turbines, the buckets are bolted to the runner for ease in manufacturing, transportation and repair/replacement. However, runners with individually attached buckets are less dependable as on occasions, the buckets have broken away from the wheel causing severe damage to the equipment and the powerhouse. Runners with buckets are generally made from nickelchrome stainless steel for meet higher strength and anti-cavitation and anti-corrosive requirements. Casing: In Pelton turbines, jets fill the buckets partly and water remains in contact with the atmospheric air. The static pressure of water is atmospheric throughout the turbine. The casing prevents splashing of water, guides the water to flow to the tail race and provides safety against accidents. Since the buckets of the Pelton wheel are symmetrical, the side or axial thrusts produced by water in each half is balanced. Still, small thrust bearings are fitted on the shaft to cope up with the deviation from the ideal conditions and the casing provides the housing and support to the bearings and shaft. The casing is usually made of cast iron or fabricated from steel plates (in large units) and is generally made in two parts so that erection and assembly is easy. Force, Power and Efficiency: In the analysis of rotodynamic machinery, the construction and interpretation of velocity diagrams are so important that a brief review of the principles on which these diagrams are based should be made. In a Pelton turbine, the entire pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy in the nozzles, and therefore, the velocity of the water

V1 = C v 2 gH
where Cv is the coefficient of velocity and its value varies from 0.95 to 0.99. H is net head available at the nozzle exit. The rate of discharge, Q is given by :

74

Q=

d 2V1

where d is the least diameter of the jet, shown in Fig. 4.0 (a). The diameter of the nozzle at the outlet is always greater than the least diameter of the jet and varies from 1.1 to 1.2 d. The profiles of the nozzle and spear arc evolved after considerable experimentation and the recent trend is to have a cone-shaped spear. The values of varies between 20 to 30 whereas varies from 30 to 45.

Fig. 4.0 : (a) Spear, Nozzle & Jet (b) Jet deflected by bucket Figure 4.0 (b) shows a section through a bucket which is being hit by a jet. The plane of section is parallel to the axis of the wheel and contains the axis of the jet. Although the jet strikes a number of buckets simultaneously (Fig.2.0(a)) and it commences to strike the bucket before it has reached a position directly under the centre of the wheel, it is quite accurate to assume that the direction of the bucket velocity u is the same as that of V1, and since the radius of the jet is small in comparison to that of the runner, all the fluid is assumed to strike the bucket at radius r (r = D/2), where r is the pitch circle radius. The peripheral velocity u is DN then given by u = , where D is the pitch circle diameter and N is the speed of the wheel 60 in revolutions per minute.

Fig. 5.0 : Velocity triangles With the above assumption, we can draw the velocity triangle at inlet and outlet. The velocity triangle at inlet is a straight line and the two triangles are shown in Fig. 5.0. In the

75

velocity triangle at outlet, the relative velocity Vr2 will be smaller than Vr1 . Although the surface of the buckets are highly polished to minimise the losses due to friction, such losses cannot be entirely eliminated. Moreover, when the water jet strikes the splitter edge that has finite thickness, some additional losses are inevitable. Thus, Vr2 = KVr2 , where K is the blade velocity coefficient and its value is always less than unity. From the velocity triangles, the force exerted by the fluid jet in the direction of rotation is

Fx = Q Vw1 + Vw2

(1.0 b)

(the direction of Vw2 is opposite to Vw1 ). Under the impulse action of the jet, the wheel rotates with a peripheral speed u. Hence, the power produced by the wheel is

P = Q V

w1

+V

)u

(2.0)

The input to the wheel is the kinetic energy of the jet and therefore, the wheel efficiency, also called hydraulic efficiency of the wheel, h, is given by

h = =
Since

Q (Vw + Vw )u 2u (Vw + Vw
1 2

1 / 2 QV12

V12

(3.0)

Vw2 = Vr2 cos u = KVr1 cos u = K [(V1 u ) cos ] u

= KV1 cos u (1 + K cos ]

we have

2u [V1 (1 + K cos ) u (1 + K cos )] V12 2u (1 + K cos )(V1 u ) V12

(4.0)

For a given value of V1 and for a particular turbine, the efficiency is maximum when
= d = 0 = (2U 1 4u ) du
u= V1 2

or

(5.0)

and the maximum efficiency is given by

max =

1 + K cos 2

(6.0)

76

4.2.2 Francis Turbines It is a reaction turbine developed by an English born American Engineer, Sir J.B. Francis. The water enters the turbine through the outer periphery of the runner in the radial direction and leaves the runner in the axial direction, and hence it is called mixed flow turbine. It is a reaction turbine and therefore only a part of the available head is converted into the velocity head before water enters the runner. The pressure head goes on decreasing as the water flows over the runner blades. The static pressure at the runner exit may be less than the atmospheric pressure and as such, water fills all the passages of the runner blades. The change in pressure while water is gliding over the blades is called reaction pressure and is partly responsible for the rotation of the runner. A Francis turbine is suitable for medium heads (45 to 400 m) and requires a relatively large quantity of water. Figure 6.0 shows the outlines of a typical Francis Turbine. The turbine may have its axis horizontal or vertical, but the large units are usually of vertical types. The main components are: spiral casing, guide vanes, runner with shaft, guide bearing and draft tube.

Fig. 6.0: A Francis turbine Spiral Casing: It is the casing around the turbine runner, spiral in shape and it evenly distributes the water around the circumference of the runner. Water flows from the reservoir to the casing through penstock pipes and all care is taken so that eddies do not form. The cross-sectional area of the casing gradually decreases around the circumference of the runner (maximum at the entrance and minimum at the tip) so that water enters the runner at a

77

constant velocity at all points. The spiral casing is provided with inspection holes and pressure gauge connections. They are generally made of rolled steel plates or cast steel. Large spiral casings are made in parts for ease in transport. Guide Vanes: The guide vanes are fixed between two rings as shown in Fig. 7.0. The vanes have profiles like aerofoil so that the flow is smooth and without separation. When water from the casing flows through the guide vanes, a part of the pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy. The water leaves the guide vanes in such a way that it enters the runner blades in a direction tangential to the blade tip at entrance. Each guide vane can rotate about its pivot centre and thus, the flow cross-sectional area can be varied. This helps in regulating the quantity of water going to the runner. Guide vanes are also used for starting and stopping the turbine.

Fig. 7.0 : Guide vanes and guide wheel Runner: The profile or shape of the runner blades of a Francis turbine is so designed that water enters the blade inwards in radial direction and leave the blade in the axial direction. The width of the runner depends upon the specific speed. The runner is bolted on the shaft which may be vertical or horizontal. The runners are generally made of high grade Ni-Cr stainless steel or cast steel which is chosen specially based on quality of water to minimize corrosion/erosion/cavitation. The runners are classified according to their speed as slow, medium and fast. The shape of different types of runner and their velocity triangles are shown in Fig. 8.0. The static pressure at the runner outlet is much less, sometimes less than the atmospheric pressure, and therefore, the absolute velocity of water leaving the runner is quite high. The magnitude of the absolute velocity of water at runner outlet will be minimum if the outlet velocity triangle is a rightangled triangle and is obtained by having axial discharge. Thus, we see from Fig. 8.0 that the outlet velocity triangle in all the three cases is a right-angled triangle and the kinetic energy at the runner outlet, that is going as a waste, is kept to a minimum value. The inlet velocity triangles shown in Fig. 8.0 will be obtained when the guide blades are fully open and the runner is rotating at the designed speed. At part load operations, the guide blades are rotated to reduce the quantity of water entering the runner, and in that case the direction of V: changes causing a change in the direction of Vr and the relative velocity at inlet, Vr, may not be tangential to the blade tip at entrance. Thus, the entry to the runner is not, shock less and the efficiency of the system goes down.

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In order to reduce leakage due to the clearance between the rotating runner and fixed guide wheel, labyrinth seals are provided in the form of forged steel rings fitted on the runner.

Fig. 8.0: Variation in runner shape and velocity triangles with speed Draft Tube: The static pressure of water gradually decreases when water glides over the runner blades, and as such, the water coming out of the runner possesses a large amount of kinetic energy and the pressure at the runner outlet is less than the atmospheric pressure. This kinetic energy of water is converted into potential energy by allowing it to flow through a gradually diverging tube called draft tube. The water velocity at the exit of the draft tube is about 1 m/s and the free end of the draft tube is submerged below the tail race level. The draft tube is an important constituent of a reaction turbine and has the following functions: a) It makes possible the installation of the turbine above the tail race level without the loss of head. The pressure at the exit of the draft tube is atmospheric. From Bernoulli equation, it is clear that the pressure head at the runner outlet or at the inlet of the draft tube is equal to the atmospheric pressure head minus the height of the runner outlet above the tail race level even if we have a draft tube of uniform cross section (see Eq. 9.0 b). Thus, the available head measured from the

79

b)

c)

head race level to the discharge side of the turbine is the same as when the turbine has been installed at the tail race level and the discharge is under atmospheric pressure. The velocity of water at the runner outlet is very high. By employing a draft tube of increasing cross-sectional area, the discharge takes place at a much lower velocity and thus, a part of the kinetic energy that was going as a waste is recovered as a gain in the pressure head, and this increases the efficiency of the turbine. The draft tube prevents the splashing of water coming out of the runner and guides the water to the tail race.

The draft tube employed in reaction turbines have different shapes and a few of them have been illustrated in Fig. 9.0.

Fig. 9.0: Different draft tubes Power and Efficiency: As mentioned earlier, water enters the Francis turbine runner inwards in a radial direction and leaves the runner axially. The velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet for different types of runner have been shown in Fig. 8.0. The expression for the power developed when the fluid is flowing through a radial passage has been obtained by using the moment of momentum principle and is given by

P = Q Vw1 u1 Vw2 u 2

Since the discharge from the runner is axial, the velocity of the whirl at outlet, Vw2 , is equal to zero and the power produced is

P = QVw1 u1
and input power = QgH
80

(7.0 a) (7.0 b)

where H is head applied on the runner Hydraulic efficiency,

H =

Vw1 u1 gH

If the losses in the runner are neglected, then the energy utilised in the runner can also be expressed as
P output = Q gH V

2 2

/2

where V2 is the absolute velocity of water at runner outlet. Thus, the hydraulic efficiency,

h =

Vw1 u1 gH

gH V22 / 2 V2 =1 2 gH 2 gH

(8.0)

If we take into account all the losses that occur in the turbine, then we define overall efficiency as Overall efficiency, o = or

power available at the turbine shaft power that could have been produced o = shaft output / QgH

Draft Tube Theory Cavitation

Let us consider a vertical conical draft tube as shown in Fig. 10.0. After neglecting frictional losses in the draft tube, we apply the Bernoulli equation between points (2) and (4) to get V 2 V42 p 2 V22 p V2 p2 p + + z 2 = 4 + 4 + z 4 or (9.0) a = 4 (z 2 z 4 ) 2 g 2 g g 2 g g g 2g

Fig. 10.0: Draft tube theory

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But p4/g = p3/g + (z3 z4), where p3 is the atmospheric pressure (from fluid statics) Equation (9.0 a) reduces to
p 2 p3 V 2 V42 p3 V22 V42 = (z 2 z 3 ) 2 = h + s g g 2g g 2g

(9.0 b)

where hs is the height of the runner outlet above the tail race level. The two terms within the parenthesis in Eq. (9.0 b) are called static suction head, hs, and dynamic suction head, ( V22 V42 )/2g. Therefore, it is clear from Eq. (9.0 b) that the static pressure at runner outlet is less than the atmospheric pressure by an amount equal to the static and dynamic suction head. That is, by providing a draft tube we can install the turbine above the tail race level without any loss in the static head and the draft tube recovers a part of the kinetic energy, that was going as a waste, into pressure energy. It should be mentioned that the pressure at any point inside the turbine cannot be less than the vapor pressure, otherwise, vapors will be formed and it will lead to a phenomenon called cavitation. We know that the boiling temperature of a liquid depends directly upon the pressure and whenever the pressure in any part of the turbine falls below the evaporation pressure, the liquid water will boil and a large number of small bubbles of vapor and gases, which were dissolved in the liquid, will be formed. These bubbles will be carried away by the flowing stream to higher pressure zones and there they will suddenly collapse. This will result in the formation of a cavity where liquid particles will rush in with a very high velocity. With a period of time, this will cause the eating away of metallic surface of the runner blades or near the side walls of the draft tube and will lead to the formation of cavities. This pitting or erosion is often aided by chemical action between impure water and the material. This phenomenon is called Cavitation. Prof. Thoma of Germany has suggested a critical value for the cavitation factor, , which identifies the zone where a turbine can work without being affected by cavitation. The critical value

crit =

(ha hv ) hs
H

(10.0 a)

where ha is the average atmospheric pressure, hv is the vapor pressure, hs is the suction head (height of the runner outlet above the tail race level), and H is the working head of the turbine, all expressed in metres of water. According to Prof. Thoma, cavitation can be avoided if the turbine is installed in such a way that the cavitation factor is always greater than criljcal. The value of crit for different turbines may be calculated by the following empirical relations: For Francis turbines
Ns c = 0.625 380.78
2

(10.0 b)

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For Kaplan turbines

1 N s 2 c = 0.308 + 6 . 82 380 . 78 4.2.3 Axial Flow Turbines

(10.0 c)

Axial flow turbines are those in which flow through the runner is aligned with the axis of rotation and these have been used for net heads up to 75 meters. Axial flow turbines are designed in two variants - Kaplan (with variable pitch blades) and propeller (with fixed blades). Conventional Kaplan/Propeller turbines are installed vertically. When installed horizontally, these are known as bulb type (turbine generator set located horizontally in a bulb in water), pit type, S-type and tubular type depending on their construction. Specific mechanical designs, civil construction, and economic factors must be given full consideration when selecting among these axial flow turbine arrangements.
A. Kaplan Turbine

It is an axial flow reaction turbine named in honour of Dr. V. Kaplan, a German engineer, and is suitable for low head. The power produced by a turbine is proportional to QH. As the head decreases, the flow rate Q must increase to produce the same power. In a Francis reaction turbine, the flow rate is given by Q = (D zt) Vf. In order to achieve a high rate of flow we should have a large D and/or b, a large value of Vf and a smaller number of blades, Z. A large value of Vf at outlet results in a wastage of large quantity of kinetic energy and therefore, its value should be kept as low as possible. Thus, Kaplan turbines were designed to have a minimum number of blades (4 to 6 numbers) and water enters the blades in axial direction from one side and leaves through the other side so that a large quantity of water flows through the runner. Generally, four blade design is used upto 20 meters of head, five blade design upto 30 meters and six blade design upto 60 meters.
Constructional Details:

Figure 11.0 depicts the outlines of a Kaplan turbine. The casing, guide mechanism and draft tube are similar to that of a Francis turbine. Kaplan turbine also runs full, i.e., it is also a closed conduit from the inlet to the tail race. We see from Fig. 11.0 that a space has been provided between the ends of the guide vanes and the leading edge of the runner. This space is called whirl chamber and the flow direction changes from radial to axial in the space. Thus, the runner of a Kaplan turbine differs from the runner of a Francis turbine on two points: (i) In Francis turbine the water enters the runner radially, whereas in Kaplan turbine the water enters the runner axially. (ii) The number of blades in Francis turbine is much more (numbering from 16 to 24) than the number of blades in Kaplan turbine (numbering between 4 to 8). Moreover, the blades of the Kaplan turbine are attached to the hub in such a way that they are able to move on their axis.

83

84

Kaplan turbine is an axial flow turbine. The discharge through the runner is given by
Q=

(D

d 2 )V f

where D is the diameter of the runner, d is the diameter of the hub and Vf is the velocity of flow. The quantity of water flowing through the runner depends upon the load on the turbine and therefore, the velocity of flow will decrease with decrease in load. In that case, if the water has to enter the runner blades without shock, the blade angles at inlet are changed. The velocity triangles will be similar to as shown in Fig. 12.0. Thus, with this arrangement the efficiency of Kaplan turbine does not decrease at part-load operation.

Fig. 12.0: Velocity triangles for blades in different positions

It should be noted that the peripheral speed of the runner blades varies with the radial distance from the axis of rotation. As such, the inlet and outlet velocity triangles are different at different sections, and the blade angles at inlet and outlet are made different at different sections, i.e., the blades are twisted, so that water enters the blades without shock at all points. At part-load operations, these twisted blades (having adjustable angle of twist) permit shockless entry of water to the runner and therefore, part-load efficiency of Kaplan turbine is more than Francis turbine. Blade angle adjustment at part loads is achieved through a special blade turning mechanism as per pre-determined relationship between guide vane opening and runner blade angle at different operating heads.

85

Kaplan turbines are equipped with a guide vane assembly to regulate flow of water through turbine to control speed / load and to shutdown the unit like Francis Turbines. The wicket gate mechanism is actuated by hydraulic servomotors.
Runner of Kaplan Turbine

Kaplan type turbine runner mainly consists of a hub, adjustable angle blades with journal and oil seals, blade turning levers, cross head, servomotor and runner cone. Blades are operated automatically in conjunction with wicket gates by means of electro-hydraulic governor. The blade position Vs wicket gate position relationship at all operating heads is controlled by mechanical/electronic combinatory relationship cam. Position feed back of runner blades is achieved through an electronic position sensor with 4 to 20 mA output analogue signal mounted on the oil distributing head. Pressure oil is supplied to opening or closing side of runner blade servomotor through concentric pipes running through generator rotor and turbine shaft from distributing oil head located inside the bulb. The control of runner blades is designed to give full opening command on loss of fed back signal or loss of control oil pressure. Final assembled runner is statically balanced in the works before dispatch.
Blades: Runner blades are cast or forged in 13%Cr 4% Ni stainless steel and are ground smooth and polished. Blades are integral with journals or assembled on journals with pre-stressed coupling bolts. Clearance between blade inner edge profile and runner hub is kept minimum at all position of blades. Clearance between blade tips and runner chamber is kept minimum not more than 3 mm. Runner Hub and Cone: The runner hub/body is cast in 1.5% Mn. steel casting and the blade windows are fitted with bronze bushes capable of taking outward thrust of blades. Runner cone generally fabricated from steel plates is coupled to downstream side of runner hub to provide smooth water flow. The hub and cone shall be filled by lubricating oil (same oil as used in pressure oil system) for lubrication of all bearings/bushes and blade adjusting mechanism. Blade Turning Mechanism: The runner servomotor and blade turning mechanism is accommodated inside the runner hub. The mechanism connects the blades with runner servomotor and ensures equal/identical position of all blades corresponding to any position of servomotor piston. Bronze bushes are used in all moving joints and suitable rubber seals are used to arrest leakage of oil/water. Oil to the runner servomotor is supplied via special pipes passing down the bore of the main shaft through oil header mounted on the top of the generator. B. Propeller Turbines

Propeller turbines are similar to Kaplan turbines with a difference that their runner blades are fixed at one angle only which can not be changed. They are comparatively simpler in construction and operation as complicated blade turning mechanism is not required. They are however used in situation where head and discharge is not varying. They are equipped with guide vane assembly to regulate flow of water through turbine to control speed / load and to shutdown the unit like Francis and Kaplan turbines. The wicket gate mechanism is actuated by hydraulic servomotors. Small units may be actuated by electric motor gate operators.

86

The efficiency curve of a typical fixed blade Propeller turbine forms a sharp peak, more abrupt than a Francis turbine curve. For Kaplan units the peak efficiency occurs at different outputs depending on the blade setting. An envelope of the efficiency curves cover the range of blade pitch settings forms the variable pitch efficiency curve. This efficiency curve is broad and flat.
C. Bulb Turbines

Bulb Turbines are Kaplan or Propeller type directly connected to the generator and installed horizontally. The generator is enclosed in a water-tight enclosure (bulb) located in the turbine water passageway. The bulb turbine is designed with or without a wicket gate mechanism depending on the hydraulic requirement. Performance characteristic are similar to the vertical type turbines. The bulb turbine will have an improved efficiency of approximately 1.5 % over a vertical unit and 1% over a tube unit because of the straight water passageway. Due to the compact design, powerhouse floor space and height for Bulb turbine installations are minimized. Maintenance time due to accessibility, however, may be greater than for either the vertical or the tube type turbines.

Fig. 13

BULB TURBINES

87

Fig. 14: Straflow Turbine E. Tubular Turbines

Tubular or tube turbines are horizontal or slant mounted units with propeller runners. The generators are located outside of the water passageway. Tube turbines are designed with fixed or variable pitch runners and with or without wicket gate assemblies. When wicket gate assembly is not used, water flow through the turbine is controlled by changing the pitch of the runner blades. When it is not required to regulate turbine discharge and power output, a fixed blade runner may be used. This results in a lower cost of both the turbine and governor system. Tube turbines without wicket gates should be equipped with a shut off valve automatically operated to provide shut-off and start-up functions. Tube turbines can be connected either directly to the generator or through to a speed increaser. The speed increaser would allow the use of a higher speed generator, typically 750 or 1000 (1500) r/min, instead of a generator operating at turbine speed. The choice to utilize a speed increaser is an economic decision. Speed increasers lower the overall plant efficiency by about 1% for a single gear increaser and about 2% for double gear increaser. This loss of
88

efficiency and the cost of the speed increaser must be compared to the reduction in cost for the smaller generator. It is recommended that speed increaser option should not be used for unit sizes above 5 MW capacity. The required civil features are different for horizontal units than for vertical units. Horizontally mounted tube turbines require more floor area than vertically mounted units. The area required may be lessened by slant mounting, however, additional turbine costs are incurred as a large axial thrust bearing is required. Excavation and powerhouse height for a horizontal unit is less than that required for a vertical unit.

Fig. 15 F. Pit Type Bulb Turbine

TUBULAR TURBINE SET

Pit type turbine is a variation of bulb arrangements where standard vertical high speed generator is coupled to turbine through step up gears. Overall efficiency is lower because of gear box. Maximum size depends upon gear box and is generally limited to 5 MW.
G. Cross Flow Turbines

A cross flow turbine is an impulse type turbine with partial air admission and guide vane at the entrance, which directs the flow to a limited portion of the runner depending on the flow. This operation is similar to operation of multi-jet impulse turbine. Cross flow turbines are sometimes equipped with a conical draft tube creating a pressure below atmosphere in the turbine chamber. Therefore the difference between the turbine centerline elevation and the tail water is not lost to Cross-flow turbines as is the case for an impulse turbine. Air is admitted into the chamber through an adjustable air inlet valve used to control the pressure.

89

Cross flow turbines are free from cavitation, but are susceptible to wear when excessive silt or sand particles are in the water. Runners are self-cleaning and, in general, maintenance is less complex than for the other types of turbines Performance characteristics of this turbine are similar to an impulse turbine and consist of a flat efficiency curve over a wide range of flow and head conditions. Peak efficiency of the cross flow turbine is less than that of other turbine types. Guaranteed maximum efficiency seldom exceeds 80%. Efficiency Floor space requirements are more than for the other turbine types, but a less complex structure is required and a savings in cost might be realized. The largest size runner of cross flow is about 1.2 meter in diameter. Allowable heads range from 2 meter to 180 meter.
4.3 SELECTION OF HYDRAULIC TURBINE

General Type of turbine is selected for techno-economic considerations, power house cost and relative advantages of operation and maintenance. Most of the manufacturers have developed standard blade profile designs for various head ranges and standard equipment design. This may be effectively utilized for cheaper and quicker considerations. Preliminary selection for small hydro sets can be made from Fig. 16 which is extracted from IEC-1116 entitled Electro mechanical equipment guide for small hydro-electric installation. This chart is recommended for SHP of unit size 3 MW. For size of units higher than 3 MW, selection may be made as per USBR Design Memo No. 20 for reaction turbines.

The net head available to the turbine dictates the selection of type of turbine suitable for use at a particular site. The rate of flow determines mainly the capacity of the turbine. The term specific speed is generally used in classifying types of turbines and characteristics within type.
Specific Speed (Ns) The term specific speed used in classifying types of turbines and characteristics of turbines within types is generally the basis of selection procedure. This term is specified as the speed in revolutions per minute at which the given turbine would rotate, if reduced homologically in size, so that it would develop one metric horse power at full gate opening under one meter head. Specific speed is very important for selection of hydraulic turbine. Commonly used mathematically expression in India for specific speed is power based English system is as follows:

NrPr Ns = ------------Hr (5/4)

Where, Nr = revolutions per Minute Pr = power in metric horse power at full gate opening (1 kW = 0.86 metric hp) Hr =rated head in m.
Ns, kW Units = 0.86 Ns metric horse power unit

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The specific speed value defines the approximate head range application for each turbine type and size. Low head units tend to have a high specific speed, and high-head units to have a low specific speed. Specific speed (metric HP units) range of different types of turbines is as follows: Fixed blade propeller turbines Adjustable blade Kaplan turbines Francis turbines Impulse turbines 300 1000 300 1000 65 - 445 12 (single jet Pelton) - 80 (cross flow) For multiple jets the speed is proportionally increased

A comprehensive monograph for selection of hydraulic reaction turbines issued by the US Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) is given below.

91

Fig. 16 Turbine Operating Regimes

Following Indian standard are good guides for selection of hydraulic turbines.

92

i) ii)

IS 12837 1989 Hydraulic Turbines for Medium and Large Power Houses Guidelines for Selection IS 12800 (Part 3) 1991 Guide lines for selection of hydraulic turbines, preliminary dimensioning and Layout of surface Hydro-Part 3 Small Mini and Micro Hydroelectric Power Houses

Selection Procedure

Detailed Procedure for selection of large reaction turbines is based on USBR (United State Bureau Reclamation) monograph No. 20 and IS: 12800 Part-I. Small hydro units may be selected as per IS: 12800 (Part 3). Following factors should be considered for determining the type of turbine : i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) Head maximum net head acting on the turbine. Each type of turbine is suited for a particular range of head. Head variation Turbine efficiency is ideal at design head and falls at higher or lower heads. Type of turbine selected must be suitable for the actual head variations. Load variations Turbine efficiency varies with load. Turbine should be possible to be operated at desired part loads without undue cavitation and vibrations or part load is to be limited based on selected turbine. Specific Speed Relatively higher specific speed of turbine results in higher speed of rotation of generator resulting in reduction of turbine generator cost. Runner Diameter Higher runner diameter results in larger size of turbine and space requirement of power house resulting in higher cost of equipment and civil works. Efficiency Approximate efficiency may be determined using guide lines given in IS 12800(Part 3) or USBR. Turbine Setting and Excavation Requirement - Generally, the cavitation co-efficient of Francis turbine is lower than Propeller/Kaplan of same head and capacity, necessitating lesser submergence and excavation. Pelton turbines do not require submergence and additional excavation. Power House Size approximate size of the power house may be determined based on runner diameter referring above referred IS and USBR.

viii)

Based on these factors, number of variants of turbine-generator sets may be worked out for given hydrological conditions and most economical and easier to maintain variant may be adopted.
Table 4.1: Table 4.1:
Sl.No. I

Below gives Performance Characteristics of various types of turbines and may be used for primary selection. Turbine Performance Characteristics
Head Application m Min Max 40 100 200 500 Head Variation % Min Max 90 90 110 110 Load variation % Min Max 40 40 115 115

Turbine Type Impulse Turgo Impulse Pelton

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Sl.No.

Turbine Type Cross flow

Head Application m Min Max 1 200

Head Variation % Min Max 60 125

Load variation % Min Max 30 115

II

Reaction (mixed flow) Francis 40 Reaction (Axial Flow) Vertical 2 Propeller Vertical Kaplan 8 Tubular Kaplan 2 2 2

400

65

125

60

115

III

40 50 25 25 25

85 65 75 50 50

100 125 115 140 140

80 40 75 30 30

115 115 115 115 115

Tubular Propeller Bulb

It may be observed that type of turbines may be in overlapping ranges. Selection of a high specific speed for a given head will result in a smaller turbine and generator with saving in capital cost. However, the turbine will have to be placed lower for which the cost may offset the savings. The greater speed also reduces the head range under which the turbine will satisfactorily operate. Manufacturer is responsible for the mechanical design and hydraulic efficiency of the turbine. Accordingly designs and specifications are proposed so as to obtain a most optimum and trouble free turbine. Procedure for determining various parameters of turbine is outlined below:
Head: Determination of rated head, design head, maximum and minimum net head is very important. Permissible departure from design head for reaction turbines for optimum efficiency and cavitation characteristics based on experience data is as follows and is shown in table 4.1. Gross Head (Hg) is the difference in elevation between the water levels in the forebay and the tailrace Effective Head (Net Head) - is the gross head less the hydraulic losses of the water passage including losses in intake structure. Maximum Head (Hmax.) is the gross head resulting from the difference in elevation between the maximum forebay level without surcharge and the tailrace level without spillway discharge and with one unit operating at speed no-load (turbine discharge of approximately 5% of rated flow). Under this condition, hydraulic losses are negligible and nay be disregarded. Minimum Head (Hmin.) is the net head resulting from the difference in elevation between the minimum forebay level and the maximum tailrace level minus hydraulic losses with all turbines operating at full gate.

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Design Head (hd) is the net head at which peak efficiency is desired. This head should preferably approximate the weighted average head, but must be so selected that the maximum and minimum heads are not beyond the permissible operating range of the turbine. Rated Head (hr) is the net head at which the full-gate output of the turbine produce the generator rated output in kilowatts. The turbine nameplate rating usually is given at this head. Discharge and Plant Rating

Available discharge and its variation is also important for checking plant rating and capacity limitations for part load operations. Performance guarantees for part load operations is given turbine manufacturer. Plant kW Rating = 9.804 x (rated discharge in m3/sec.) x (rated head in meters) x (plant efficiency) 1 megawatt = 1000 kW Plant efficiency = turbine efficiency at rated output x generator efficiency at rated output
Speed of Turbine

Economic speed of turbine may be determined by specific speed considerations based on design head, turbine and full gate capacity. (i) Trial specific speed Ns;

Select from Monograph 20 of USBR. For reaction turbines trial specific speed is currently 2334 near about H (ii) Trial rotational speed N (rev./min.) N (H d ) N = s P Where,
N = Trial rotational speed, RPM = Trial specific speed, RPM Ns Hd = Design head P = Turbine full gate capacity at Hd
5/4

(iii)

Selected Rotational speed n: The rotational speed nearest the trial speed is selected subject to the following considerations: Rotational speed, n =
6000 at 50 HZ numberofpoles

95

If the head is expected to vary less than 10% from design head, the next greater speed may be chosen. A head varying in excess of 10% from design head suggest the next lower speed. (iv) Design Specific speed Ns=
N P (H )5 / 4

Runner Diameter

The actual turbine runner size is determined by the manufacturer in accordance with model tests and design criteria. For estimation and comparison purposes, runner discharge diameter may be calculated as follows > For Francis and Propeller Turbines, runner discharge diameter 84.6 3 (h d) 1/2 D3 = -------------------n where, h d = design head 3 = 0.0211 (Ns) 2/3 ( for Francis turbine) 3 = 0.0233 (Ns) 2/3 ( for Propeller / Kaplan turbine) For Impulse turbines 84.6 3 (h d) 1/2 D3 = -------------------n where, h d = design head (metric units) (metric units)

3 . d/D = 0.0019 Ns ( for Impulse turbine) Practical value of d/D = 0.04 to 0.1 Normal diameter ration = 0.055
4.4 Turbine Setting and Excavation Requirement

Setting of turbine runner with respect to minimum tail water level is determined by cavitation co-efficient which is found by model test results of similar turbine. Generally, the cavitation co-efficient of Francis turbine is lower than Propeller/Kaplan of same head and capacity, necessitating lesser submergence and excavation. Pelton turbines are installed above maximum tail water level, hence do not require submergence and additional excavation. Recommended turbine setting above tail water level is given by : Where H0 Hv z = H 0 - H v - H cr = atmospheric pressure (in m.) at plant elevation = vpour pressure (in m.) at plant location

96

= plant sigma from model test results (Ns) 1.64 = ------------50.327 = Max. head
(Ns in metric units)

H cr

Selection Criteria

For a small/medium capacity low head power station, the operating and installation costs are comparatively much higher with respect to large installations. This means that greater consideration must be given to the following points: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The Civil Engineering work needs to be kept to a minimum. The site erection of the units has to be kept to a minimum. The power station must be automatically controlled to reduce the attendant personnel. The equipment must be simple and robust with easy accessibility to essential parts for maintenance. Indian experience & Indigenous availability

For low heads, the bulb turbine is suitable for these requirements. The main advantage of the bulb unit derives from its hydraulic simple and straight water passage. The consequence of this is a smaller turbine and a reduced civil works cost. The turbine is smaller because the bulb unit has a higher specific speed and a higher specific output than other types of turbines while maintaining or even improving the efficiencies and cavitation characteristics.

4.5 Similarity Considerations, Unit Quantities

Performance of a prototype turbine may be determined from the results of tests on model, which is geometrically, kinematically and dynamically similar. Geometrical similarity means that ratio, such as runner diameter of model to runner diameter of actual turbine and such other ratios of corresponding lengths should have the same value. In general, flow boundaries must be geometrically similar. For example, in reaction turbines the ratio of width to runner diameter and in impulse turbines ratio of runner diameter to runner diameter to jet diameter (jet ratio) should be same in both model and actual turbine.. By kinematical similarity we mean that not only the paths of velocities should be similar in both the model and the actual turbine but also the magnitude of velocities of none turbine will bear the same proportion to corresponding velocities of actual turbine. For similarity conditions to be satisfied it is also necessary that fluid properties should remain the same in model as in actual turbine. We know that if cavitation occurs, particles of fluid evaporate and hence fluid changes its properties. Since the above equations do not take this into account hence they are true only when the cavitation does not take place in model as well as in actual turbine.

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Unit Quantities

As stated before, there are five important quantities connected with any hydraulic turbine, namely (i) Head (H), (ii) Discharge (Q), (iii) Speed (n), (iv) Power (P) and efficiency (). It is necessary to know the nature of variation of these quantities with respect to one another. It will however be worth while if the nature of variation of unit quantities is studied instead of actual quantities. Thus we have unit speed (nu), unit discharge (Qu) and unit powr (Pu), which may be defined respectively as speed, discharge and power of turbine, when the head on turbine is unity. On the European continent similar equations are used for predicting the performance of different but similar turbines. Thus we have for unit speed.
nu = nD gH

and for unit discharge

Qu = Qopt D
2

opt

gH

4.6

CAVITATION IN REACTION TURBINES

When a liquid flows into a region where pressure is reduced to its vapour pressure at the prevailing temperature, the liquid boils and small bubbles or cavities form in large numbers. The appearance of cavities at a place depends on the difference between the absolute pressure p and the vapour pressure p. However, dissolved air usually separates out of water before such a low pressure as p is reached and the performance of the turbine begins to deteriorate. The cavitation occurs in those regions in the runner blades where the absolute pressure attains a lower value than the absolute pressure at the entrance to the draft tube. If the pressure anywhere reduces to such a low value that liquid boils for example on the convex side of curved blades, then vapour pockets from and remain as such until the liquid has moved to a region of higher pressure where the vapour bubbles collapse suddenly and cause noise, vibration and pitting of the blades and may ultimately cause failure of metal. Cavitation thus causes three undesirable effects : (i) (ii) (iii) efficiency of the turbine is lowered, damage to blades due to pitting, and noise and vibrations.

Growth of bubbles and their collapse take place at a high speed ranging between 10,000 to 20,0000 per second and it is likely that the damage of the metal is largely due to fatigue. The collapse of the cavities in the flow and/or on the metal surface and subsequent impact of water causes the formation of micro-cracks on the metal surface where the severe cavitation damage and the damaged metal surface looks like sponge.

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Separation of air or air cavitation usually occurs before vapour cavitation, the latter being detected by an increase in noise and vibrations and both by an appreciable reduction in thrust and efficiency of the turbine. If a turbine is run with a draft tube head (Z2), which is gradually increased from zero to a maximum value, it is found that the performance of the turbine begins to deteriorate. This indicates that setting of a turbine above the tail race level greatly influences the turbine performance. Since cavitation begins when the pressure reaches too low a value, it is likely to occur at points where the velocity or the elevation is high, and particularly at such points where high velocity and high elevation are combined. In a reaction turbine, the point of minimum pressure is usually at the outlet end of a blade on its convex side. For flow between such a point and the water level in the tail race, the Bernoullis equation may be written as
Pmin Pa V2 + +Z = 2g

(26)

where, Z is the elevation of the runner blade outlet (or the height of draft tube) above the tail race, Pa is the atmospheric pressure and V is the velocity at the point under condition. Rearranging Eq. (26), we obtain

P Pmin Z V2 = a 2 gH H

(27)

where, is the Thomas cavitation number and H is the net or effective head on which the turbine operates. For cavitation not to occur, Pmin must be greater than the vapour pressure of the liquid p. If either the height of the turbine runner above the tail water level, i.e. Z or H is increased, is decreased. To determine the maximum elevation Zmax of the turbine above the tail water level for cavitation-free operation, the following equation may be used.
Z max = Pa

cH

(28)

where c is the critical cavitation parameter which is usually about 0.1. It is the value of corresponding to decrease in efficiency and appearance of noise and vibrations. Eq. (15.78) shows that greater the net head H on the turbine, the lower it must be placed in relation to tail water level. The cavitation coefficient of turbine installation at the hydropower plant, inst, which is called Thomas coefficient, is given by

inst H =

Patm P

Hs

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or

inst =

H atm H H s H

(29)

Here Hatm is the atmospheric (barometric) pressure in m of water column, H is the vapour pressure at the prevailing temperature in m of water column and Hs is the suction head of the turbine, i.e. height of runner setting above the tail water level and H is the turbine head. It follows from Eq. (29) that the regime of operation (discharge Q and turbine head H) and the suction head Hs considerably influence and determine the magnitude of minimum absolute pressure within the runner. If Hs is varied, the magnitude of vacuum pressure and its location within the runner change. At a certain value of Hs the magnitude of inst will be small enough to cause developed cavitation within the runner which causes the turbine characteristics to deteriorate. Fig.17 below shows the variation of inst with efficiency. With increase in Hs, a corresponding decrease in inst is obtained and this has no effect on the turbine performance as is seen from the constant efficiency trend. A stage is however reached when any further increase in Hs deteriorates the turbine performance and the efficiency falls. The critical value of cavitation coefficient, c, is determined by this point marking the change in the trend of .

Fig. 17: Variation of inst with efficiency

For safe operation (cavitation-free) of turbine, it is evident that

inst > c
The critical cavitation coefficient, determined as follows : For Francis, For Propeller, For Kaplan,

c ,

for the different types of turbines may be

c, = 0.0317 (ns/100)2 c,= 0.3 + 0.0024 (ns/100)2.73 c, = 1.1 time c for propeller

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The modern trend in hydraulic turbines is to increase their specific speed, and for same discharge and power to have lesser dimension and weight by realizing greater values of unit discharge and unit speed. This is possible at higher values of flow velocities within the turbine space. This growth of flow velocities is associated with the decrease in the absolute pressure in the turbine which may lead to phenomenon of cavitation. Higher the turbine specific speed, the larger is the pressure reduction in the absolute flow. The increase of specific speed, therefore, leads to further decrease of the mean pressure on the suction side of the blade.
4.7 GOVERNING SYSTEM OF HYDRO TURBINES 4.7.1 Introduction

In any hydro set, speed of rotation or power generated depends on quantity of water flowing over the runner and the operating water head. Since head of water in any power station does not change frequently, speed/power control is achieved by regulating the flow of water or discharge through the turbine. Governing system is used to control the flow of water with the help of guide vanes (in case of reaction turbines) or nozzle (in case of impulse turbine) which are operated by hydraulic servomotors through link mechanism and regulating ring.
4.7.2 Development of Governing System

In the beginning of 20th century, mechanical governors directly driven by prime movers through belt were used for small machines. The speed of rotation was sensed by flyball type pendulum. In second-generation mechanical governors, permanent magnet generator and pendulum motor were utilized for sensing the speed of the machine. All parameter settings were achieved through mechanical elements. Next came the third generation analogue Electro-Hydraulic Governors where speed sensing, speed/output setting and stabilizing parameters were controlled electrically and the use of mechanical components was reduced considerably. They increased the reliability, stability and life of the equipment and facilitated more functional requirements. The design of electrical part of the governors kept changing based on the advancement in electronics and development work by individual manufacturers. Present day trend in the area of electronic speed governors is to go for microprocessor based Programmable Logical Controller (PLC). The major advantages of PLC based governors over the earlier analogue governors (based on solid state electronic circuitry ) are higher reliability, self diagnostic feature, modular design, flexibility of changing control functions via software, stability of set parameters, reduced wiring and easy remote control through optical fiber cables.
4.7.3 Governing of Reaction Turbines

As already stated, the governing of turbine is done by regulating the flow of water to suit the load conditions on the turbines The flow/discharge in reaction turbines (Francis & Kaplan type) is regulated by changing the gate opening of guide vanes which controls the area of the flow passage. The governing mechanism is designed to change the position of guide vanes uniformly, and thus controls the area of flow passage. The guide vanes are pivoted and connected by levers and links to the regulating ring. Two regulating rods are

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attached to the regulating ring at one end and to the oil servomotors at the other end. Depending on the hydraulic force on guide vanes, certain pressure is required on either side of the servomotor piston to keep the guide vanes in stationary condition. This required pressure is controlled by the governor mechanism to move the servomotor piston towards opening or closing of guide vanes. The motion of the servomotor piston is transmitted to the regulating ring which causes all the guide vanes to turn simultaneously in one direction through the same angle. In case of Kaplan turbine, runner blade angle is also required to be controlled. This is achieved by separate hydraulic servomotor controlled by link mechanism. The combinatory relationship between guide vane opening and runner angle is established through a three dimensional cam and link mechanism. In modern PLC based governors, this relationship is established electronically with greater accuracy and stability.
4.7.4 Governing of Impulse Turbine

The flow/discharge in Impulse turbines is varied by adjusting the annular area of flow of the nozzle. The nozzle fitted at the end of the penstock is provided with a spear having a streamlined head fixed to farther end of servomotor piston rod. It is the movement of the spear which controls the annular area of flow and helps in changing the discharge. It is to be noted that the velocity of jet issuing from the nozzle remains unchanged. Near the nozzle i.e. between the nozzle and buckets, a deflector is provided to deflect a part or the entire water jet downward to prevent the striking of jet on the buckets. Deflector is a movable steel plate of special contour attached to the tip of the nozzle. The spear and the deflector both are operated automatically by means of governing mechanism. In any stabilized operating condition, the spear provides required opening of nozzle to form a particular jet diameter and deflector is just away from the jet. When the speed or load is to be increased or decreased, deflector is first moved to the required position and spear follows to take a position so that jet of required diameter is formed. The precise relationship between jet diameter and deflector position is calculated at design stage by turbine designer and is established in the governor mechanism through mechanical cam and link mechanism or electronically.
4.7.5 Working Principle of Governors

Governor for hydro turbine is basically a speed controlling element which senses the speed of the generating set with the help of a toothed wheel signal generator mounted on the turbine/generator shaft or by measuring the frequency of the generated voltage at generator terminals. The rated frequency of the generated voltage must be 50 or 60 Hz (as per power supply regulation of the country) at rated speed of the set. This speed signal is converted into a binary signal or D.C. voltage signal and compared with the reference speed signal. The frequency deviation signal along with other control signals like power/gate setting reference signal, gate position limits, gate feed back signals and values of stabilizing parameters (PID parameters) are fed to the processing unit. The resultant control signal is amplified and fed to electro-mechanical transducer/converter located in hydro-mechanical part of the governor. Here, the electrical signal is converted into mechanical movement which is further amplified hydraulically and controls the movement of main distributing valve. Depending upon the position of main distributing valve, pressure oil is supplied to guide vane servomotor for opening or closing the guide vanes. The position feedback signal from servomotor gives

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stabilizing effect for setting the servomotor to its desired position. The functional block diagram of the governor is shown below:
Load Frequency Control : The variations of load in the power grid changes the frequency of the power supply. To maintain the frequency within acceptable limits, it is essential that power output from the generating units in the grid be controlled such that power is reduced when the frequency increases and increased when frequency reduces. As the response time of hydro sets is fast in comparison to thermal sets, the fluctuations are better controlled by hydro sets.

The speed of synchronous generators that feed the power to larger grid, is controlled by grid frequency when synchronized with the grid. In such case, load-frequency control action is achieved by means of governor. When frequency is less, guide vanes are further opened to generate more power and when frequency is larger, guide vanes are closed to reduce power generated. The power regulation is however done within Set Power Limits for any machine. Above functions are easily fulfilled in digital / micro-processor based electro-hydraulic governors. Other major advantages of digital governors over the earlier analogue governors (based on solid state electronic circuitry or magnetic amplifiers) are higher reliability, self diagnostic feature, modular design, flexibility of changing control functions via software and easy remote control through optical fiber cables. In addition to speed control during idle run or operating in isolated grid, present day governors are capable of carrying out the following control functions : control the power output on frequency variation in grid i.e. load frequency control joint power control of a number of generating units in a power station power control as per water levels in forebay and/or tail race water reservoirs automatic starting / stopping by single command fast response to transient conditions control from remote place

4.7.6 Constructional Features of Governing System

The essential elements of governing system are as follows : i) ii) iii) iv)
i)

Oil Pumping Unit & Pressure Receiver Electro-Hydraulic Governor Speed Signal Generator Power transducer, position transducers and water level transducers

Oil Pressure Unit

Each turbine is provided one independent oil pressure unit to supply oil under desired pressure to guide apparatus servomotor through governor hydraulic actuator. Oil pressure system consists of an oil pumping unit and an air-oil pressure accumulator. The operating oil pressure is generally 40 kg/cm2 to 100 Kg/sq.cm. While selecting the operating oil pressure, care should be taken that servomotor should be capable of closing the wicket gates under all operating conditions at the emergency low pressure.

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Oil Pumping Unit :

Oil pumping unit consists of one sump tank with two numbers oil screw pumps driven by 3 phase 415 VAC electric motors, check valves, idler and relief valves, oil level indicator and transmitter, oil filters at the suction of pumps and oil temperature detector. The sump tank has adequate capacity to drain the entire oil of the system. It is provided with a manhole and oil centrifuging and drain connections. The oil pumps are generally screw type and have a capacity sufficient to operate the complete governor hydraulic system when operating under the recommended pressure. The main duty pump operates continuously even when the required pressure in oil pressure accumulator has been built up. The electric motors are to be direct connected 3 phase AC motor, 415 volts + 10%, 50 Hz completely enclosed frame, squirrel cage rotor type with class F insulation. The motor starter panel housing contactors, switch fuse units and meters etc. may be mounted on the wall near the sump. A complete program logic control system is built up in the main PLC system of turbine control. It will permit the selection of either pump, as the main unit with the other pump acting as a standby, which will cut in automatically to supply the oil and close a set of alarm contacts.
Oil Pressure Accumulator

The capacity of the pressure accumulator should be sufficient to operate the servomotors of the guide apparatus by one stroke with minimum oil pressure and through three complete servomotor strokes (3 x sum of guide apparatus and runner servomotor volumes) under other normal operating conditions with the oil pumps not operating. Amount of oil in pressure accumulator is around 35 % by volume of the receiver and the remaining portion is filled with pressure air. In case normal working pressure of governing system is selected higher than 64 kg/cm2, nitrogen filled bottles are used as pressurizing media The pressure tank shall be constructed in accordance with part UW of the ASME Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels, Section VIII, for the maximum working pressure of the governing system. Design calculation of capacity of oil pressure system should be asked from the manufacturer. Following safety/control features are to be provided on the accumulator : Air pressure relief device, mounted on or near the top of the tank. wo low oil level devices with independently adjustable contacts First low oil level device is set to operate an alarm when there is sufficient oil under pressure to provide only two full strokes of all servomotors. The second low level device is set to shutdown the unit when there is sufficient oil under pressure for approximately 1- strokes.

Two oil level devices with independent adjustable contacts for control of high pressure air replenishment. Sight oil level gauge with guard, shut off valves and automatic shutoff device. Connection for compressed air line with shutoff valve and check valve. Air blow off valve, pressure gauge, manhole, drain connection, lifting lugs, anchor bolts, and all necessary equipment for a complete assembly.

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ii) Electro-Hydraulic Governor Hydro-Mechanical Part

Hydro-Mechanical Part of governor of any make consists essentially the following parts; Electro hydraulic transducer This converts the electronic signal of electronic regulator into mechanical movement which is amplified hydraulically to drive further valves. In balanced condition the control D.C. current in transducer is zero. In order to reduce friction/hysteresis, transducer moving components are kept in floating condition by continuous AC supply of around 50 to 70 Hz. ii) Pilot valve and Main Distributing Valve : Main distributing valve supplies pressure oil to either side of guide apparatus servomotor at a rate controlled by its stroke. iii) Oil Filter : Self cleaning type double cartridge filters are provided for clean oil supply to transducer and other valves with close fittings. The filter can be changed over for cleaning while governor is still in operation. iv) Transducer/proportional valve, pilot valve, emergency solenoid valve and distributing valve for control of runner blades in case of Kaplan turbines v) Indicating Instruments and Control Knobs/handles are provided on front of the cabinet.
Electronic Part: Governor electronic and mechanical parts work in unison. All regulating functions like sensing of speed of the generating set, speed control, load control, load frequency control, starting and stopping commands are processed in electronic panel. Final command signal is given to electro-mechanical transducer in hydro-mechanical part of governor. Based on the control signal, governor supplies pressure oil to guide vane servomotors for opening or closing of guide vanes. The position of guide vanes is constantly monitored with the help of position transducers and fed to electronic regulator for precise control.

i)

Electronic speed regulators are capable to carryout the following control functions :
Auto/Manual Selection : Built-in Logics allow to accept commands from Local Regulator Panel and/or from Control & Metering Panel or operators console. The commands must be interlocked with Local/Remote positions. The command actuate Auto/Manual solenoid in hydro-mechanical panel through interfacing relays Speed Reference Setting : Speed reference set point is generally adjustable between 90 % and 110 %. The output of the speed set point is also used for indicating speed reference in hydro-mechanical panel, the control & metering panel and data logger. It is generally possible to raise or lower the speed reference from HMC, control & metering panel. This setting is generally used only when synchronizing the unit with grid. After synchronising the unit with the network, speed setting can be automatically readjusted at nominal frequency. Speed reference signal can be raised or lowered with the help of push buttons from local & remote panels with requisite interlocking. The speed error/deviation signal is obtained by deducting the actual speed signal from speed setting signal. Dead Band : The speed actual signal before being fed to summing amplifier, goes through a dead band function which ensures that the controller is insensitive to very small variations in

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speed signal and avoid useless mechanical wear on governing control elements. Dead band should be adjustable in range +/_ 0.5 Hz. Dead band is specially useful in small machines feeding the large grid as they do not contribute towards frequency improvement of the grid.
Phase Advance or Acceleration Signal : The speed error signal is processed further to obtain a signal proportional to acceleration or deceleration of the speed error signal. The acceleration or deceleration function is used for stabilizing the governor by giving a negative damping signal depending on the rate of change of speed of the turbine. Power out-put Setting / Gate Setting : When the generating unit is working synchronized with grid, power is controlled by utilizing gate opening feed back or power feed back from power transducer. While working with power feed back, power setting may vary from 0 to 110% of the nominal power and while working with gate opening feed back, gate setting may vary from speed-no-load position to maximum opening permissible as per acting head of water. When the generator main circuit breaker is opened, this setting is automatically reduced to its minimum value and held there while the speed setting is brought back into service making the unit ready for re-connection to grid. The setting can be raised or lowered by push buttons on local or remote panels with requisite interlocking. Permanent Droop : The gate/power setting signal is compared with gate opening/power actual signal. This signal is multiplied with a permanent speed droop factor which is set for ON line conditions. Permanent speed droop can be adjusted from 0 to 10% depending on the instructions from grid controller. For small hydro sets this can be set at 6 to 8% to minimise changes in output due to variation in grid frequency. Under steady state condition, the permanent droop signal balances speed error signal at the summing amplifier. Temporary Droop : Temporary droop is a function which provides a stabilizing damping signal proportional to the rate of change of gate movement signal. The gate/power feed back signal is fed to a differentiator amplifier with a transfer function

Y/X = Kp + bt. Td.S/1+Td The proportional factor Kp is set to zero so that the function behaves like a pure differentiator. The adjustment of temporary droop comprises two parameters: firstly, the adjustment of time constant Td of the damping device and secondly, the adjustment of temporary speed droop bt i.e. amplitude of the reaction. The parameters bt & Td can be varied over a wide range for ON line & OFF line conditions, which are switched automatically with generator circuit breaker Open/Close positions. The temporary & permanent speed droop signals are processed appropriately in summing amplifier.
Electronic Gate Opening Limiter : Electronic Gate opening limiter function provides two limit values ; one No load limit at about 30% of gate opening (decided during commissioning) and another at Full load limit at 100% gate opening. No load gate limit is effective when governor start command is given and it changes to full load limit immediately after synchronization of the machine. Another limit signal is given as limit signal according to head. The minimum of the limit signal is kept as effective signal. Control of Mechanical Gate Limiter: Some manufacturers provide hydro-mechanical gate limit in addition to electronic gate limit. Logic is built for controlling this device through interfacing relays and position switches.

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Speed Relays: Any desired number of speed relays can be provided as the system is programmable. Combinator Relationship for Runner Blades for Kaplan Turbines: The combinator relationship between guide vane opening and runner blade angle at various water heads is stored in governor memory in the form of curves which can be modified at governor terminal during commissioning/maintenance. Reference signal for adjustment of runner blade angle is selected as per the gate opening signal and fed to summation amplifier along with the feed back signal of runner blades. Independent temporary droop is provided for runner feed back signal also for stabilizing.

Governor Functional Block Diagram 4.7.7 Governor for Small Hydro Power Plants

Basically there is no difference in governors used for large generating units and small units except for sizes, operating pressure and control features as per requirement of individual project. For large units, governor regulating cubicles are kept independent for increased reliability. However, for small generating units, present day trend is to go for integrated Programmable Logical Controller (PLC) for sequence controller, speed regulator, automatic voltage regulator and data acquisition system for ease of operation, maintenance and cost effectiveness. Also for smaller units, hydro-mechanical part of governor is built on the sump of oil pressure plant for compactness. Higher operating pressure is used to reduce sizes of control elements and pipe lines. Nitrogen cylinders are used in place of pressure air to avoid use of high pressure air compressors

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4.8

SPEED RISE AND PRESSURE RISE ON LOAD THROW-OFF

In Hydro Power Plants of medium/high head (above 150 m) with Francis turbines, deciding value of speed rise and pressure rise on sudden load throw off is very important. Generally speed rise in medium speed machines (say upto 428 rpm) speed rise is limited to 35 to 45 % whereas in high speed machines (more than 428 rpm) speed rise is limited to 30 to 35 %. Pressure rise is generally limited to 25 % to adopt optimum design of penstocks and spiral casing. With given water conductor system, speed rise and pressure rise are kept within desired limits by calculating and selecting the time of closing for guide vanes and inertia constant of the rotating mass of the machine. Formulae for approximate speed rise and pressure rise are as under : (1+ 0.5) =182 N.Tc / GD2 . n02 where is speed rise, N shaft output in kW, Tc = Time of closing, n0 - speed Tc = LV / g. H0 . Where LV is summation of Length of individual section multiplied by velocity of water in it in m2 /sec. , H0 head of water, - characteristic of penstock dependant on pressure rise In some projects where penstocks are longer, Tc has to be large for given pressure rise, making it impossible to maintain speed rise within limit due to limitation of inertia constant of the machine. In such cases, either a surge tank is provided before the penstock to reduce penstock length or a pressure relief valve is provided on spiral casing to bypass the water of spiral casing into draft tube during sudden closure of guide vanes. This study is carried out during initial design stage of the project by civil engineers responsible for designing water conductor system. In some projects where penstocks are longer, Tc has to be large for given pressure rise, making it impossible to maintain speed rise within limit due to limitation of inertia constant of the machine. In such cases, either a surge tank is provided before the penstock to reduce penstock length or a pressure relief valve is provided on spiral casing to bypass the water of spiral casing into draft tube during sudden closure of guide vanes. This study is carried out during initial design stage of the project by civil engineers responsible for designing water conductor system.
Surge Tank : Surge tank is generally provided at higher end of penstock at a convenient location and water is carried upto surge tank through a concrete pressure shaft. Top of surge tank is open to atmosphere so that back pressure wave in penstock gets died down. Pressure Relief Valve Some times, it is more economical to provide pressure relief valve on spiral casing to limit pressure rise during sudden load throw off. With the provision of PRV, the provision of surge shaft may or may not be necessary depending upon the pressure rise/speed rise calculations. Operating mechanism of the valve is such that valve opens during fast closure of guide vanes while remains closed when guide vanes are opened or closed at slow rate. The amount of opening or stroke of PRV is regulated by the position of guide vanes opening or indirectly by operating load. Discharge from PRV is let in tail race through

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energy dissipater. It is necessary to provide gates at outlet of PRV like that of draft tube gates for maintenance purposes.
Jet deflectors in Pelton Turbines - In Pelton type of turbines, jet deflectors are used to deflect water jet from runner during sudden load rejection and or sudden closure. Jet deflector time can be adjusted as fast as 2 seconds to control speed rise. The closing time of jets can be adjusted slow to reduce pressure rise. Hence, in case of Pelton turbines, there is no necessity of providing surge tank or pressure relief valve. 4.9 EROSION OF UNDER-WATER PARTS DUE TO EXCESSIVE SILT 4.9.1 General

It has been realized that uncontrolled deforestation, land slides, use of explosives for road construction and query etc. have accelerated soil erosion resulting in sediment flow in rivers. The excessive silt in rivers gets deposited in the reservoirs over a period of time and decreases the total water storage capacity of the reservoirs. In run-off the river projects, the silt passes directly through the turbine under water parts and erodes them fast necessitating frequent repairs. Most of the rivers originating from Himalayas carry large quantity of silt, specially in monsoon season to an extent more than 10,000 ppm. The concentration of hard particles, with size upto 1000 m having hardness of more than 7 on Mhos scale is around 90 % in the silt. This is responsible for very fast erosion of turbine components like turbine cover and pivot ring face plates, guide vanes, runner blades, labyrinths in Francis turbines, deflectors and jets in Pelton turbines, runner chambers in Kaplan turbines and seals of turbine inlet valves etc. The rate and quantum of erosion depends on operating head conditions, velocity of water flow and material of the component for the same quality and quantum of silt content. In high head turbines, where water flow velocities are higher than 6 7 m/sec, erosion is very fast. A list of some of the typical Hydro Power Plants where damage due to excessive silt occurs very frequently, is given below :
Project State Rating Head (m) Speed (rpm) 375 187.5 300 300 500 600 428.6 187.5 136.3 Type of turbine Francis Francis Francis Francis Pelton Pelton Francis Kaplan Kaplan

Baira Suil Salal Dehar Nathpa Jhakri Bhaba Ghanwi Maneri Bhali Chilla Pathri

H.P. (NHPC) J&K (NHPC) H.P. H.P. (NJPC) H.P. H.P. Uttarakhand Uttarakhand Uttarakhand

3X60 3x115 6x165 6x250 3x40 1x11.6 3x30 4x36 3x6.8

240 95 282 428 900 373.9 180 32.5 11

In most of the above power plants, erosion is to such a great extent that repair/ replacement of components is to be carried out every year or once in two year.
4.9.2 Components Effected by Erosion due to Silt

Components which are highly effected by erosion and the nature of damages due to erosion are given below :

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Runner : erosion on complete surface with excessive erosion on suction side of blades or buckets of Pelton runners due to combined effect of erosion and cavitation, thinning, cracking and breaking of outlet edges, formation of notches on inlet edges in Francis turbines, erosion of labyrinths of Francis turbines resulting in increased clearances. All these damages result in reduced efficiency of the turbine, increased vibrations. Runner Chamber of Kaplan turbines : erosion on internal surfaces reduces liner plate thickness resulting in breaking and washing away of parts of liner plates. Guide Vanes : erosion on complete surface with excessive erosion on suction side of guide vanes, erosion of end faces of guide vanes and diameter of journals. Uneven erosion along the height of guide vanes and erosion of end faces increase leakage of water through them in closed condition. This creates difficulty during shut down and standstill condition of the machine. Turbine Cover and Pivot Ring Face Plates : Face plates get eroded resulting in increased end gaps of guide vanes and leakage of water in closed condition of guide vanes. Holes for guide vanes get increased due to erosion. Deflectors and Jets in Pelton Turbines : Due to very high speed of water in these components, erosion is extremely high. This creates difficulty in stopping the machine during shut down and standstill condition. Seals of Turbine Inlet Valve : Erosion in these components as relatively slow due to lower velocity of water. However, their replacement or repair involves complete shut down from intake gates and sometimes it is difficult due to leakages in intake gates.. 4.9.3 Preventive Measures for Reducing Erosion due to Silt

i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) viii) ix) x)

Based on detailed survey reports of silt contents and silt quality analysis in river water, de-siltation tanks or silt ejectors should be provided in water conductor system at the project stage itself. Detailed report of silt content and silt quality analysis in river water should be provided to turbine manufacturer for selection of suitable design and materials of components. Turbine designer should select lower specific speed machine and keep water velocity lower than most optimum so that erosion is minimum and equipment requires less maintenance. Under water parts which are prone to excessive erosion, should be fabricated out of stainless steel, 13 Cr 4 Ni or better with suitable erosion resistant coating. In the working conditions at projects during operation are found different than design stage, remedial action should be taken immediately. Operation of plant at non-recommended heads and loads should be restricted. Operation of plant during high silt content in river water (more than 2000 ppm ) in monsoon season should be avoided. Maintenance of eroded components should be done using electrodes and weld procedure recommended by turbine manufacturer. Proven protective hard coatings should be used on components prone to excessive erosion. Optimum stock of spares should be maintained to reduce downtime of the units. While deciding the spares, complete economics should be studied vis a vis down time, loss of generation, repair in emergency and cost of inventory.

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4.10 TURBINE INLET VALVES AT THE POWERHOUSE 4.10.1 General

Butterfly and spherical valves are typically used in projects when shutoff capability is required at the powerhouse end of the penstock. The purpose of this valve is to provide emergency shutoff in case of flooding-type failure or loss of speed control, reduction of leakage through wicket gates and for maintenance of the turbine. However, shutoff provisions are usually required at the intake of each penstock. As a result, a shutoff valve at the unit may not be required. Following main factors must be considered when deciding the need for a shutoff valve at the unit.
a. Type of shutoff at the penstock intake A quick closing shutoff at the penstock intake, operable under emergency conditions, may be an alternative to a shutoff at the powerhouse to satisfy maintenance and emergency shutdown needs.. b. Length of penstock. A long section of penstock downstream of the shutoff will increase the time required to shut the unit down during an emergency closure, increase the time required to dewater the unit, and increase leakage losses. Maintenance and emergency shutdown requirements will usually justify a powerhouse shutoff when the penstock is several hundred meters long. c. Multiple units per penstock. Operational and maintenance flexibility will normally require a separate shutoff valve for each unit. Generally, maintenance requirements alone will justify powerhouse shutoff valves for multiple unit penstocks. 4.10.2 Valve Selection

Butterfly and spherical valves are generally available as a catalog item for heads up to 183 m (600 ft) and in sizes up to 2.4 m (8 ft). Valves for conditions exceeding these limits are typically designed for the specific application. Factors to be considered include initial cost, maintenance, head loss through valve, and requirements for transition sections.
A Spherical Valves

Spherical valves consist of a valve body, valve rotor, bearings, and operator. In the open position, the rotor has a full diameter water passage axially aligned with the penstock. Head loss through the valve in the full open position is approximately the same as an equal length of penstock. When rotated 90 deg (the closed position), the valve presents a solid surface, closing the water passage. Movable seal rings permit tight shutoff. Wear of the sealing surfaces is minimized because the wear rings are not in contact with the mating surfaces until after valve rotation is complete. Fabrication and machining costs are relatively high when compared with butterfly valves.
Constructional requirements (a) Design conditions - Valves are designed for maximum penstock head including water hammer. Because of the significance of a water hammer, studies should be conducted and documented in the design process. If the valve is to be used for emergency closure, the operator should be capable of closing the valve in 2-5 min as practicable for the size.

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(b) Valve body - The valve body is made in halves of fabricated or cast steel adequately designed to resist the hydraulic forces acting on the body and those resulting from the thrust for any position of the valve rotor. Integrally cast or forged (if fabricated) steel flanges, suitably machined, should be provided for bolting the body pieces together and the circumferential flanges for bolting to the pipe extensions. c) Rotor - The valve rotor is made in one piece of annealed cast or fabricated steel and should adequately resist the bending and shearing load resulting from the hydraulic and operating forces. Integral or bolted trunions are provided on both ends of rotor (d) Seals - Retractable seal rings should be provided to permit separation of the sealing surfaces during rotation of the rotor. Sealing surfaces should be corrosion resistant and of different composition and hardness to minimize galling. The materials of seals should be specified to suit quality of water. Both sealing surfaces should be removable for replacement. (e) Trunnion bearings - Trunnion bearing with renewable self-lubricating or grease lubricated bronze sleeves with bronze thrust washers should be provided. Bearing housings should be integral to the body casting. A means of adjusting and centering the rotor should be provided. Pressure relief for leakage water through the gland should be verified. (f) Bypass - A bypass valve permitting equalizing of pressure on both sides of the spherical valve before opening should be provided. The bypass is normally motor or hydraulically operated for automatic control. (g) Valve operating mechanism - A double-acting hydraulic cylinder should be provided for opening and closing the valve. The operator should be capable of closing the valve at maximum pool head and maximum discharge. (h) Operator control - The type of control should be appropriate for normal unit operation and emergency shutdown requirements. Pumps are normally on pressure switch control and are protected with relief or unloading valves. Cylinder action is normally controlled with solenoid operated tight sealing four-way valves and pressure-compensated flow control valves set to obtain the required opening and closing times. Gauges, isolating valves, filters, alarms, control panels, and limit switches should be provided as applicable. (i) Pipe extensions - Pipe extensions for connecting the valve to the penstock and spiral case extension are generally procured with the valve. One end of each extension should be provided with a flange to connect to the valve flange. The other end of each extension should be prepared for a welded and or sleeve-type connection, as required. (k) Safety provisions

(a) (b)

A lockable, mechanical latch should be provided for securing the valve in the closed position. A mechanical hydraulic hand pump and manually operable control valves should be provided for manual operation of the valve in either direction.

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(c) (d)

The valve operating cylinder should be cushioned to prevent damage due to the valve slamming in the event oil pressure is lost. Hydraulic pumping capacity should be provided with two pumps in a lead-lag control arrangement, either of which is capable of performing a normal opening or emergency closing. Accumulators should be provided in the hydraulic system with capacity sufficient to fully close or open all spherical valves on the system with both pumps inoperative after the low system pressure alarm has been activated. Valve bodies and rotors should be hydrostatically tested at 150 percent of design head in both directions and with rotors open and closed.
Butterfly Valves

(e)

(f)
B.

Butterfly valves consist of a valve body, valve disc, bearings, and operator. Head loss through a butterfly valve is higher than for a spherical valve. Losses are higher for lenticulartype disks versus the open truss-type disc. Head loss may justify an oversize valve with suitable transition sections. Some leakage is characteristic of the metal-seated butterfly valves.
Constructional requirements (a) Design conditions: (same as for spherical valves) (b) Valve body: The valve body should be of either cast or fabricated construction and include connecting flanges. Design and fabrication should be in accordance with Section VIII of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. (c) Disc : The valve disc should be of cast or fabricated construction and either lenticular or open truss design. Fabricated disc should be stress relieved before machining. Integral or bolted trunions are provided on both ends of disc. Over travel limit may be provided by mechanical stops. (d) Seals : Valve body is fitted with a solid or air inflatable special shape rubber seal and the disc is fitted with sealing plate of corrosion resistant steel. Both seals should be replaceable without dismantling the valve. Seal design is generally specific for manufacturer. (e) Bearings. Trunion bearings are sleeve type, generally self-lubricated or grease lubricated and should include adjustable thrust surfaces for centering the disc. (f) Bypass Valve :

( same as for spherical valves ).

(g) Valve operator : ( same as for spherical valves ). (h) Operator control : ( same as for spherical valves ). (j) Pipe extensions :

( same as for spherical valves ).

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(j) Safety provisions: ( same as for spherical valves ). 4.11 A UNIT AUXILIARIES Oil Leakage Unit

One oil leakage unit is provided to collect leakage oil from servomotor, oil distributing head and other governing elements. Provision is made to drain oil pipelines and servomotor through oil leakage unit and pump it to oil handling system or OPU sump. Oil leakage unit consists of an oil collection tank with filter and oil level controllers, oil pump driven by A.C. electric motor and necessary valves and oil pipe lines.
B. Lubricating Oil System

Lubricating oil system is used in projects where generator thrust and guide bearings require lubricating oil at high pressure. The system consists of one sump tank with two numbers oil pumps one pump driven by 3 phase 415 VAC electric motors and second pump driven by 110/220 VDC (station DC supply) electric motor, check valves, oil level indicator and oil filters at the suction of pumps. The oil pump are generally vane type and deliver the oil continuously to bearings. The main pump is driven by 3 phase, 415 volts, 50 Hz, AC motor electric motor while the standby pump is driven by station DC supply DC motor to ensure supply of lubricating oil to bearings even if station auxiliary AC supply fails.. Operating logic of the system is provided in the main PLC system of turbine control. The main pump will start or stop automatically to supply the oil to bearings when unit is started or stopped..

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CHAPTER -5 HYDRO GENERATORS, EXCITATION SYSTEM AND CONTROLS

5.1 GENERAL

The electric generator converts the mechanical energy of the turbine into electrical energy. The two major components of the generator are rotor and the stator. The rotor is a rotating assembly which is coupled to the turbine through a coupling or driven through a belt or gear box. By magnetizing or exciting the rotor, a voltage is induced in the stator winding. The principal control mechanism of the generator is the exciter-regulator which sets and stabilizes the output voltage. The speed of the generator is determined by the turbine except when generator is coupled to turbine through a speed increaser gear box. In any hydro power project, turbine specifications are first finalized to suit the hydrology of the project. Generator specifications are selected based on turbine specifications viz. power output, speed and required moment of inertia of the rotating mass. The speed of the generator is determined by the turbine speed. For small hydro generators, high speed generators are provided by using speed increaser for economic reasons. The design of generator and turbine is contractors responsibility and it is the contractor who has to ensure that the turbine and generator specification match each other in all respects. In general, for a fixed value of power, a decrease in speed will increase the physical size and cost of the generator. Maximum speed rise and pressure rise upon loss of generator load are normally the critical mechanical factors. The required flywheel effect of rotating generator parts must be computed on the basis of all related factors including turbine characteristics as well as penstock, generator, governor, and power system characteristics. Turbines and generators are specified to withstand stresses due to runaway speeds; however, the damaging effects of vibrations are indeterminate and require conservative limits on speed rise. Maximum speed rise should normally be limited to 40 percent above synchronous speed when the required WR2 can be obtained with a normal generator design. When the 40 percent limitation on speed rise require a special generator rotor rim design or separate flywheel, a greater allowable speed rise may be warranted but it should not exceed 60 percent in any case. Maximum pressure rise at the turbine is usually limited to 30 percent above the maximum static pressure. 5.2 APPLICABLE STANDARDS Latest edition of the following standards shall be applicable. IEC-1116 : 1992 Electro-Mechanical Equipment Guide for Small Hydro-electric Installation IEC-34-1: 1983 Rotating Electrical Machines- Rating and Performance IEC-34-2A-1972 Rotating Electrical Machines Methods for determining losses and efficiency of electrical machinery from tests (excluding machines for traction vehicles IEC-34-5-1991 Classification of degrees of protection provided by enclosures for rotating electrical machines (IP Code)
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Classification of materials for the insulation of electrical machines IS-4722 1992 Rotating electrical machines IS-325 1996 Three phase induction motor IS-8789 1996 Valves of performance characteristics for three phase induction motors ANSI/IEEE 1010-197-American National Standard IEEE Guide for Control of Hydro Power Plants 5.3 i) GENERATOR SPECIFICATIONS Speed of rotation : Speed of the generator is to be kept same as that of the turbine in case of directly coupled generators. In case of small low speed horizontal sets, generator speed may be selected higher by introducing speed increaser to reduce cost of the generator. Capacity ( kW Rating ) : The kilowatt rating of the generator should be compatible with the kW rating of the turbine For any turbine, the generator should have sufficient continuous capacity to handle the maximum kW available from the turbine at maximum head and at 100-percent gate opening at rated head without the generator exceeding its rated temperature rise. In determining generator capacity, any possible future changes to the project, such as raising the forebay (draw down) level and increasing turbine output capability, should be considered. Economic analysis is required for this purpose as the cost will increase and generator capacity remains unutilized when heads are low.

IEC-85-1987 -

ii)

iii) kVA Rating and power factor : kVA and power factor is fixed by consideration of interconnected transmission system and location of the power plant with respect to load centre. These requirements include a consideration of the anticipated load, the electrical location of the plant relative to the power system load centers, the transmission lines, substations, and distribution facilities involved. (Turbine output in MW) x (Generator efficiency) Generator MVA = Generator power factor iv) Electrical Characteristics Electrical Characteristics e.g. voltage, short circuit ratio, reactances, line charging capacity etc. must conform to the interconnected transmission system. Large generators are custom designed to match hydraulic turbines. Deviation from normal generator design parameters to meet system stability needs can have a significant effect on the cost. It is a practice to specify following characteristics for the generators. v) Generator Terminal Voltage: Generator terminal voltage should be as high as economically feasible. Standard voltage of 11 kV is generally specified for large hydro-generators. Generator of less than 5000 kVA may be designed for 6.6 kV, 3.3 kV or 415 volts depending upon requirement of power transmission system. Economical terminal voltage for small hydro generators may be taken as follows:
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Upto 500 kVA Upto 3000 kVA Above 3000 kVA

415 volts - 3.3 kV - 6.6 kV and higher

vi) Insulation: Modern hydro units are subjected to a wide variety of operating conditions but specifications should be prepared with the intention of achieving a winding life expectancy of 35 or more years under anticipated operating conditions. Class B insulation with organic binding material was specified with conservative temperature rise was specified for stator and rotor winding insulations in the machines upto 1965. Present practice is to provide class F insulation system for the stator windings and class B for rotor winding Temperature rise from Ambient temperature should be determined carefully from the temperature of the cooling water etc. vii) Short Circuit Ratio: The short circuit ratio of a generator is the ratio of field current required to produce rated open circuit voltage to the field current required to produce rated stator current when the generator terminals are short circuited and is the reciprocal of saturated synchronous reactance. Normal short circuit ratios are given below. Higher than normal short circuit ratio will increase cost and decrease efficiency. Generator Power factor 0.8 0.9 0.95 Normal short circuit 1.0 1.10 1.17

In general, the requirement for other than nominal short-circuit ratios can be determined only from a stability study of the system on which the generator is to operate. If the stability study shows that generators at the electrical location of the plant in the power system are likely to experience instability problems during system disturbances, then higher short-circuit ratio values may be determined from the model studies and specified. viii) Line Charging and Synchronous Condensing Capacity This is the capacity required to charge an unloaded line. Line charging capacity of a generator having normal characteristics can be assumed to equal 0.75 of its normal rating multiplied by its short circuit ratio. If the generator is to be designed to operate as synchronous condenser, the capacity when operating over excited as condensers can be as follows: Power Factor 0.80 0.90 0.95 ix) Condenser Capacity 65% 55% 45%

Reactance : The eight different reactance of a salient-pole generator are of interest in machine design, machine testing, and in system stability model studies. Lower than normal reactance of the generator and step-up transformer for system stability will
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increase cost and is not recommended (see Para 3.6). IEEE-399 may be referred for system stability text and standards. Both rated voltage values of transient and sub transient reactance should be used in computations for determining momentary rating and the interrupting ratings of circuit breakers. Typical values of transient reactance for large water wheel generators are given below. Guaranteed values of transient reactance will be approximately 10% higher. Rated Sub-transient Reactance Speed RPM 150 300 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.20 0.23 0.20 0.19 0.18

MVA Rating 10 50 100 200 x) Damper Winding 100 0.27 0.26 0.24 0.22

A short circuit grid copper conductor in face of each of the salient poles is required to prevent pulling out of step the generator interconnected to large grid. Two types of damper windings may be connected with each other, except through contact with the rotor metal. In the second, the pole face windings are connected at the top and bottom to the adjacent damper windings. The damper winding is of major importance to stable operation of the generator. while the generator is operating in exact synchronism wit the power system, rotating field and rotor speed exactly matched, there is no current in the damper winding and it essentially has no effect on the generator operation. If there is a small disturbance in the power system, and the frequency tends to change slightly, the rotor speed and the rotating field speed will be slightly different. This may result in oscillation, which can result in generator pulling out of step with possible consequential damage The damper winding is of importance in all power systems, but more important to systems that tend toward instability, i.e. systems with large loads distant from generation resources, and large inertia loads. In all cases, connected damper windings are recommended. If the windings are not interconnected, the current path between adjacent windings is through the field pole and the rotor rim. This tends to be a high impedance path, and reduce the effectiveness of the winding, as well as resulting in heating in the current path. Lack of interconnection leads to uneven heating of the damper windings, their deterioration, and ultimately damage to the damper bars. The damper winding also indirectly aids in reducing generator voltage swings under some faults conditions. It does this by contributing to the reduction of the ratio of the / X d . This ratio can be as great as 2.5 quadrature reactance and the direct axis reactance, X q for a salient pole generator with no damper winding, and can be as low as 1.1 if the salient pole generator has a fully interconnected winding.

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xi)

Generator Efficiency

The efficiency of generator is defined as the ratio of output power to input power. There are five major losses associated with an electrical generator. Two classes of losses are there fixed losses which are independent of load and variable losses which depend on load. Fixed losses are : windage and friction loss and core losses. The variable losses are field copper loss, armature copper loss and stray loss or load loss. Various test procedures are used to determine the magnitude of each loss. Windage and friction loss is affected by the size and shape of rotating parts, fan design, bearing design and the nature of the enclosure. Core loss is associated with power needed to magnetize the steel core parts of the rotor and stator. Field copper loss represents the power loss through dc resistance of the field. Similarly, the armature copper loss is calculated from the dc resistance of the armature winding. Stray loss for load loss is related to armature current and its associated flux. Typical values of efficiency range from 91 % to 98%. This efficiency value is representing throughout the whole loading range of a particular machine; i.e., the efficiency is approximately the same at load or at load. Highest possible efficiency which can be guaranteed by manufacturer should be specified. Calculated values should be obtained from the manufacturer. For a generator of any given speed and power factor rating, design efficiencies are reduced by the following: i. ii. iii. xii) Higher Short-Circuit Ratio Higher WR2 Above-Normal Thrust

Mechanical Characteristics

Mechanical characteristics of the generator are based on the hydraulic turbine data to which the generator will be coupled. Special characteristics are discussed below. Mechanical Strength : The generators are capable of safely withstanding maximum stresses during normal operation, runaway-speed conditions, two phase and three phase short circuit conditions, single phase earth fault, 180o and 120o out-of-phase synchronization, magnetic unbalance with 50% of the poles short circuited within the speed range of 1.3 times the rated speed, brake application etc. Seismic forces are also taken into consideration for design of the generators and foundations. The thrust bearing and its bracket is capable of carrying, in addition to generator loads, the maximum hydraulic thrust loads and weights of rotating parts of turbines viz. turbine-shaft and runner. The generator pneumatic brakes (also used for jacking the rotor up for access to thrust bearing pads) are supported on the bracket. Over speed withstand: it is general practice in India to specify all hydro generators to be designed for full turbine runaway conditions. The stresses during design runaway speed should not exceed two-thirds of the yield point. American practice as per Army Corps Engineers Design Manual is as follows ;

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Generators below 360 rpm and 50,000 kVA and smaller are normally designed for 100% over speed. Generators above 360 rpm and smaller than 50,000 kVA are generally designed for 80% over speed. Generators large than 50,000 kVA, regardless of speed, are designed for 85% over speed. Because of the high over speed of adjustable blade (Kaplan) turbines, in some cases more than 300% of normal, it may be impracticable to design and build a generator to nominal design limitations. However, where the design over speed is less than the theoretical maximum runaway speed, calculated stresses for the theoretical maximum speed should be less than yield points of the materials. Flywheel Effect: The flywheel effect (WR2) of a machine is expressed as the weight of the rotating parts multiplied by the square of the radius of gyration. The WR2 of the generator can be increased by adding weight in the rim of the rotor or by increasing the rotor diameter. Increasing the WR2 increases the generator cost, size and weight, and lowers the efficiency. The need for above-normal WR2 should be analyzed from two standpoints, the effect on power system stability, and the effect on speed regulation of the unit. Speed regulation and governor calculation are discussed in chapter 2. Electrical system stability considerations may in special cases require a high WR2 is only one of several adjustable factors affecting system stability, all factors in the system design should be considered in arriving at the minimum overall cost. Sufficient WR2 must be provided to prevent hunting and afford stability in operation under sudden load changes. The index of the relative stability of generators used in electrical system calculations is the inertia constant, H, which is expressed in terms of stored energy per kVA of capacity. It is computed as:

0.231(WR 2 )(r / min)2 106 kW s H= = kVA kVA

The inertia constant will range from 2 to 4 for slow-speed (under 200 rpm) water wheel generators. Transient hydraulic studies of system requirements furnish the best information concerning the optimum inertia constant, but if data from studies are not available, the necessary WR2 can be computed or may be estimated from a knowledge of the behavior of other units on the system. Cooling: Losses in a generator appear as heat which is dissipated through radiation and ventilation. The generator rotor is normally constructed to function as an axial flow blower, or is equipped with fan blades, to circulate air through the windings. Small generators up to 5 MW may be partially enclosed, and heated generator air is discharged into the generator hall, or ducted to the outside. Adequate ventilation of the generator hall preferably thermostatically should be provided in this case. xiii) Specifications on Record At least the following specifications of the generator should be specified :

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HYDRO GENERATOR i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) viii) ix) x) xi) xii) xiii) xiv) xv) xvi) xvii) Type : Vertical shaft, water wheel driven, alternating current synchronous generators Rated output Continuous overload output (110% of rated) Power factor Frequency No. of phases Rated terminal voltage between the phases Range of voltage with in which rated output must be available Range of frequency variation Rated speed Direction of rotation Runaway speed Short circuit ratio Stator winding connection Ratio of quadrature axis sub-transient reactance to direct axis sub-transient reactance Xq / Xd Generator earthing Inertia constant (H) rpm rpm 50 Hz 3 phase kV

xviii) Cooling water temperature

5.4 i)

TYPES OF GENERATORS Base on Working Principle : There are basically two types of alternating current generators - synchronous and asynchronous (or induction) generators. The choice of the type to be used depends on the characteristics of the grid to which the generator will be connected and also on the generators operational requirements.

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Synchronous generators are used in the case of grid connected schemes. It is important to note that a synchronous generator can regulate the grid voltage and supply reactive power to the network. It can therefore be connected to any type of network. Induction generators with variable capacitor bank are used in case of isolated small capacity units upto a capacity of about 20 kW especially if there is no or insignificant Induction motor load i.e. less than about 20%. In small hydro projects connected to stronger grid, induction generators can be used upto a 2000 kW or even higher depending upon size of the grid and its capability to supply reactive power. An induction generator has a simpler operation, requiring only the use of a tachometer to couple it to the grid. As the machine is coupled to the grid there is a transient voltage drop, and once coupled to the grid, the generator absorbs reactive power from it. Where the power factor needs to be improved, a capacitor bank will be necessary. The efficiency of an asynchronous generator is generally lower than that of a synchronous one. ii) Based on Orientation of Turbine-Generator Set : Depending on the orientation of the turbine-generator set, hydro generators are classified as vertical and horizontal type. With all turbines, a vertical or horizontal configuration is possible. The best suited configuration is selected considering the cost of the power plant structure and equipment for a specific layout. As an example, the Francis vertical unit will require a deeper excavation and higher power plant structure. A horizontal machine will increase the width of the power plant structure yet decrease the excavation and overall height of the unit. It becomes apparent that generator orientation and setting are governed by compatibility with turbine selection and an analysis of overall plant costs. Most of the small hydro power plants employing medium/small size low flow turbines upto 3 MW, horizontal shaft generators are used. Horizontal shaft generators are used with bulb and tube type of horizontal turbines. For medium and large capacity power plants, vertical shaft generators are generally used. There are two types of vertical shaft hydro-generators depending on the bearing arrangements. Umbrella type generators: These generators have combined bottom thrust and guide bearings and confined to low operating speeds (upto 200 rpm) and is the least expensive generator design. In semi umbrella type generators a top guide bearing is added. Umbrella/Semi Umbrella design is being increasingly used for vertical generator. A typical vertical water-wheel generator with thrust and guide bearings below the rotor is shown in fig. 5.1. Conventional generators: Prior to introduction of umbrella and semi umbrella designs, conventional design comprised of top-mounted thrust and guide bearing supported on heavy brackets, capable of supporting total weight of generator. A bottom guide bearing combined with turbine shaft is usually provided. This conventional design is used for high speeds (upto 1000 rpm) generators.

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Fig. 5.1 Typical Vertical Water-Wheel Generator With Thrust and Guide Bearings Below The Rotor

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5.5 5.5.1

CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES General

The constructional features given hereunder are for conventional vertical generators of medium to large capacity (more than 5 mw). Conventional generator comprises of stator with winding and sole plates, rotor with poles, shaft, thrust and guide bearings, brakes and jacks, terminal box, air coolers, control and metering instruments and fire fighting system etc. Segmenting/sectionalizing of large and heavy components shall confine to transport limits. The transport limits as to size and weight of the components/packages are prescribed by the project owner. The large and heavy components of generator are suitably sectionalized/segmented (to the minimum extent only) to satisfy the transport limits, and is assembled at site. 5.5.2 Generator Housing and Structural Details The concrete housing for the generator is air tight. The generator manufacturer shall supply a fabricated steel top cover which shall not require bolting into position and is provided with tapped holes or equivalent for lifting. To prevent damage to the threads, the tapped holes are provided with threaded plugs. Openings with suitable covers are provided in the top cover for removal of stator bars, rotor poles and surface air coolers vertically from above. Suitable platforms, walkways, stairs, handrails and inspection door in generator housing are provided for inspection and maintenance of bearings, slip rings, coolers etc. The housing is equipped with at least two steel doors with locks operative from inside the housing. All platforms, walkways, stairs shall have safety non slip surface. 5.5.3 Stator The stator comprises of frame with base plate, core and the windings. The stator frame is a welded structure of steel plates suitably ribbed for rigidity and is of robust design to withstand maximum forces acting on it under the worst combination of operation. It may be fabricated in single piece or number of segments depending on the transport limitations. The various segments shall have bolted flanged faces for jointing at site. The frame shall have suitable openings for mounting generator air coolers at the periphery. The stator frame shall have robust foundation plate rigidly attached to the frame for mounting on and bolting on to the foundations. The stator core is constructed from high grade non-ageing cold rolled silicon steel laminations. The laminations are coated on both sides with insulation varnish of class F type (or any other equivalent coating) to minimize eddy current losses. Core lamination sheets with a loss co-efficient of not more than 1.1 Watt/ kg at one (1) Tesla is used. The corelaminations are adequately dovetailed or keyed to stator frame and are adequately clamped to prevent any vibration or objectionable noise in operation. The core shall have ducts designed to facilitate flow of cooled air into and through ducts for ventilation with minimum friction and noise.

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The stator winding is bar type insulated with class F insulation. The bars have suitable transposition in the slot portion to reduce the eddy current loss. The winding is given low resistance treatment in the slot portion and graded where the winding bars leave the slot. This shall ensure an essentially corona free winding at rated voltage. The windings are such that circulating current losses are minimum. The end connections of the windings are rigidly supported & braced to prevent vibration or displacement. The stator winding is Star (Y) connected, having suitable number of parallel paths per phase. Three (3) phase and neutral terminals is brought out of the generator housing at a suitable location. The windings are suitably braced to withstand any movement caused by forces arising out of short circuit at the terminals. The phase and neutral terminals are suitable for connection to isolated phase bus ducts. The terminals shall have sealed non-magnetic metal barriers for preventing air exchange between inside and outside of generator housing. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are incorporated in the generator stator. The leads from these detectors is brought out to the marshalling box and connected to temperature monitoring device through suitable interface/ RTU. The Stator frame, core and windings are to be supplied in factory assembled condition to the maximum extent possible within the transport limits, keeping the work of assembly of various sections at site to the minimum. If a split stator is chosen then, the stator split shall not be near the phase terminals. The stator is to be designed such that stator assembly and testing could easily be done in the stator pit in service bay of the power house. 5.5.4 Rotor

The rotor shall comprise the hub, spider, rim, field poles with their windings, slip rings and brake track ring. The entire rotor is designed to withstand the maximum runaway speed, without exceeding the unit stresses specified. The field poles are built up of thin steel laminations secured by rivets or bolts. The construction of the poles is generally such that individual pole/coil assemblies may be removed and replaced without removing the rotor. The field winding is insulated with Class "F" insulation and consist of copper, either wire wound or strap wound. The field coils are adequately braced to withstand the stresses due to both short circuit current and also due to centrifugal forces. The winding is designed to withstand the dielectric test specified. The poles are fastened to the rotor rim either by bolts or by means of accurately machined or die punched dovetails, matching similar slots in the rotor rim and secured in place by means of tapered keys. The keys are locked in place on both sides of the rotor rim so as to prevent the keys from coming out in the event they should become loose. The field poles are provided with adequate damper windings to improve stability under fault conditions and to reduce voltage distortions under conditions of phase to phase fault, line to line and single phase to ground fault. Means for measurement of the field winding temperature by measuring resistance is provided in the rotor. The slip rings are made of stainless steel and shall have helically grooved surface. These are well insulated with epoxy glass insulation and designed for use with carbon brushes. The slip rings are spaced sufficiently apart or separated from each other by a barrier to prevent any accidental short circuit. The slip rings are located so as to be easily accessible for inspection during operation and for maintenance. The brushes shall consist of a number of
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carbon graphite and copper blocks placed in heavy box type of holders of approved design and mounted on a massive ring. The brushes are staggered on the periphery. The field leads are arranged and shall have sufficient length so that connections to the slip-rings can be reversed without removing and dismantling either the field leads or collector rings. Suitable shield/filter is provided to prevent escape of carbon dust on to the generator windings. A separate set of collector ring brushes, insulated brush holders, and leads to the terminal cabinet are provided for field temperature measurement. The rotor is provided with a suitable brake ring with which the brake shoes shall make contact. The brake ring is rigidly attached to the rotor spider or rim. The wearing surface of the brake ring is made in segments which are easily removable and renewable. Adequate provision is made for dissipation of the heat resulting from the application of the brakes. The rotor is supplied in the maximum possible assembled condition within the given transport limits. If necessary to meet the transport limits rotor rim of lamination sheets is required to be built up at site, it is so stated in the specifications and the rotor construction designed accordingly to suit the assembly at site (stacking, pressing, curing of lamination insulation, installation and mounting of rotor poles). 5.5.5 Generator Shaft

The shaft is of ample size to operate at all speeds including maximum runaway speed without vibration or distortion and is able to withstand short circuit and other stresses without damage. The generator shaft is made of the best quality forged carbon or alloy steel, properly heat treated. The generator shaft is machined accurately and polished where it passes through the guide bearing and to accessible points for alignment checks. The shaft shall have a hole of about 150 mm bored axially throughout its entire length sufficiently smooth to permit inspection of the metal in the interior of the shaft and accommodating oil pipe lines for runner servomotor of Kaplan turbines. The generator shaft shall have integral flange matching for friction type coupling to the turbine shaft flange by means of hydraulically pre-stressed bolts and conforming to the coupling standard IEEE:810 Standard for hydraulic Turbine and Generator Integrally Forged shaft couplings and Shaft Run out Tolerances, 1987 Issue or its subsequent revisions. The face of the coupling is at a minimum distance below the generator, compatible with accessibility. The critical speed of the shaft is sufficiently (not less than 30%) higher than the runaway speed. The tolerance limit of vibrations of shaft is less than 120 microns. 5.5.6 Thrust & Guide Bearings

The generator shall have a combined thrust cum guide bearing and a guide bearing located suitably. The thrust bearing shall have sufficient capacity to support total weight of the rotating parts of the unit together with unbalanced hydraulic thrust of the turbine runner under all conditions of operation (starting, normal and emergency stopping, continuous rating or maximum continuous rating and runaway conditions). The thrust-bearing pads are coated with babbit material. The design of the bearings is based on limiting the bearing metal operating temperatures as given below for operation at 110% of rated output condition:

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Maximum permissible operating temperature Alarm temperature Trip temperature

Equal or less than 70o C. 75o C. 80o C.

Bearings are designed for safe operation of the generating set without any damage under the following conditions : Continuous operation at any speed from 60% to 110% of rated speed. Operation for a period of at least 15 minutes under maximum runaway conditions, with cooling water on. Operation for a period of at least 15 minutes at maximum allowed load and rated speed without cooling water. Operation at runaway speed without cooling water for 5 minutes.

The combined thrust & guide bearing and the individual guide bearing are of the selflubricated type with plug-in type oil to water coolers inserted in the bearing compartment. The tubes of the oil coolers are of Cupro-Nickel and shall have adequate excess capacity to allow for 10% plugging of cooler tubes. The cooling system is complete with cooling water pipes, fittings, valves, flow indicating devices, flow relays and all other accessories. All internal pipes shall terminate in a flange on the generator barrel for connection with plant closed cooling water system. Baffles and guides are provided in the oil baths to assist correct oil distribution and to prevent splashing. The bearing shall also have provisions to prevent oil vapour from entering into the generator. The oil reservoirs shall have suitably protected sight gauges for visually inspecting the oil level. The bearing housing is so designed as to provide easy access to the bearing pads. Openings are provided with removable covers for this purpose. The thrust bearing pads and the thrust faces is capable of being reached and inspected through the oil cooler windows (after emptying the bearing oil, removal of coolers and with rotor jacked up). The thrust bearing is provided with an automatic high pressure lubrication system to force oil between the thrust bearing surfaces of all pads and the thrust runner plate prior to each start-up and during shut down to maintain this forced oil film. The high pressure lubricating equipment is complete with its piping and valves, oil strainers, check valves, pressure gauges, pressure relays with contacts to furnish starting interlock etc. The system shall operate automatically at set speed between 0 and 100%. One AC motor driven pump and one DC motor driven pump is provided for this system. The pumps shall operate as main and standby pumps. The upper guide bearing is adequately insulated to prevent any harmful circulating currents from passing through the bearing surfaces. This insulation is arranged to break the possible path of such currents in not less than two (2) places in series so that positive test for ground currents can readily be made. Continuous monitoring of shaft current is provided and contacts are provided to arrange automatic shut down of unit in case of excessive shaft currents. A suitable shaft earth brush is also provided, supported by the bearing housing to bypass harmful currents from damaging bearing pads.
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5.5.7 Brakes & Jacks The generator is provided with suitable air-operated brakes of sufficient capacity to bring the rotating parts of the generator and turbine to a stop from 30% of normal operating speed within 2 to 5 minutes after the brakes are applied, with out injurious heating of the braking surface on the rotor, without field excitation on the generator and with one percent of the full rated turbine torque applied to the shaft. The air brakes shall be designed for operation with air pressure at 7 kg/cm2. The compressed air required for operation of the brakes is provided from the compressed air system. The air receiver of requisite capacity along with pressure gauges, piping and all fittings Replaceable molded non-asbestos brake shoe pads shall be furnished. The pads are keyed or otherwise securely fastened to the brake pistons. Automatic and manual application or release of brakes is carried out by means of a push button or from brake control panel and unit control panels. The total time for breaking from the rated speed of the machine to complete shut down during normal as well as emergency shut down is guaranteed. Each brake cylinder is provided with a limit switch with auxiliary contacts to provide starting interlocks and ON, OFF annunciation on the unit control board. A pressure switch is also provided for starting interlock. The brake cylinder shall also be designed to serve as hydraulic jack to lift the generator rotor to a sufficient height to facilitate removal and adjustment of bearing pads. Provision is made for mechanically locking the rotor in raised position for an extended period of time. A limit switch for operation of an indicating lamp is provided to indicate when maximum permissible raised position of the rotor is reached. For the purpose of jacking AC motor-operated high pressure oil pumps along with pressure gauge on the discharge side of the pump, an oil level sight gauge for oil reservoir, necessary piping and fittings is provided. 5.5.8 Terminal Boxes, Control Wiring & Conduits The generator supplier shall supply terminal boxes to be located inside the generator pit, for connection of control and secondary leads from the generator equipment and auxiliaries located in the generator enclosure. All leads including control and indications are wired to this terminal box. 5.5.9 Instrumentation, Control & Safety Devices Necessary sensors/sensing elements, signalizers for sequential control and interlocks, measurement (indication, recording of quantities), monitoring of abnormal conditions of operation of generator (for safety alarm annunciation and shut down) and related instrumentation which are embedded in and/or mounted on the generator or its adjacent (local) gauge panel are provided. These items listed in this section shall generally pertain to the following: Temperatures Liquid Level Pressure Stator, Rotor, Bearings, Generator Ventilation Air, Cooling Water Oil in Bearing oil Baths Brake Air, H.P. Lub. Oil, Cooling Water

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Flow Creep/ Vibration, Fire Moisture content

Cooling Water for Generator Air Coolers, Bearing Oil Coolers Generator Oil in Bearing oil reservoir

RTDs, DTTs & Other Instruments Suitable number of resistance type temperature detectors (RTDs) are embedded in the stator windings, stator core, ventilation air circuit, cooling water for air and oil coolers, bearing pads and oil baths. The rotor winding temperature is measured through a special device integrated in the excitation system. The rotor voltage is to be measured in the excitation system. Voltage drop in the field leads from excitation cubicle to slip rings is also adjusted in the design calculations for rotor winding temperature detection. The Vapour-pressure / mercury-in-steel Dial Type Thermometers (DTTs) are provided for measuring metal and oil temperature of all bearings. DTTs have dial indication and 2 NO contacts operated by indicating pointers ( black pointer for alarm of high temperature and red pointer for shutdown signal for very high temperature). Bulbs / sensing elements of the DDTs are located in babbit of bearings or oil bath to measure hottest metal and oil temperature. Connections are brought out to generator terminal box for further wiring to temperature monitoring device of UCB. Tubing for connections between temperature sensing elements (Vapour bulbs) to Dial Type thermometers, pressure gauge tubing. Dial type bulbs are mounted on board as close to the point of measurement as possible but at the same time accessible for easy adjustment of the settings. From the dial the signal is sent to the control and alarm system electrically. For high pressure lubricating oil system for the thrust bearing, necessary pressure gauges, pressure relays, flow relays are provided for interlock, alarm and annunciation. The water leakage detector for detecting any leakage of cooling water into the bearing oils shall have electrical contacts for sounding an alarm. The cooling water supply and discharge pipes for the generator air cooler and bearing oil coolers shall have necessary pressure gauges, thermometers, flow relays and pressure switches etc. 5.5.10 Miscellaneous Piping, Tubing, Valves The pipe lines for water, air and oil are seamless steel or stainless steel tubes of requisite class and standards. The valves are of Steel, Bronze/ Brass as per proven practice. All internal piping and valves for the following functions are part of generator systems: Cooling water inlet, outlet and drain for generator air and oil coolers. H.P. Lubricating oil supply to thrust bearing meant for lubrication during startup, shut down and creeping of the unit. Oil fill and drain connections at the bearings. Piping for brakes and jacks.

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For cooling water inlet and return from the generator, piping of required size is provided with manually operated valves and required instrumentation. 5.5.11 Cabling The following control and auxiliary power cables and wiring are laid: All wiring within the generator housing for the speed signal generator connections, thermostats, flow meters, RTDs/DTTs, all alarm control and metering circuits associated with the generator. Field leads between the generator collector rings and field breaker located along with excitation switchgear. Capillary tubes between the generator and the gauge board. All 240 volts A.C. wiring, lighting fixtures and convenience outlets within the generator housing. All conduit and/or cable tray required for conductors and cables within the generator housing. All cables leading to UCB.

5.5.12 Speed Signal Generator for Governor A toothed wheel type speed signal generator is mounted on the generator shaft and magnetic pick-up mounted near the toothed wheel shall provide speed signal for the governing system. There are two independent speed sensing systems, the main and back up with automatic switch over in case of loss of signal of the main or otherwise. The square wave output of the magnetic pick-up is fed to the frequency to voltage converter in governor circuit. The output of this converter is fed to the governor regulating circuit. A separate set of pick ups with converters is provided for speed monitoring and to energize various speed relays which generate signals to apply brakes, start H.P. lubrication Oil pump etc. These pick ups shall also be used in creep detection card for detection of creep. 5.6 GENERATOR SERVICE SYSTEMS

5.6.1 Generator Cooling Air to water coolers are normally provided for all modern hydro generators rated higher than 5 MVA. The coolers are situated around the outside periphery of the stator core. Cooling of the generator can be more easily controlled with such a system, and the stator windings and ventilating slots in the core kept cleaner, reducing the rate of deterioration of the stator winding insulation system. The closed system also permits the addition of automatic fire protection systems, attenuates generator noise, and reduce heat gains that must be accommodated by the powerhouse HVAC system. Normally, generators should be furnished with one cooler more than the number required for operation at rated MVA. This allows one cooler to be removed for maintenance without affecting the unit output. The generator cooling water normally is supplied from the penstock via a pressure reducing station or pumped from the tailrace. In either case, automatic self-cleaning filters

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must be provided in the cooling water supply lines to avoid frequent fouling or plugging of the water-to-air coolers. The air coolers are frame mounted type with air cooler tubes made of Cupro-Nickel alloy. The cooling system is complete with air coolers, cooling water pipes, fittings, valves, flow indicating devices, flow relays and all other accessories. The surface air coolers shall have sufficient capacity to maintain an air temperature not exceeding 35o C at the outlet of coolers with the design secondary water inlet temperature when one cooler is out of service and the unit is operating at 110% rated MVA at rated power factor and rated voltage. The number of coolers provided, the normal working pressure and pressure drop through the coolers is indicated and supported by calculations by the suppliers. Pressure drop across each cooler is limited to 0.5 kg/cm2. Connections are provided at the bottom of the air coolers to facilitate complete drainage. The coolers are designed for at least 10 kg/cm2 nominal pressure and pressure tested 50% above this pressure. Each cooler shall have adequate excess capacity to allow for 10% plugging of cooler tubes. Tubes are interchangeable and are connected to the mild steel water boxes by ferrule connections. All coolers are tested at 1.5 times the nominal pressure for 10 minutes. Automatic air vents with drain pipes is provided at the top to prevent air locks in the coolers. Lifting lugs are provided to facilitate the removal of any cooler through the top of the generator cover. Each cooler is provided with a pocket for inserting thermometer on discharge end. The cooling water pipes inside the barrel are of stainless steel suitably coated with fine quality paint to prevent damages due to condensation on pipes. Circulation of cooling air is accomplished by generators rotor itself. 5.6.2 Heating & Lighting Suitable, evenly distributed space heaters are provided on lower bearing bracket to prevent condensation of moisture on the windings during shut down period. The heaters of various sections are connected together to form a balanced 3-phase load. A suitable terminal box is provided at a convenient location for connection to 3-phase, 50 Hz, 415 V, AC supply. ON/OFF control device is provided for the haters for automatically maintaining sufficient temperature difference between generator and outside air. The heater control gear is mounted on a panel to be located outside the generator enclosure. 5.6.3 Fire Protection System for Generators

All hydroelectric generators of capacity more than 25 MVA are furnished with either a water deluge or carbon dioxide (CO2) fire extinguishing system, to minimize the damage caused by a fire inside the machine. Generators 25 MVA or below should be evaluated individually to ensure installation of a cost effective system. The design of the carbon dioxide (CO2) fire extinguishing system and the determination of required CO2 gas volume usually meet the requirements of the American National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) rules or other internationally recognized standard. Each generator enclosure is fitted with the required pipe-work and discharge nozzles to produce a complete protection cover for the generator when the system operates. For the

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fire detection, ionization detectors and thermostats with rate of rise and fix value adjustments, are installed inside the generator enclosure. For an effective protection, the CO2 discharge rate is such that in one (1) minute a CO2 gas concentration of at least 50% will be reached in the enclosure. A gas concentration of at least 30% is maintained until the unit has been brought to stand still. An overpressure damper is installed as an integrated part of the generator top cover. A system is provided for evacuation of the CO2 gas after the discharge has taken place. The exhaust duct has a valve and a fan. This duct terminates outside the generator barrel where it is connected to a common header. The CO2 cylinder battery shall consist of : Necessary quantity of fully charged CO2 cylinders for the initial discharge. Discharge heads for each CO2 cylinder. All necessary piping, wiring, discharge manifolds, flexible metal hoses and fittings, frame supports and anchors etc.

Each CO2 cylinder is provided with the valve of the refillable type and safety pressure relief, which by abnormal pressure shall not discharge in any other cylinder. 5.6.4 Lubricating Oil

The powerhouse lube oil system supply and return lines which serve the generator bearing system are normally terminated within the generator housing near the top or bottom of the turbine pit. It is generally not practicable to determine exact locations at the preparation time of generator specifications, so it is satisfactory to negotiate final connecting points for generator and powerhouse piping during shop drawing review. Filtering and purifying of lube oil at the unit is normally not required except at the initial filling. This should be accomplished with powerhouse portable purifiers. Oil for first filling of the generator lubricating system etc. with 10% as extra is supplied by the supplier. The quantity required and detailed specifications of the oil to be used for lubrication of generator bearings are provided 5.6.5 Compressed Air

Compressed air for operation of the generator brakes is supplied from the power house compressed air system. Generator specifications should normally include values of nominal and minimum system pressure. 5.6.6 Handling Provisions

The powerhouse crane is normally sized to handle the generator parts and no size or weight restrictions should be included in the generator specification. Certain powerhouses may justify two (2) cranes coupled together for handling the heavier parts. These should also be designed to meet the generator requirements. Exceptions to this policy may be required where a new unit is being provided in an existing crane equipped powerhouse, or where scheduling revisions require a crane to be under contract before a generator contract is

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awarded. In either case, the appropriate crane limitation should be included in the generator specification. 5.7 CONDITION MONITORING OF GENERATORS

Following systems are provided as optional for condition monitoring of large size generators: 5.7.1 Creep Detector, Vibration Detector and Moisture Detector A suitable creep detector device with manual/ automatic reset facility is provided to give an alarm and initiate application of brakes and to start H.P. oil pump on detecting creep running of the generator. The creep detector is automatically disengaged during normal starting of the units to avoid false alarm. Two (2) sets of vibration detectors (displacement type) are installed suitably at each of upper and lower bearing bracket, at right angles to each other, wired up to the vibration monitoring unit. The signals from the detectors shall give alarm and initiate shutdown of the unit in case of excessive vibration/ displacement of rotating and stationary parts of the generator during operation. A solid state type instrument based on resistance principle with probe immersed in the bearing oil reservoirs is provided to give signal to an indicating unit or relay after sensing the presence of moisture in the bearing oil reservoir. 5.7.2 On-line condition monitoring systems

On-line condition monitoring systems for continuous on-line monitoring of various operating parameters and conditions for constant surveillance and activation of necessary alarm and trip signal for safety of the unit is provided. Each system is complete with sensors, input/ output module, control/ processor unit, relays, junction boxes, cabling and associated accessories for measuring, monitoring and data acquisition of intended parameters to be monitored. The systems are seamlessly integrated with plant SCADA system. The acquisition of data is automatic and for both steady state and transient conditions. The systems have provision for correlating, analysis, diagnosis and warehousing of data to plant data storage for long term trending and plant management. The systems shall have self diagnostic feature and is resistant to false indications. 5.7.3 Air gap monitoring system

An air gap measuring system for continuous on-line monitoring of generator air gaps is supplied and installed. The system provides dynamic air gap measurements as required, permits static measurements, to frequently, and randomly monitor the condition of the generator air gap without requiring a service outage. The capacitive type air gap sensors for the air gap monitoring system is permanently installed in the air gap on the stator iron packets of the stator wall. The sensor frequency
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response ranges from 0 to 1000 Hz for static and dynamic air gap measurements. Maximum operating temperature of the sensor is 125o C. The sensor is immune to the generator magnetic field, oil and carbon dust particles. Calibration charts for each sensor is provided. An air gap monitoring system (AGMS), which is specifically designed and equipped for use with the permanently installed capacitive sensors, is provided. The system furnished is integrated with SCADA system for monitoring, alarm and diagnostic purpose. The AGMS shall measure the static and dynamic air gap and is controlled by a user-friendly software package to display results in a polar, rectangular and tabular form. The AGMS shall provide a polar view of the rotor shape inside the generator stator. The AGMS shall provide software and/or hardware alarm when the air gap reaches set alarm levels. 5.7.4 Shaft current, voltage monitoring device

A shaft current monitoring device is provided for continuous on-line monitoring of the peak shaft voltages and peak or average brush currents. Output signals are provided for easy integration into SCADA system. If voltage or current levels rise or fall beyond the set limits, the alarm shall trigger and the local LED indicators shall light up inside the display window. 5.8 5.8.1 CONTROL, MONITORING AND PROTECTION Control and Monitoring

The generator and associated accessories/ equipments are controlled and monitored at three levels: From respective local control cubicles. From respective Unit Control Boards. By Computerized control and monitoring (SCADA) system through Unit Control Boards.

The normal control by the SCADA system is through Unit Control Boards. It is necessary to achieve seamless and compatible interfacing of the system with SCADA system. Local control is performed in an independent and stand alone manner, and all information (faults, alarms, measurements, status) necessary for such control is displayed locally. If the system consists of redundant sub systems, the priority of operation of such sub systems is selectable either from SCADA system or locally. 5.8.2 Protection

Two levels of protection be specified: alarm and tripping. The following are normally monitored: a) b) c) d) e) f) Stator temperature ; Over-current (stator and rotor); Earth fault with current limits (stator and rotor); Maximum and minimum voltage; Power reversal; Over/under frequency;
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g) h) i)

Oil level in the bearing sump; Bearing temperature; Cooling air temperature.

Immediate tripping is required for items b), c), d), e) and f). Item a), g), h) and i) may have an alarm annunciated if the station is manned allowing corrective action to be taken, but in any case, in the absence of corrective action tripping will eventually follow. It is advisable to consider differential protection when the size of the generator and /or its environment justifies it. The instruments and devices generally recommended for monitoring and protection are as follows: voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeter, energy meter, power factor meter, tachometer, hours of operation counter, synchronizer, water-level and/or pressure indicator, turbine opening indicator, emergency stop device, short-circuit current protection, over-current protection, reverse power relay, frequency monitor, voltage monitor, bearing monitor. 5.9 5.9.1 SMALL HYDRO GENERATORS General

The choice of the type of generator to be used in small hydro projects depends on the characteristics of the transmission distribution network to which the power house shall feed the generated power and also on the generators operational requirements. Before making a decision on the type of generator to be used, it is important to take the following points into consideration : A synchronous generator can regulate the grid voltage and supply reactive power to the network. It can therefore be connected to any type of network. An induction generator has a simpler operation, requiring only the use of a tachometer to couple it to the grid as the machine is coupled to the grid there is a transient voltage drop, and once coupled to the grid the generator absorbs reactive power from it. Where the power factor needs to be improved, a capacitor bank will be necessary. The efficiency of an asynchronous generator is generally lower than that of a synchronous one.

In case of isolated units, small capacity Induction generators with variable capacitor bank may be used upto a capacity of about 20 kW especially if there is no or insignificant Induction motor load i.e. less than about 20%. In case of grid connected units, induction generators upto a 2000 kW or even higher can be used depending upon size of the grid and its capability to supply reactive power. Normally, synchronous generators are used in grid connected power stations. In small hydro power stations, standardized or upgraded mass-produced machine should be used where possible. Most off-the-shelf or mass-produced machines are designed for lower over-speed values (typically 1.25 to 1.50 times rated speed) than are experienced with hydraulic turbines. Therefore, such generator designs should be checked for turbine runaway conditions.

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In small generators, conventional cooling is accomplished by passing air through the stator and rotor coils. Fan blades on the rotating rotor assist in the air flow. For larger generator (generally above 5 MW capacity) and depending on the temperature rise limitations, the cooling may be assisted by passing air through surface air coolers, which have circulated cold water as the cooling medium. If considered necessary, a braking system should be provided. 5.9.2 Synchronous Generators

Synchronous generators are generally used when connected to a large grid, except for the case of special climatic conditions, their main features being : a) Stator : Class F insulation level and Class B temperature rises are recommended. Rotor : Insulation level should normally be Class-F and temperature rises ClassB. Excitation equipment : It is recommended that a system requiring the least maintenance be chosen (e.g. static brushless excitation). Brushless excitation system consists of an excitation armature with rotating rectifier assembly coupled to generator rotor and a stationary excitation field suitable for voltage and power factor control. Voltage regulating equipment : The aim should be simplicity with a view to maintenance. This equipment could be included in the control system. Synchronising equipment : May be manual and/or automatic. The synchronization should cover the voltage, frequency and phase. Normally this equipment is included in the automatic control system. Power Factor : Between 0.8 and 1.0 depending on the reactive power requirements.

b)

c)

d)

e)

f)

In the interest of safety, units with synchronous generators should be designed to withstand continuous runaway conditions. If for any reason, the unit is unable to withstand continuous runaway conditions, the period which they are able to withstand such conditions shall be stated. 5.9.3 Asynchronous (Induction) Generator Asynchronous (Induction) generators are generally used when operating on an isolated load network except in the case of special climatic conditions. a) Stator: Class F insulation level and Class B temperature rises are recommended.

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b)

Rotor: Squirrel cage construction, Class F insulation and Class B temperature rises are recommended. These units should be designed to withstand continuous runaway conditions. Voltage and Speed: The selection of voltage and speed affects the possibility of using a standard machine.

c)

5.9.4 Guide and Thrust Bearings The shaft system should be designed to minimize the number of bearings. It is essential to study the turbine and generator bearings as a systems. The choice is between journal, ball or roller bearings. Attention should be given to their ability to withstand vibrations, eddy currents and runaway conditions. If the unit size is small, the use of selflubricating bearings should be preferred for simplicity. 5.9.5 Terminal Voltage Economical terminal voltage for generators may be taken as follows. Upto 500 kW unit size Upto 3000 kW unit size 5.9.6 Vertical/Horizontal Configuration 415 volts 3.3 kV

The location of the generator is influenced by the factors such as turbine type and turbine orientation. For example, the generator for a bulb type turbine is located within the bulb itself. A horizontal generator is usually required for a tube turbine and a vertical shaft generator with a thrust bearing in appropriate for vertical turbine installations. In case of tube turbines, higher speed horizontal generators can be used with gear box. 5.9.7 Dimension

Three factors affect the size of generator - orientation, kVA requirement and the speed. The turbine specifications will dictate all three factors for the generator. The size of the generator for a fixed kVA varies inversely with unit speed. This is due to the requirements for more rotor field poles to achieve synchronous speed at lower rpm.

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5.10

STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEM

Excitation systems supply and regulate the amount of D.C. current required by generator field windings and include all power regulating control and protective elements. 5.10.1 Standards

The rating, characteristics, test and test procedures, etc. normally comply with the provisions and requirements of the latest applicable International/ Indian Standards. A sample list of applicable standards is described below: Standard IEC 60034-16 IEEE 421-1 IEEE 421-2 IEEE 421-3 IEEE 421-4 IEEE 421-5 IEC 60726 5.10.2 Description Excitation system for synchronous machine Definitions for Excitation Systems for Synchronous Machines Guide for Identification, Testing and Evaluation of the Dynamic Performance of Excitation Control Systems Standard for High-Potential Test Requirements for excitation System for Synchronous Machines Guide for the Preparation of Excitation System Specifications Recommended Practice for Excitation System Models for Power System Stability Studies Dry type power transformers

Type of Excitation Systems

Modern static excitation have completely replaced older shaft mounted rotating exciters with DC filed current controlled by motor operated field rheostat. Brushless excitation system and static excitation systems are being used in modern systems. Brushless Exciter: Brushless excitation system may be used in small hydro generators upto about 5 MVA where large DC current capacity is not required. This type of exciter employs rotating rectifiers with a direct connection to the field windings thus eliminating the need for field brushes. Static Excitation System: The static excitation system is the most commonly used excitation system for hydro generators. Static excitation systems consist of two basic types depending upon the speed of generator and field suppression required. The full inverting bridge type uses six thyristors connected in a three phase full wave bridge arrangement. It allows reversed DC voltage to be applied to the generator field to force faster field suppression, thereby quickly reducing the generator terminal over voltage during a full load rejection. The semi-inverting type system uses three thyristors connected in a three phase full wave bridge. The semi-inverting type drives the positive DC voltage to zero during a full load rejection, but does not allow negative filed forcing.

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5.10.3

Static Excitation System

The excitation equipment comprises of Power transformer, thyristors, field discharge circuit breaker with discharge resistor, field flashing circuit, automatic voltage regulator and protection and control devices and accessories. Static Excitation System has micro-processor based voltage regulator The system utilises AC power tapped directly from the generator output leads through a high performance dry type transformer. The voltage regulator shall provide suitable firing pulses to the thyristors for stable control of terminal voltage and quick compensation of voltage deviations caused by sudden load changes in the system. The excitation system is able to control the generator terminal voltage under all operating conditions. It is capable of fully reversing its output voltage in response to a control signal in order to minimize generator iron burning in the event of generator fault. The equipment is capable of withstanding lightning and switching surges and dynamic over-voltages to which they may be subjected and shall meet all the performance requirements and receive the described tests. Components of Excitation System a) Excitation Transformers

Three phase power for excitation system is obtained through a three phase, self cooled, indoor, metal enclosed, dry cast resin type transformer connected to generator bus bars. The winding of the transformer is of copper. Full rated capacity taps on the high voltage winding is provided to accommodate the complete range of operation. The transformer shall have Basic Insulation Level (BIL) of the order of 95 kV or so. The transformer is sized such that it supplies rated excitation current at rated voltage continuously and is capable of supplying ceiling current at the ceiling excitation for a short period. Since the high voltage winding is connected directly to the generator terminals, full design consideration is given to the frequency increase rate, generator voltage build-up rate and insulation co-ordination. Surge transmission from high voltage side to the low voltage side is prevented. The transformer is provided with class F insulation and protected against high winding temperature with alarm and trip contacts, operated by thermisters. An over current relay is provided to protect the excitation transformer. It shall initiate an auto to manual changeover command as a first stage and a trip command to the field breaker as a second stage if the current fails to reduce even after auto to manual changeover. Additionally, it shall trip the field breaker on instantaneous over current. b) Power Rectifier

Power rectifier bridges are silicon controlled type and shall consist of associated firing circuits complete with fast acting semiconductor fuses in series with each thyristors to protect in case of over current along with power fuses as back up, gate pulse transformer, RC snubbers and status light indicator for each bridge on the front panel of rectifier cubicle. The fuses shall have micro switches for monitoring purpose. The number of bridges are such that

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one bridge is always available as redundant. With the failure of two bridges, it is possible to continue operation at reduced load. Voltage spike protection is provided. The rectifier PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage) rating shall not be less than 4 times the maximum RMS voltage of the inputs. The ceiling voltage of the rectifier is at least 1.8 times the generator field voltage when delivering rated full load at rated voltage. The rectifier is able to maintain this ceiling voltage for 10 seconds. The rectifiers must be suitable to work at a maximum ambient temperature of 35o C and so designed that their junction temperature rise is well below its specified rating. The static excitation equipment is of modular design in such a way that it can be readily removed for inspection or replacement of parts. Indicating lights are provided at each module to indicate and locate rectifier failure. During de-excitation thyristors are driven to inverter mode before tripping the field breaker. Provision may be there to isolate any thyristors bridge while the unit is in operation for any required replacement for which isolators on both AC & DC side are provided. c) Field Flashing Equipment

All equipment necessary to automatically flash the field are provided to ensure proper build up of voltage on manual and automatic start-up. The power for field flashing equipment are taken from 415 V, 3 phase, 50 Hz auxiliary supply and alternatively from the station DC battery supply till the time the generator has built up sufficient voltage when automatic changeover of field supply shall take place. While using batteries for field flashing the corresponding over voltage protection is provided as a part of excitation equipment. d) DC Circuit Breaker and Resistor

A DC circuit breaker is provided in the field circuit for ensuring definite disconnection of field form the supply source and subsequent discharge of energy in the field circuit in the event of a severe internal fault or three phase short circuit on generator terminals or a short circuit on the slip rings. The magnetic field energy in such case is dissipated through a field discharge resistor of non linear type which shall get connected across the field during such operation. The discharge resistor is such that rapid de-excitation takes place and the voltage developed across the discharge resistance following the 3 phase fault current is less than the insulation level of the field winding. The circuit breaker can be manually operated by means of control switches provided on excitation panel. In normal cases operation is automatic through sequential controller. e) Voltage Regulator

The excitation system is furnished with complete system for manual and automatic voltage regulation, excitation control and indication. The automatic and manual regulation is realized through two independent channels. The voltage regulator is of the digital continuous acting type, taking its input signal from the averaged 3-phase voltage at the generator terminals. The solid state circuitry is designed conservatively so as to be reliable and practicable. The voltage regulator shall automatically actuate the controlled rectifier and is capable of performing the following functions:
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Maintain the average 3 phase generator voltage within +/- 0.5% without hunting when operating under steady load conditions for any load or excitation within operating range of generators. After the generator voltage attaining initial maximum value (neglecting the instantaneous rise) following any load rejection up to 110% of the rated load, AVR shall restore the generator terminal voltage to a value not more than 5% above or below the voltage being held before load rejection and shall maintain the voltage within these limits throughout the period of the generator over speed. Under steady speed conditions, for any over speed up to 150% of normal, maintain generator voltage within +/- 5% of the value that the AVR were holding before over speed without taking into account line drop compensation. Also under steady speed conditions for an over speed between 150% to maximum permissible over speed, maintain generator voltage within plus or minus 10% of the value the voltage regulators were holding before over speed. Permit continuous stable operation of the generator under control of voltage regulators when meeting the line charging requirements. The AVR is designed with highly stable elements so that variation in ambient temperature does not cause any drift or change in the output level. The voltage regulator shall have following additional features:

Reactive power joint control functions devices to ensure satisfactory load sharing during parallel operation of the generators, are integrated in the station control computer. An adjustable minimum excitation limit device is excited from potential and current transformers and shall automatically limit the decrease of the generator excitation below that value which may result in pull-out of the generator when in operating condition. The characteristics of the minimum excitation limiter shall closely match the generator capability curves, An adjustable maximum excitation limit device shall automatically limit the excitation of the generator to safe value with the excitation under control of the regulator. The device shall have an adjustable time delay feature to permit short time operation (subject to thermal limitation) with ceiling excitation. An adjustable maximum stator current limit function shall automatically limit generator stator current to its rated value. Soft Start - Facility for slow build up of generator voltage during heat run of generators is provided when separate station source is connected. Line Drop Compensation - A provision is made for inclusion of line drop compensation feature. It is adjustable over a range of 0 to +/- 15%. Rotor Over Voltage Protection - An over voltage protection circuit is provided across the field so that during faults on the stator side, the induced over voltages on rotor side are limited to remain below the insulation of the field winding. Power System Stabilizer - Slip stabilizers for damping oscillations and improving stability is provided. It is possible to cut in and cut out this feature. The voltage regulating system shall include device for improving the damping of active electro-mechanical oscillations. These devices shall operate to supplement the voltage regulating action by adding an additional control signal into the excitation system input. This supplemental input signal shall influence the excitation
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system so as to cause a change in field current of the machine for stabilized operation. As an option, adaptive control function features to the slip stabilizer is offered. The function of the control is to optimize the setting of the slip stabilizer to suit the different configuration system. Exciter over voltage protection of crow bar type is provided to work under all conditions of regulator in or out of operation or mal-operation. The protective circuitry is responsive only to the exciter terminal DC voltage and its operation is separated from the limiter and its associated controls. The equipment shall have an adjustable time delay feature and a means of adjusting the operation voltage level so as to permit operation that does not interfere with normal regulator functions. If an exciter output over voltage condition persists for a sufficient time, such condition shall initiate the following action.

5.10.4 Test Facility A switch for selecting TEST & SERVICE is provided. On selection to test it is possible to test output pulses by using station AC supply. A separate transformer is mounted for this purpose. 5.10.5 Over Voltages The excitation system is capable of withstanding or be adequately protected against over voltages which may be induced into the field during normal system conditions or by opening the field breaker. All components of the excitation equipment are capable of withstanding these over voltages, without damage including all necessary isolating, protective and regulating devices in the equipment. 5.10.6 PT Voltage Failure Detection A trip to manual control is initiated by the detection of failure of any of the PT voltages. 5.10.7 Excitation Control

The voltage regulating and excitation control equipment is suitable for local, manual and automatic micro processor control. Suitable circuit containing position switches and internal wiring within the equipment required to give correct operation and indication and all equipment necessary for the operation is provided by the supplier. All equipment required to provide smooth change from Auto position of voltage regulator to Manual position and vice versa is provided. Regulator balance indicator is provided for this purpose. 5.10.8 Interfacing with Unit and Station Control Equipment

A bus oriented control system is provided. The microprocessor voltage regulating and excitation control equipment is capable to communicate via serial interface and the field bus with the unit control computers. All signal interchange is realized through the bus.

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5.10.9

Cooling of Thyristors

The equipment is cooled by forced air. For this purpose, 100% capacity reserve fans are supplied with provision of automatic switching to the reserve unit actuated by fall in pressure and / or rise in the temperature of exit air on the main unit. The control system shall permit manual and automatic selection of either fan unit for standby operation. If both the units fail, a time delayed differential pressure switch can be made use of to trip the generator and field breaker. 5.10.10 Cubicles All the equipment of static excitation and AVR are suitably housed in sheet metal, dust proof cubicles. All these cubicles are located at one place in a row without any gap in between. The dimensions of the cubicles are identical to present a neat and functional line up. All the excitation and AVR cubicles are provided with a degree of protection of minimum IP 42 class. 5.10.11 Protection of Static Excitation Equipment The excitation equipment is protected against internal faults, failure of thyristor bridges, cooling fans etc. for which contacts is provided for alarm and shut down of the unit. The items of protection covered is the following but not limited to: a) b) c) d) Excitation equipment internal faults Current asymmetry protection more than two stacks faulty Over voltage protection for detection of sustained field over-voltage (Crow Bar type) Over current protection for over load and short circuit protection of the Excitation Transformer and rectifiers Cooling fans failure (main and reserve) Loss of regulator D.C. power Failure of thyristor firing circuit Individual cooling fan failure Rectifier cubicle exit air high temperature Failure of AVR Current asymmetry, one thyristor stack faulty Operation at minimum excitation limit Operation at maximum excitation limit Shutdown Shutdown Shutdown Shutdown

e) f) g) h) i) j) k) l) m)

Shutdown Shutdown Shutdown Alarm Alarm Alarm Alarm Alarm Alarm

5.10.12

Current Transformers

One set of current transformers for O/C relay in the primary side of the excitation transformer is provided. One set of CT on the secondary side of the excitation transformer for rotor field current is provided.
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5.11

TESTING OF GENERATORS

Factory and field tests before commissioning required to be performed depends upon the method of generator assembly required at site. There are usually four categories of generators for this purpose : i) Factory assembled generators supplied to site completely assembled. These are generally below 3 MW unit size. Factory assembled generators supplied at site as two integral component parts, rotor and stator. These are generally between 3 MW and 15 MW unit size. Generators that require complete assembly of rotor at site. Factory wound stator is supplied in transportable sections usually 2 to 4 for assembly and end connections at site. These generators are usually above 15 MW. Large generators that require complete assembly of stator at site due to transportation limits. Factory Assembly Test

ii)

iii)

iv)

5.11.1

Following factory and field acceptance tests are recommended to ensure proper performance and guarantees for category i) & ii) types of generators a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. m. n. o. p. 5.11.2 Resistance test of armature and field windings. Dielectric test of armature and field windings. Insulation resistance of armature and field windings. (This shall include the polarization index values for both armature and field windings.) Stator core loop test at rated flux for one hour. Phase rotation check No load saturation test Short circuit saturation test Mechanical balance of rotor Dynamic balancing of rotor at 125% rated speed Current transformer test Efficiency test Non Destructive Test of rotor tests of rotor shaft and shaft coupling bolts Material test certificates of various component parts. Temperature rise test Hydrostatic test of each oil/air cooler, if applicable. Power factor tip-up stator insulation (optional) Field Assembly Tests In case complete assembly of stator and or rotor is carried out in the field for large & bulb generator following factory quality control tests should be performed. a. b. c. Dielectric tests of individual stator core winding. Non Destructive tests of rotor shaft and shaft coupling Material test certificates of various component parts.
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d. e. f. g.

Hydrostatic test of each oil/air cooler. Current transformer tests. Shop alignment check of combined turbine and generator shafts. Power factor tip-up of stator coil insulation

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CHAPTER - 6 UNIT AND STATION CONTROL SYSTEM FOR GENERATING UNITS AND AUXILIARIES
6.1 SYSTEM ELEMENTS

A) i) ii) iii) iv) v)

System Components Digital unit process stations Process station for common auxiliaries Process station for Switchgear Process station for control panel interface & telecommunication interface Dedicated Relational Database Management System, Real Time Energy Management System vi) Mobile (Portable) Man-Machine Communication System vii) Built-in Man-Machine Interface viii) All software including application software used in the system. B) Closed circuit TV arrangements C) Unit Control Boards (UCBs) consisting of measurements, interfaces, unit process control computer, local control, unit protection etc. (with manual and auto control for the generating unit) D) Control cabling E) Synchronizing Equipment Automatic synchronizer, portable testing device, synchronizing equipment for manual synchronizing F) Microprocessor based transducer unit G) Process control computer H) Power supply (220V DC) I) Remote Terminal Units (RTU) i) For Units: Turbine, UAB, Temperature Measurement, generator and excitation ii) For unit transformer iii) For Butterfly/ Spherical Valve iv) For Surge Shaft Gates, Draft Tube Gates, TRT Gates, Tail Pond v) For Generator Bays, Bus Couplers and line vi) For Common Auxiliaries J) Data acquisition and control station for common auxiliary system K) Data acquisition and control station for Switchgear L) Station Control Centre i) Operator control station Local ii) Operator control station Remote iii) Station control computer M) Local Area Network (LAN) N) Clock system with clock synchronization O) CAD Station P) Complete equipment required for Tandem Operation Q) Complete documentation
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R) T)

Training of engineers Special tools

Individual Units of a HEP are equipped with its own auxiliary systems, so also with its own control system. Thus a decentralized control system is employed. The function of computing power and automatic functions are allocated to computers on unit control level. Under this concept a manual and automatic operation and data acquisition of and from each unit is possible even in case of failure of the centralized control system located in the control room. 6.2 6.2.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF CONTROL SYSTEM Modes of Operation: Following modes of operation of plant must be possible:

a) Manual operation from individual equipment - Manual control of individual equipment is carried out from control cubicles or control boxes located near to the device in question. This control facility is used mainly for testing and maintenance purposes. Each device gets assigned a local as well as remote switch. Device can only be operated remotely with the associated switch in position remote. b) Manual operation from Unit Control Board (UCB) - The UCB is equipped with required control switches (push-buttons) for manual start/ stop of the unit. For each device a manual control facility is provided. This control mode is fully operative with the process control computer out of service. c) Automatic operation from Unit Control Board (UCB) - Automatic start /stop operation of the units is possible from the UCB. The sequential control function is performed by the process control computer, including step by step operation. d) Automatic operation from Station Control Centre - This second highest control level in the plant is designed to enable an automatic control of all units and manual control of the switchgear line bays. A comprehensive supervision of all units (if there are more than one unit), HV-switchgear and plant auxiliary equipment is provided. For this purpose two operator control stations is installed. For general overview of plant situation a mosaic mimic board is provided. The display system is complete in all respects including all required software, hardware and other necessary provisions. e) Automatic operation from remote dispatch centre - This may be a future extension option. For this purpose it is possible to install at future date a standardized interface (software/ hardware) for a remote control link. This interface is able to transfer all process data available in the operator control stations, to the dispatch centre. What this means is that all process signals stored in the data base is addressable by these future interface elements. Then all control commands that can be initiated and executed from the operator control stations, are possible to execute from the dispatch centre. 6.2.2 Redundancy The control system shall have both physical and functional or operational redundancies. At least the following physical redundancies are ensured in the design of the Control and Monitoring System.
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Redundancy of communication media is mostly through redundant optical fiber cables laid along different routes. Operator station redundancy is ensured by mirror images of process data on all the four operator workstations. Networking redundancy is implemented by using redundancy of servers, routers and switches in dual star with dual homed mesh redundancy. All controllers and their power supply distribution cards used in LCBs/ UCBs are redundant. Event and alarm printers are configured to takeover the duties of each other in the event of failure of any one of them. The unit shut down system is redundant with emergency shut down system implemented by both hardwired logic & emergency shutdown sequence controllers. The DBMS is redundant for all stored values and events. The GPS synchronization master clocks are redundant.

6.2.3 Communication Speed The system provided shall preferably use a report by exception protocol operating at a sufficient data rate to accomplish following performance goals With 40% of the system inputs changing every 10 seconds, the operator control stations is able to be updated from all local control stations in less than 3 seconds, and update all changes on the VDU display and issue any alarms in less than 4 seconds after the changes occur at the local control station. With the reporting level in sub clause a) above, there is no more than 3 seconds between the time that the operator actuates a control and the status input associated with that control responds on the VDU, exclusive of the delay time required for the controlled device to respond. Display Response With the reporting level in sub clause a) above, the time required for a new character based display to be fully presented on the screen after it is called by the operator shall not exceed 1 second. The maximum time for a pixel resolution trend display to be fully presented on the screen shall not exceed 3 seconds. Information is updated on the screen within 2 seconds after being received by each local control station. Alarm Performance With the communication and alarm loading in sub-clause (I) above, alarms is posted to the appropriate alarm summary within 500 milliseconds of being received by the operator control station. With the communication and alarm loading in sub-clause (I) above, alarms is logged within 2 minutes after the beginning of the 5 second burst.
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6.2.4

6.2.5

6.3 UNIT CONTROL BOARDS (UCB) 6.3.1 General Requirements a. Process control computer is provided to handle the following main tasks i.) ii.) iii.) iv.) v.) vi.) vii.) b. Automatic start/ stop sequences Communication with station control centre via station bus Communication with unit related equipment via field bus and RTUs Monitoring of unit Data acquisition Event and alarm handling Trend data logging

c. d. e.

f. g.

h.

Communication between process control computer and electronic turbine governor, excitation system, electrical protections, temperature monitoring device, automatic synchronizer, vibration monitoring device and transducers for electrical measurements is realized via field bus. Data acquisition from generator, turbine, transformer and switchgear is realized via distributed Input Output stations. All trip signals are channeled via the programmable trip logic to be furnished as part of the electrical protections cubicle. Manual start and stop of unit is possible with the process control computer out of operation along with full redundancy of the processor and auto changeover in case of failure of one processor. Basic interlocks are hard wired and are provided in the local panel itself. Only grouped alarms are provided on the UCB for equipment that are equipped with local annunciator (excitation, electrical protections etc.). For other equipment, individual or less grouped alarms are provided on the UCB. Each UCB shall have the man / machine interface integrated into the panel.

6.3.2 Constructional Features i) Cubicles: Cubicles are of sheet steel construction with neat appearance and nicely painted. The cubicles are freestanding, equipped with interior lighting, grounding bar, transparent doors, flexible wiring, equipment and cubicle labeling, terminals and cable access from bottom. Doors are provided with rubber seals. Measuring instruments used can be of 96 mm x 96 mm size with 240 degree scales and of accuracy class 1.5. All switches, push-buttons, indicating lights etc., are fitted nicely into the cubicle front picture. Latest trend is that all indicators are of LED type. The cubicles accommodating electronic modules, are duly earthed. Process Control Computer (PCC) : A process control computer is provided to handle various tasks as specified below. It is built around a 32-bit microprocessor. System software is stored in non-erasable high speed solid state memory. Application programs are stored in non-erasable memories as well as EPROMS. Automatic diagnostic functions and built-in test functions with fault indication LEDs are provided in order to accomplish an easy and quick fault tracing. Real time clock and calendar is provided. Cycle times for different tasks are
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ii)

individually selectable in steps from 10 ms up to 30 minutes. The PCC implements the following main functions: a) Automatic start, stop and emergency shut down sequence The function for automatic start and stop of the generator/ turbine unit is built up with a number of sequences which will bring the unit from one defined operating condition to another, such as synchronized, running but not synchronized and standstill. Automatic loading and unloading of the unit (MW, MVAR) is built into the start/ stop sequence as well. Each sequence is built up from a number of steps. In each step, orders are given to different process objects and the next step shall not be activated until the conditions of the previous step have been fulfilled. Each step is supervised and if any condition is not fulfilled within a specified time an alarm is initiated and the actual step and the fulfilled condition is indicated on text display or with individual LEDs. Communication with the station control centre : For the communication with the station control centre, there are functions included in the process control computer which shall provide an efficient and safe data transmission. Communication elements are available to facilitate the communication between control functions in different computers. Also for the man-machine communication functions, elements are provided to be used as information and parameter interface to the control functions and the process database in the process control computer. Supervisory functions : For a generator/turbine unit the supervision is mainly on signals from limit switches for levels, flows, pressures, temperatures etc. and on limit check of measured values such as temperature and vibrations. The signals are supervised and in case of abnormal conditions, an alarm signal is given. Besides the supervisory functions, a calculation capacity is provided to give possibilities to introduce intelligent supervisory functions. It is possible to compare measured values with values calculated from other process values and in that way detect abnormal operating conditions. Calculation of running hours and number of operating cycles is included. d) Limiting functions : The computer shall have the capability to process limiting functions like checking the load set points against the generator capability curve. Set points control functions : Set points received form the station control centre is transmitted to the turbine governor and automatic voltage regulator and the correct adjustment supervised.

b)

c)

e)

iii) Built-in Man-Machine Interface : A keyboard and VDU shall realize the man/ machine interface at the l/O station with PLC preferably at the station. Each UCB shall have the man/ machine interface integrated into the panel. Each l/O PLC is supplied by 220V AC, the cabling from the pertaining switchgear feeder to the l/O
150

station is part of the l/O station. The l/O station shall have an internal UPS to overcome a power-cut of at least 10 minutes. All necessary different voltage levels are executed within the l/O stations. iv) Communication with unit related equipment via field bus : Local I/O ( input/ output ) units - Where the process communication can neither be channeled through field bus nor remote I/O units, local I/O elements are provided in the unit control boards as interface elements to the process control computer. These interface boards as well as the interface boards in the remote I/O units are capable of processing digital, analogue and special signals from and to the process as required. Local/ manual/ automatic control : A manual control facility is provided from where the unit can be started and topped without use of the process control computer. A switching between manual and automatic start/stop sequence is possible after completion of each step in the corresponding sequence. All interface modules, manual/auto switches and other elements required for both the manual and automatic mode of operation from UCB are provided. For automatic operation from the unit control board, a corresponding operator module is installed. This module shall contain push buttons for start/stop and indicators showing the status of the unit and the sequence that is in process. Power Supply: Each cubicle receives two independent (two battery systems) power supply feeders in 220V DC. Provision is made for an uninterrupted functioning of the control system in each cubicle in case one of the redundant supplies gets interrupted. STATION CONTROL CENTRE

v)

vi)

6.4

A centralized control centre for the power station is installed in the control room. The Central Control Room shall use latest workstations based on latest version of Windows Networking operating system and provide facilities for training and simulation of the control system. Following equipment for the control and monitoring of the plant is provided: i) Operator Control Stations - Each of the operator control stations consist of a computer with a central processing unit, solid state memory, mass memory and peripheral controllers, printer, two video display units, one keyboard and power supplies.

ii) Central Processing Unit - The central processing unit uses a 32 bit word for all operations, including a 32 bit CPU/memory bus. In the event of a power failure or other outage, the computer is able to initialize itself without any operator intervention within 30 seconds of power restoration. iii) Man Machine Interface Under normal operating conditions, the operator control stations are the man-machine interface point. All data collected by process control computer and operational data is presented to the operator in a clear,
151

concise manner. The operator is alerted audibly and visually of events important to operation of the monitored equipment. It is possible to keep permanent records of all significant events and selected parameters. Any modification of, or addition to the control system software is accomplished online through the operator control stations without disabling or interrupting the primary control functions. Both operator control stations shall have the same hierarchy status. Simultaneous operation from both stations is possible with the only restriction that a control command pre-selected from one station cannot be addressed from the other one. Malfunction in one operator control station shall not affect the other one and shall not restrict operation of the plant. The following functions are performed by the operator control stations. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) iv) Alarm Functions a) There is an alarm manager function catering to all the alarm services in the Central Control Room. The operator control stations shall alert the operator when certain events occur which are designated as being important. The alarmed events are Any un-commanded change in a status input. Any commanded change of a control and indication point which does not result in a change in the associated indication (status) input within some specified period. Any analogue input which crosses over any of operator defined alarm limits. The failure of a given process control computer or RTU to respond correctly to a previously specified number of interrogations. Control of units switchgear. Display presentation Operator dialogue Event treat Trend curves Reports System supervision

b)

c) d)

Each alarm is time tagged. Each raised alarm is provided with a suggestive course of action associated with its alarm display window to aid the operator in quick assessment of the fault. The system shall differentiate between critical and non-critical alarms. The operator is able to designate any given input or device to generate either critical or non-critical alarms.
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e)

f)

When an alarm occurs an audible signal will be given (distinct for critical or non-critical), an alarm message is logged, and an entry posted to the appropriate alarm summary. There are separate alarm summaries for critical and non-critical alarm. Summaries may also be divided up by units, auxiliaries, switchgear etc. The alarmed device is flashing in all places it appears until acknowledged.

6.5

REMOTE TERMINAL UNITS (RTU)

The remote terminal units are of compact design with an adequate protective housing installed in the local control cubicles Often, four compact RTUs with an adequate protective housing is provided per unit. They shall have a modular electronic chassis with plug-in components to facilitate maintenance. The RTUs shall receive their power supply from the power supply rack in the cubicle they communicate with, through the field bus. A separate feeder for each of the RTUs is provided. Each RTU is equipped with supporting modules such as micro-processor, memory, modem etc. and input/ output modules in the number and of the type required. 6.6 STATION BUS FIELD BUS

The communication links between the process control computers and the station control centre (station control computer, MMC computers) is realized by using high speed bus system. The data transmission is through redundant optical fibre cables. The communication network is designed in the form that every station can communicate with every other station without assigning any of the station as master station. The station bus is equipped with galvanic isolation where required. The bus systems are of self-monitoring type. The main characteristics of the bus systems are as follows: i) High reliability of communication realized by double bus (redundant) system. The two systems shall continuously operate separately only. In case of traffic interruption on one bus, the other shall take over the traffic. By this principle all bus couplers, bus interfaces etc. are coupled with one active and one stand-by device forming a complete system. The bus-systems are physically redundant installed on different routes. Real time, full duplex data transmission rate, of at least 1Giga Bytes per second is provided. Interfaces are according to relevant IEC standards.

ii) iii) iv) 6.7

MOBILE (PORTABLE) MAN-MACHINE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

One Mobile operator station with attached portable laser printers be provided with all the databases and software, all necessary interfaces and connectors so that it can be connected to any of the Local Control Boards directly, to control the board as and when required in cases of failure of Plant Control Network. The work station is designed to withstand high humid conditions and machine hall environment.

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6.8

TRANSDUCERS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT

A microprocessor based transducer unit with serial interface for communication with the process control computer is provided. All indicating instruments in the UCB are driven by the same unit. Following functions is provided. a) b) c) d) 6.9 Current in all 3 phases 6 voltages (phase to phase and phase to ground Cos-phi, MW, MVAR and Hz MWh and MVARh TEMPERATURE MONITORING DEVICE

A microprocessor based temperature monitoring device equipped for serial communication with the process control computer is provided. It is normally equipped for processing of up to 64 inputs from RTDs installed in the generator and turbine. Each input shall have two adjustable binary threshold triggering devices for alarm and trip purposes. The unit is equipped at least with one digital display and corresponding selector arrangement for visual presentation of the readings at each input. High quality unit is provided, equipped with such features that if input circuit gets interrupted, alarm or trip shall not be triggered. Portable temperature recorders are provided with the provision for an easy hook up of the recorder to the monitoring device to note anyone of the 64 input readings recorded. 6.10 i.) SYNCHRONIZING EQUIPMENT An automatic synchronizer in double channel design with frequency and voltage matching and monitoring of manual paralleling (synchro check) is provided for each unit. One portable testing device for periodic testing of functions and set values is provided (may cover more than one unit at one station ). One set of synchronizing equipment for manual synchronizing is provided on each UCB. DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS), REAL TIME ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

ii.) iii.)

6.11

One dedicated Relational Database Management System, Real Time Energy Management System based on latest available version of database software, with necessary network user licenses covering all the workstations and computers, complete implementation of the relational database with all necessary data, is provided. These systems have following features: i.) Short Term Storage (STS): Fast collection of process signals. Fastest possible collection rate is provided. Trend curves, archiving and data export for plant situation analysis is available.

154

ii.)

Long Term Storage (LTS): Long-term storage of historical process values and calculated values for minutes, hours, days, months and years in historical database. Viewers for reports and trends. Automatic generation reports. Data Acquisition System (DAS)/Data Logger System comprising of two numbers of high capacity Network Attached Storage Systems (one Main + one Hot standby), capable of storing all process data for the entire plants life time, with all provisions required for permanent backups on DVD-RW (Double layer)/T ape Cartridges/ MO Disk or other suitable media for long term storage and all necessary accessories. All real time plant data is stored on high performance, high capacity and redundant Network Attached Storage (NAS) systems to store the plant history data up to the power plants lifetime. Storage media for archival of twenty years of plant data. An error checking code is used for data stored on these disks. Historical event list - Collection, archiving and retrieval of process events, User defined lists and queries. Post Trip Analysis - Generation of predefined reports and trend pictures for disturbance analysis, triggered by events. Short term storage data is used. Signal list (SIGLIST) - Signal list tool and configuration database. The database is source for configuration data for the software modules and contains the data base of the Controllers. Back translation of controller databases is supported. Resolution and Time Synchronization Archive - Automatic archiving of historical data and reports on backup media. Event and alarm handling. Real Time Energy Measurement (RTEM) : The provision is made to measure real time power generation, transformation losses & auxiliary consumption Hydro Electric Project by using ABT based energy meters (accuracy class 0.2). The data accessed from these energy meters will be used to generate reports/ trends in user friendly formats (to be finalized at the time of detailed engineering as per the norms of Availability Based Tariff System). This data can also be used for long term storage for the better management of Power House. Trend Displays : The trend displays shall present information stored in trend data logs in the form of curves. On each display it is possible to present up to eight (8) curves simultaneously. At least 250 sampled values are possible to present on each display for each variable. The system can have a capacity for at least 60 trend displays. Report Displays : It is possible to assemble the reports based on all measured, accumulated and calculated values from the process/ directly from ABT based energy meters. The values are presented in line and columns as required. As a minimum following reports are provided.

iii.) iv.) v.)

vi.)

vii.)

viii.) ix.)

x.)

xi.)

xii.)

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 xiii)

Plant energy reports containing MWh and MVARh for units and outgoing Ines, energy generation reports, revenue generation reports in daily/ weekly/ monthly basis etc. Auxiliary consumption report. Unit running hours and operating cycles Water flow report for turbines User designed reports for the better management of power house.

Diagnostic : Database Management System shall have extensive self-diagnostic functions. Post mortem review report display. Disturbance record: Real time instantaneous voltage and current curves of all generator and line protection relays, minimum 160 ms before and adjustable at a minimum of 2 sec and a maximum of not less than 5 sec after the fault. If another system disturbance occurs during one post fault run time, it shall also be able to record the same. It is possible to present these reports as trend displays as well. Online Troubleshooting Guides out-lining how to resolve numerous difficulties and problems, which operators may encounter with either the control system or the equipment being monitored by the control system.

xiv)

(xv) The system shall provide protocol coordination of various PLC systems and the user interface shall facilitate coordination of protection functions. (xvi) Two nos. workstations along with the laser jet printers is provided separately for assessing the DBMS and RTEMS. 6.12 CLOSED CIRCUIT TV Two Closed Circuit TV arrangements are installed at the intake site to provide round the clock continuous visual indication of the water level in the intake pond. The monitor both at control room and control station display the physical view of the water level. The Camera orientation can be adjusted from both these monitoring points. This information supplements the water level sensors provided at the tunnel portal of the Head Race Tunnel. 6.13 MOSAIC MIMIC BOARD

The mosaic mimic board installed in the control room is designed and equipped with indicating lights and instruments to give the operating personnel a comprehensive overview of the plant. All active indications on the board are driven through interface modules, by the station service computer. Shrouded Emergency-stop push button for each unit is provided hardwired.

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6.14

DATA ACQUISITION AND CONTROL STATION FOR COMMON AUXILIARY SYSTEM

The cubicles for data acquisition and control of common auxiliary systems is provided. The main auxiliary systems are: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) 415 V AC main bus 2 x 220 V DC battery systems 2 x 48 V DC battery systems (For Carrier) Drainage system Dewatering system High / low pressure compressed air system Ventilation and air-conditioning system Tailrace water level measurement

The data acquisition and control station is equipped with a microprocessor based computer for processing/ execution of following functions: a) Control of 415 V AC main bus. It shall monitor availability of power sources and switch automatically between in-feeders in function of availability and pre-established priority criteria. Communication with station control centre. Data acquisition through interface boards. Boards for digital inputs/ outputs equipped with LED status indicators installed in the cubicle. Event and alarm handling Trend data logging Report handling Alarm annunciation system with 40 inputs is provided.

b) c)

d) e) f) g) 6.15

DATA ACQUISITION AND CONTROL STATION FOR SWITCHGEAR

For the equipments located in the switchgear room, a data acquisition and control station is provided. The equipment to be monitored and controlled are : a) b) c) d) e) f) SF6 switchgear line bays SF6 switchgear bus coupling bay SF6 Generator bays Duplicated protective relay systems for the outgoing lines Duplicated protective relay systems for the bus bars AC and DC distribution panels

The data acquisition and control station is equipped with a microprocessor based computer of the same type as for the unit control functions. It is equipped with hardware and software for processing / execution of following functions. a) Control of circuit breakers and isolating switches. The control shall include functions for initiation and supervision of the closing/ opening operations. Orders are checked against blocking conditions and the operation time of the isolators is supervised.
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b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) 6.16

Control of line ground switches. Sequence control is provided for bus bar transfer of the outgoing lines. Communication with the station control centre and process control computer. Data acquisition through interface boards from distribution panels. Boards for digital inputs/outputs shall come equipped with LED status indicators. Data acquisition from and control of the switchgear line bays via RTUs (I/O units) to be installed in the local control cubicles. Data acquisition from the protective relay systems via serial interface and field bus. Event and alarm handling Trend data logging Report handling VIBRATION MONITORING AND AIR GAP MONITORING DEVICES

The vibration monitoring and the air gap monitoring devices are also microprocessor based with the capability of communication with the process control computer via serial interface. They are equipped with channels to monitor the detectors placed in Generator and in Turbine. Each channel is furnished with adjustable alarm and trip circuits. For local readout of the actual levels, a readout device with selection switch for channels, forms a part of the device. The alarm and trip signals are blocked automatically during starting of unit in case it becomes necessary. Manual blocking facility is provided as well. 6.17 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE MANUALS The operation manuals contain all documents and descriptions required to enable the operating personnel to operate and understand the plant, as well as to conduct the preventive maintenance, diagnostics, repairs, adjustments and modifications. 6.18 SOFTWARE DOCUMENTATION A complete software design manual with graphic presentations, should be available in clear and understandable form. 6.19 AS BUILT DOCUMENTS Because of the remote plant location all modifications and corrections made to the documents during the erection and commissioning period are incorporated in as built Documents. The contractors erection and commissioning engineers are responsible for the building of documents on site. They have the responsibility to complete the documents as built and get them approved.

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CHAPTER - 7 MECHANICAL AUXILIARIES IN HYDRO POWER STATIONS

7.1 GENERAL

Generally all Hydro Power Stations are tailor made, designed to suit the available hydrological, geological and topography. Design of the power station depends on type, capacity, number of units in the power house, available head and discharge and river/power channel configuration. Accordingly, the requirement of auxiliaries too depends on design of power station. In small, medium and large size power stations, following mechanical auxiliaries are generally required or their functions are integrated into the machine itself. Compressed Air System Cooling water Supply system Drainage and Dewatering System of Power House Cranes and Hoists Ventilation and Air Conditioning of Power house Power House Lighting Oil Storage and Handling System Elevator Diesel Engine Generator set

The requirement of these auxiliary systems is evaluated at project stage itself taking into consideration the size, capacity, layout of the power station and type, size and capacity of the generating units. In small surface Power Stations with micro/mini generating units, Electric Overhead Traveling crane, dewatering system, ventilation and air conditioning system, oil storage and handling system and elevator are not required. However, provision of ventilation system is necessary in under ground Power Stations irrespective of its size. In medium and large Power Stations, all the above auxiliary systems of appropriate capacity are required to be provided. The above systems are described in following sections.

7.2 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS

7.2.1 General Compressed air systems are required in powerhouses for operation and to facilitate maintenance and repair of the equipment. Governor air, brake air and service air comprise three systems needed in all power houses other than mini-micro sets. Some powerhouses will require a draft tube water depression system in addition.

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7.2.2 Governor Air Pressure System i) General - The governor air pressure system provides the air cushion in the governor pressure accumulators. When the governor system is to be placed in operation, the pressure accumulator is filled approximately one-third with oil and then pressurized to operating pressure from the compressed air system. Compressed air is recharged in the accumulator to maintain the proper oil-air ratio at intervals during plant operation. ii) Air requirements - Compressor delivery should be sufficient to effect a complete pressurization of governor pressure accumulator with the proper oil level in 4-6 hr. The operating pressure should be approximately 10 percent above the rated governor system pressure. iii) Compressor - The total air-delivery requirement should be provided by two identical compressors, each rated at not less than 50 percent of the requirement. Compressors should be heavy duty, reciprocating type, air cooled and rated for continuous duty. Compressor unit should include compressor, motor, base, after cooler, controls, and other accessories recommended by equipment manufacturers to provide a complete air-system supply except for the air receiver. iv) Receiver - A receiver capacity which will provide 3-5 min compressor running time to raise receiver air pressure from atmospheric to system pressure will normally be suitable.. Receivers should conform to design, construction, and testing requirements of the ASME, Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. 7.2.3 Brake Air System

i) General The brake air system comprises one or more semi-independent storage and distribution installations for providing a reliable supply of air to actuate the generator braking systems. Air is supplied from the governor air system through pressure reducer, stored in receivers, and distributed through the brake panel to the generator brake systems. ii) Air requirement. Air is required in the system to stop all generator-turbine sets simultaneously without adding air to the system and without reducing system pressure below designed minimum pressure. iii) Receivers & Piping Normally, a common brake air receiver is provided and separate sub-system is provided for each pair of generator units. Each sub-system includes piping from the brake air receiver to the brake panel, and piping from each brake panel to the respective generator brake system. Brake air receiver should be sized to supply air for all the units and should be designed, manufactured, and tested in accordance with the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Each receiver should be supplied with air from the governor air system through an isolating valve, strainer, dryer, check valve and pressure reducer.

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7.2.4 Service Air System i) General. The service air system is a nominal 42 62 psi system providing air for maintenance and repair, control air and in some cases air for ice control bubblers. ii) Service air requirement (a) Routine maintenance Supply for wrenches, grinders, hammers, winches, drills, vibrators, cleaning, unplugging intakes and lines, etc. (b) Major maintenance and repair - Supply for sandblasting, painting, cleaning, etc. (c) Ice control bubblers.- Supply to bubblers operating on intakes for preventing ice formation to all units simultaneously. iii) Compressors - Compressors should be heavy duty, air cooled, flood lubricated, and cooled rotary screw type rated for continuous duty. Normally, aside from major maintenance, service air should be supplied by two identical compressors each of which is capable of supplying approximately 75 percent of the requirement. iv) Receivers Each air receiver should conform to design, construction, and testing requirements of the ASME, Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Receiver capacity should provide a minimum 5 min-running time with no air being used from the system for the largest connected compressor on automatic start-stop control. One or more receivers may be used for the system.. v) System details (a) Intake and line clearing - Water intakes, suction lines, and drains subject to plugging with debris or silt should be provided with service air connections (blow outs) to assist in unplugging. A manual valve should be located near the blowout connection. (b) Hose connections - Hose connections should be provided throughout the plant in galleries, on decks, in the generator-turbine room, in turbine pits, in generator housings, and in the maintenance shop. 7.2.5 Draft Tube Water Depression System i) General. A draft tube water depression system is required in plants with submerged turbine or pump-turbine runners where planned operations include the operation of one or more main units for synchronous condenser operation generator running as motor. The system function is to displace and maintain draft tube water to a level below the turbine runner permitting the runner to rotate in air. Normally, the system should be independent of other powerhouse air provisions, although some plants have been designed with connections to permit using the draft tube air depression system to supply station air. System components, particularly receivers and piping, will generally be of large physical size, and preliminary

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design should take place concurrent with first powerhouse layouts to assure space for a practical system arrangement. ii) Air requirement The system should supply sufficient air to displace the draft tube water clear of the turbine runner in approximately 30 sec, and down to about 0.5 m below the bottom of the runner in approximately 90 sec plus additional volume to cover air losses during initial depression. Loss of volume during initial depression should be calculated at 10 percent of the required water displacement air volume with an assumed adiabatic expansion of the air in the receivers. Air must also be available after initial depression to maintain the water level approximately 0.5 m below the runner. A close estimate of this air requirement is difficult since it is primarily dependent on leakage of air through the shaft gland and water leakage through the wicket gates. The air requirement for initial depression must be available in receivers because of the high, brief flow requirement. iii) System pressure The minimum system operating pressure during initial depression should be approximately 15 to 25 psi higher than the pressure required to depress the draft tube water 0.5 m below the runner. iv) Compressors Compressors should be heavy duty, water cooled, reciprocating, or floodlubricated and cooled rotary screw type rated for continuous duty. The initial depression air and maintaining air usually are supplied by the same compressors. The required capacity should be based on raising receiver pressure from minimum to maximum operating pressure while supplying makeup air to maintain depressed units. To provide a minimum of standby with a compressor out of service, the required capacity should normally be provided in two identical compressors, each rated at 50-60 percent of the total required capacity. v) Receivers Receiver capacity should be provided in one or more receivers conforming to design, construction, and testing requirements of the ASME, Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Configuration and individual volumes will often be determined by space available. Consequently, early preliminary planning is necessary to secure a desirable receiver location in the powerhouse. Outdoor locations may be required in the case of large units. Receivers should normally be sized for the full initial depression requirement. 7.3 COOLING WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 7.3.1 General: Cooling water supply system is provided for supplying cooling water to the following equipments: i) ii) iii) iv) iv) v) Generator air coolers Generator bearing coolers Turbine bearing coolers, shaft gland and wearing rings Turbine OPU and Lubricating unit sump oil coolers Transformer coolers Compressors and after coolers.

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Suitable water sources and interconnection of the systems vary from project to project and the best suited option is adopted during design stage depending on the head of water available and configuration of the project. The overall system design requires close coordination between the turbine and generator designers. 7.3.2 Sources of Cooling Water Supply

a) Spiral case - For units with heads up to about 80 to 90 m, cooling water is preferably tapped from inlet of the spiral casing with proper filtering and adequate head. In power house with multiple units, inlet tapping is provided in each unit with a crossover header connecting all the units for backup supply to any one unit. For creating adequate head of water, pressure booster p[mps are used for low head units and pressure reducer is used for heads higher than 60 m. The spiral case source of cooling water is mainly used for unit bearing coolers, generator air coolers, shaft gland and if required, for wearing rings. Cooling water for shaft gland shall require additional fine filtration as excessive abrasive material present in water is injurious to glands. b) Forebay Reservoir In run-off the river schemes with lower heads upto 30 m, cooling water is taken directly from the forebay reservoir and necessary head is developed by booster pimps before the strainers. c) Tail water - For higher head projects above 90 m, the usual source of cooling water is a pumped water supply from tail pool. d) Other sources - It is unlikely that other suitable sources will be generally available for cooling water requirements. In a situation when reservoir/river water contains excessive quantity of silt with very hard silt particles or water containing harmful chemicals which corrode the coolers tubes very fast, closed cooling water system with top up water from alternative source may be planned and adopted at design stage. For shaft seal, potable water system is normally the best alternative if the supply of potable water is adequate or could be economically increased. This would usually be in the case of a well supply requiring little chlorination. 7.3.3 Cooling Water Requirements

Cooling water flow requirements are determined by the turbine, generator and transformer suppliers keeping in view the ambient temperature of available raw water. a) Head Requirements. Normally three main factors are considered for deciding the head of cooing water just before the strainers head loss in strainers, head difference across the individual cooler headers and maximum tail water level above which cooling water outlet is to be discharged. Based on the head requirement and head of available water, requirement of booster pumps or pressure reducers is decided. b) Treatment- Typical purity requirements of cooling water for coolers, glands, and wearing rings are moderate, requiring silt content around 200 ppm with permissible particle

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size of 50 micro m. in suspension which can be met by straining or filtration. For determining the likelihood of corrosion or scale deposits in cooler tubes and the need of additional treatment, reliable water analysis should be obtained before designing the system. Strainers should be the automatic type unless the system provides other backup provisions for continuous water supply. Additional fine filters are required for gland water unless the supply is the potable water system. The system should provide for continuous operation even when an individual filter requires cleaning. C. Pumps When pumps are used to lift cooling water from tail race or to boost water pressure tapped from spiral inlet or forebay, one pump per unit with one additional backup pump should be used. The additional pump shall be used as standby for any pump out of service. All the pumps shall be connected to deliver in a common header for all units. Centrifugal type pumps shall be used for boosting pressure of cooling water and they should be located such that suctions is always flooded even at minimum tail water level. When cooling water is lifted from tail race directly, vertical turbine type pumps shall be used and strainers & valves can be located in separate room constructed on tailrace side. 7.3.4 Transformer Cooling Water

Small capacity transformers are generally air-cooled and there is very limited application of transformer cooling water systems. However, in case of higher capacity transformers, the cooling water supply would be required. Water pressure in heat exchangers should be less than the oil pressure to prevent water from entering the transformer oil under minor seepage conditions.

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Typical Cooling Water Scheme

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7.4

DEWATERING AND DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The dewatering provides the means for dewatering turbines and their associated water passages for inspection and maintenance purposes and drainage system provides collection and disposal of all powerhouse leakage and wastewater other than sanitary. The safety of personnel and plant is of vital concern in designing this system and should have priority over other aspects. This is extremely important in case of underground power houses. 7.4.1 Dewatering System i) General The principal volumes to be dewatered in all powerhouses are volume downstream of the head gates or the penstock valve upto tail race level, spiral casing and draft tube. In power house involving Pelton turbines, dewatering system is not required as tail race level is much below the runner. ii) Detail Requirements Dewatering Procedure Normal procedure after unit shutdown requires closing of the head gates or penstock valve, drainage of all unit water above tail water to tail water elevation through the wicket gates, lowering of draft tube bulkheads or stoplogs and draining the remaining unit water to dewatering sump with the sump pumps operating. Dewatering Time Aside from safety, complete dewatering of one unit at a time should usually be accomplished in 4 to 6 hrs with allowed leakages of water from headrace and tail race gates. Spiral Case Drains: Spiral case drains should normally be sized to preclude draining of the spiral cases from becoming a controlling factor in total dewatering time. The drains should normally be provided with manually operated rising stem-gate valves for control. Spiral case drains should discharge to the draft tube to preclude pool head on the dewatering sump. A connection for introducing station compressed air immediately upstream from the control valve to remove packed silt and debris is normally required. Draft Tube Drains : Size of draft tube drains should be selected keeping in view the leakages from intake gates/intake valves, leakages from draft tube bulkheads/stoplogs and the required dewatering time. Valves for the draft tube drains are usually either a submerged rising plug type (mud valve) or standard in-line rising stem-gate valves. Draft tube drains may be run individually to the dewatering sump in small plants but are usually discharged into a large pipe header leading to the sump in large plants. Dewatering Sumps : In most projects, separate sumps are provided for dewatering and drainage. To serve dewatering sump as a backup or overflow for the drainage sump, a check valve should be provided in drainage sump overflow. Whenever space and reasonable cost permit, it is preferable to provide oversized sumps to allow more flexibility to accommodate

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unexpected leakage, additional or larger pumps, or revised operating procedures. Sumps should be designed for maximum tail water head with assumed pump failure and be vented above maximum tail water. Dewatering Pumps : Separate dewatering and drainage pumps to be provided with automatic start/stop functions controlled by water level sensors in sumps. If space permits, two dewatering and two drainage pumps to be provided one each to work as standby or to meet the emergency flooding requirements. The start-stop settings should allow a minimum of 3-min running time per cycle for all the pumps. Each drainage pump should be capable of pumping a minimum of 150 percent of maximum estimated station drainage at normal running condition. Pumps shall generally be waterlubricated vertical turbine type. However, lately the submersible motor and pump combination units are preferred. Usually float-type controls or electronic level sensors are used for pump control. A separate float type of control should be provided for the drainage sump (or combined drainage-dewatering sump) for high-water alarm. Discharge Piping : t is safe to terminate discharge lines of dewatering and drainage system in tail race above the maximum tail water level. Using separate single header for dewatering and drainage systems is more practicable. Reliable check valves are to be used in pump discharge line to check back flow of tail race water in case of flooding of tail race. 7.4.2 Drainage System The drainage system handles drainage of wastewater from equipment, floor areas and leakage through structural cracks and contraction joints. i) Equipment Waste Water Drainage The following equipment wastewater is normally drained to the sump : Turbine head cover leakage Turbine pit liner drainage. Condensate & minor leakages from pipe joints. Air compressor cooling water. Strainer drains. Heat exchanger. Pump gland drainage.

Drainage from turbine parts : It should be collected and piped to the floor drains or sealed connections. Francis-type turbines are normally drained by gravity and drainage from propeller turbines is normally pumped out of the turbine pits with pumps furnished by the turbine manufacturer. Wastewater under pressure : Waste water from generator air coolers and bearing coolers are normally discharged directly in the tailrace. An optimum discharge location is above

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maximum tail water for safety reasons. Where this is not practicable, a location above normal operating tail water is selected with the provision of a readily accessible shutoff valve at the point where the line becomes exposed in the powerhouse. Floor drainage through drainage galleries : Drainage galleries with a wall in contact with water or a fill below high tail water should be provided with a drainage trench. A floatoperated alarm should be provided to indicate flooding of the lowest gallery. Miscellaneous floor area drains should be provided to flush leakage from or periodic disassembly of waterfilled equipment or piping. The following areas are typical of most powerhouses: Turbine rooms. Water treatment room. Pump rooms. Pipe trenches. Galleries. Elevator pits. Valve pits.

Drainage sump : The drainage sump or joint dewatering-drainage sump should be located low enough to provide gravity flow from all drained areas. The drainage sump should be provided with an overflow to the dewatering sump where separate drainage and dewatering sumps are provided. The overflow should be located slightly above the high water-level alarm elevation and should be provided with a flap valve to prevent flow from the dewatering sump to the drainage sump. The flap valve should be reasonably accessible for maintenance. Estimating drainage leakage : Leakage through contraction joints and cracks in floors and walls is usually the major uncertainty in estimating total drainage facility requirements. Where the powerhouse is a structure separate from the dam, 0.2 L/s per meter of powerhouse length is sometimes used.

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Drainage - Dewatering Scheme

7.5 i)

CRANES AND HOISTS General. Cranes and hoists are used in powerhouses for operational functions and for maintenance and repair. Type and capacity of the crane or hoists are selected based on the power station design, maximum weight to be handled, maximum lift of the equipment from bottom point and span to be covered. Type of Cranes - Following type of cranes are used in the powerhouse depending on the requirements of the equipment : Electric Overhead Traveling (EOT) crane serving the turbines, generators, inlet valves and auxiliaries in typical indoor powerhouses. For small power house with units upto 5 MW capacity, a bridge crane, usually a trolley-mounted electric hoist suspended from a single girder bridge is adequate. Gantry type crane serving intake gates, trash racks, stoplogs at intake, draft tube gates, stop logs at draft tube and other items on the intake and tail race decks of powerhouses. Trolley-mounted, motorized or manual hoist running on I-beam track for special applications.

ii)

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iii) Engineering and Design - For each powerhouse, preliminary listing of all major items to be handled by powerhouse cranes and hoists during construction, operation and maintenance including estimated weights, pickup and set down points should be prepared for preparing specifications of the individual cranes. The preliminary studies and coordination are important in procuring the optimum crane for the required service. The detail design and construction of the cranes should be covered in the contract as responsibility of the supplier. All parts of the crane, runway rails and hoists shall be designed to sustain the loads and the combination of loads with due allowances for eccentricity of loading without exceeding safe permissible stresses. It is general practice to specify crane ratings that allow up to 10 percent overload for special heavy lifts such as the generator rotor. For determining crane capacity EM 1110-2-4203 or relevant Indian Standards should be followed. Mechanical parts of the crane including trucks and trolley frames shall be designed for the specific loads using a factor of safety of 5 (Five) based on the ultimate strength. iv) Performance Requirements

The crane/hoist shall be capable of raising, lowering, holding and transporting its rated load without any damage or excessive deflection of any of its component. The following tolerances shall be maintained in the operation of the crane. a) Smooth control of vertical movement to within 3 mm with hook carrying rated load and all hoist brakes properly adjusted at normal operation. Control of bridge and trolley motions by 6 mm. The motor speed not to exceed 105 (One hundred and five) percent of synchronous speed while lowering a rated load. The vertical deflection of crane girders caused by the rated load plus all dead loads not to exceed 1/1000 of the crane span. Earthquake load: Earthquake force to be taken equivalent to 0.3 g in horizontal direction and 0.14 g in vertical direction.

b) c)

d) e)

v)

Combination of loads : Unless otherwise stated, the crane shall be designed to sustain the combination of loads listed below without exceeding the safe permissible stresses. For crane in static hoisting position with dead live and vertical impact load. For crane in motion with dead load, live load, and any one horizontal load listed under lateral, longitudinal or specific design loads. For crane in motion with a combination of dead load and braking load. For crane in static position with dead load plus earthquake load. For crane in motion with dead load, live load and any 2 (two) or more horizontal loads listed under lateral longitudinal or special design loads with resulting unit

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stresses not more than 33-1/2 (Thirty three and one half) per cent in excess of safe stress. vi) Safety Requirements : In the design of cranes and hoists, all safety regulations as applicable with Factory Acts, Electricity Rules etc., as prevailing in the Purchasers country and at the site of installation shall be taken into consideration and provided for. vii) Standards : Structural design of the crane shall be done in accordance with IS 807 1976 or relevant International Standards. The crane shall be designed as per IS 3177 1977, USBR guide lines EM 1110-2-4203, Guide Specification CW-14330. or relevant International Standards except as otherwise specified in these specifications. 7.5.1 POWERHOUSE BRIDGE CRANES

i) Number of cranes -. The choice of providing one or two cranes is an important consideration in powerhouses with several units or heavy capacity requirements. Factors entering into this determination are: ii) Procurement cost. This cost considers one crane versus two. Powerhouse structural costs. A single crane may increase structural costs because of greater physical size, though generally only moderate additional cost is involved. Two cranes will usually be more beneficial in long multiunit powerhouses and may have significant advantages where the construction schedule requires continued erection work after several units are in operation. Unusually large capacity single cranes result in greater floor areas not accessible to a lifting hook. Two cranes may expedite maintenance or repairs and reduce down time.. Electrical Connections and Motors

The main runway conductor system for supplying 415V-3 phase 4 wire 50 Hz power supply for the cranes shall consist of insulated rigid conductors, accessories and collectors. The conductor system for transmitting power and control commands to the trolley mounted equipment shall be of either festooned cable or insulated rigid conductors. All motors shall be induction type with water tight terminals, antifriction bearings and built in totally enclosed fan ventilated enclosures. All motors speed shall not exceed 1500 rpm. Creep speed motors shall also be continuously rated. All travels and hoists shall be provided with at least two sets of brakes working on different principles viz. electro magnetic, thruster, eddy current braking system etc. All motions shall be provided with limit switches at both extreme ends of travel. iii) Controls

Master controllers shall be located in the operators cabin. Indication and protections shall be provided on the control panel.

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iv) v)

Hoisting Ropes, Hooks, Lifting Beam Hoisting ropes shall be extra flexible having a breaking strength at least five times that of the maximum working load. The crane shall be provided with a main hoist double hook of the ramshorn type and the auxiliary hoist hooks of the single type with a safety latch. Main hook block shall incorporate a hole and pin for attaching lifting devices. All the hooks shall be 360 o swivel type rotating on antifriction bearings. One lifting beam adequate to lift the heaviest load shall be provided. Runway Rails

One set of runway rails and associated clamping devices with base plates, splice plates shall be included in the supply. vi) Walkways, Platforms & Lighting Walkways, ladders, inspection platforms for allowing access to all parts of the crane shall be provided. Interior and exterior lighting inside the operators cabin and on bridge shall be provided. 7.5.2 Intake Gantry Cranes Intake deck-hoisting requirements vary widely from project to project and good judgment is required to select the optimum provisions for each crane i) Intake gantry lifting functions

(a) Intake gates and bulkheads - The heaviest lifts normally involve handling of the intake gates and bulkheads. Trolley-mounted hoists permit handling of the gates and bulkheads with the same hoist. Routine raising and lowering, maintenance support, and transfer to storage slots or other repair locations are normal requirements. Intake gantry cranes are not used to lower intake gates in an emergency because of the potential load capacity problems resulting from gate hydraulic down pull in addition to the slow response. The total time for a crane crew to come on site, pick up an intake gate, travel to the affected generating unit, lower the intake gate and repeat the sequence to install the other intake gates is much too long to avoid major damage to the unit. (b) Trash rack service. Raising and lowering of trash rack sections and raking of trash racks are common intake gantry crane functions where distances from gate and bulkhead slots to trash racks are moderate. For wider decks, use of a standard commercially available rake and hoist unit or a separate trash raking crane is more practical. (c) Handling of individual gate hoists. Where individual gate hoists are provided, placement and removal is normally done by intake gantry crane.

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7.5.3 Draft Tube Gantry Crane The principal function of a draft tube gantry crane is to handle the draft tube bulkhead gates, stoplog gates and deck slot and hatch covers. This includes using a monorail hoist where deck configuration and slot location are not suitable for a gantry crane or where there will be only one to three units. Commercial monorail hoists are generally restricted to about 5-ton lifts. Only one draft tube gantry is normally sufficient for all required services. 7.5.4 Monorail Cranes

The most common powerhouse application for monorail cranes is handling of draft tube bulkheads at small powerhouses where the slot location is close to the downstream wall. Standard catalog units are preferred, but proof-testing of the hoist and rail to pullout should be required. Monorail installations may be required in other restricted areas of powerhouse for applications with lifting and travel requirements. 7.5.5 Power House Crane Lifting Accessories

Crane lifts may require one or more intermediate devices connecting the crane hooks or blocks to the load. Certain lifts require a device for supporting the load in storage or intermediate positions. These devices include lifting beams, adapters, spreader beams, support beams, and dogs. Standard rigging-type slings should normally be selected and procured by construction or operations offices. Spreader beams, support beams, and dogs will usually be either bought with the crane or equipment. Powerhouse bridge-gantry equipment differs appreciably from intake gantry and draft tube crane equipment, and coverage herein is divided accordingly. Lifting beams- Cranes with more than one main hook require lifting beams to connect the hooks to generator rotor and turbine runner assemblies. The beams should provide convenient manual connections of the load to the crane hooks, moment free vertical lifting forces on the load and stable operation under all loaded. These lifting beams are normally designed and furnished under the crane contract. 7.5.6 Intake Gate Hoists i) Fixed Gate Hoists - Fixed hoists are used for vertical lift, wheeled, or roller-mounted gates. The main purpose of fixed hoists is to provide emergency closure. They are also used for maintenance and repair of gates. Emergency closure is generally required in case of loss of wicket gate control, head cover failure, failure of valve or pipe joint in cooling water system tapped from spiral casing, failure of access hatch/man hole cover, or closure during abnormal operating conditions of power house. In addition to normal gate operations, the design should provide maximum dependability and rapid closure under remote control plus backup manual closure under power failure. Generally, three types of fixed hoists are considered - direct acting hydraulic hoists, hoists consisting of hydraulic cylinders connected by wire rope through deflector sheaves to the gates and electric operated drum-wire rope

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hoists. The type of hoist selected will depend upon the size of gates involved and the configuration of the intake structure. ii) Wire Rope hoists. : Electric operated drum - wire rope hoists are applicable to intake configurations involving gates with deep submergence or gates with shallow settings, either of which make hydraulic hoists undesirable. Unusually deep gates require several rod extensions resulting in slow installation and removal of cylinder-operated gates. Shallow gates may require portions of a hydraulic hoist to be above deck level interfering with movement of vehicles over the deck. Individual stationary hoists are usually provided for operating each service gate. The gates are normally held by the motor brake in the operating position just above the waterway and control switches are provided at the unit governor cabinets and in the control room to permit rapid closure in an emergency. Arrangement of the hoists varies greatly depending on the intake configuration. Hoists may be located below or on the intake deck adjacent to or over the gate slots. When located on the deck over the gate slots, provisions should be made for uncoupling the hoist blocks when the gates are in the upper dogged position, and for removal of the hoists from over the gate slots to permit transfer of the gates to the gate repair pit by use of the intake gantry crane. iii) Performance criteria - Closure of all gates on a single unit should be accomplished simultaneously and within 10 min from initiation of the closure sequence. The lowering speed of the gate at the point-of-contact with the sill should not exceed 0.05 m/s (10 fpm). Gate raising speeds are not critical. 7.5.7 Gantry Crane Lifting Accessories

Intake gantry and draft tube gantry cranes are regularly used for handling gates, bulkheads and stoplogs below the water surface where the point of attachment to the load is non-visible and non-accessible to operating personnel. Obstructing debris or silt can hinder operations cocking or binding of the load or lifting beam. Slings remaining attached to the submerged load or lifting beams with dependable remote control of latching and unlatching are more convenient. The selection between attached sling or a lifting beam should be made after careful consideration: The expense and hazards of diver operations to remedy faulty operation plus monetary loss from delay in returning generator units to service warrant maximum design emphasis on reliability. Lifting beams - Lifting beams may be provided for intake gates and bulkheads, draft tube bulkheads, trash rack and for miscellaneous small gates and bulkheads in water conduits and sluices. Weight-operated latching mechanisms with manual tagline unlatching is preferred except where physical size of latches or pins make manual operation non feasible. Slings - Special purpose slings for intake gantry and draft tube gantry crane use should be made of corrosion resistant rope and galvanized fittings.

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Over Head Traveling Crane of Power house

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Fixed Hoist Cranes for Draft Tube Gates

Fixed Hoist Cranes for Draft Tube Gates

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7.6 7.6.1

VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM Ventilation

i) General - The purpose of providing Ventilation and Air conditioning in power house is to prevent temperature stratification, remove contaminated air, remove heat dissipated from various equipments/systems, provide clean air and to provide outside air necessary for human comfort. ii) Design Conditions Weather conditions including information about water temperature and ambient room temperature and power station indoor conditions involving maximum heat dissipation from equipment, generation of harmful vapors from oil & chemicals, plant layout, requirement of comfortable temperature and humidity etc. have major effects on system requirements. iii) General Rules For Design - Ventilation in surface power stations by natural means alone using gravity may be sufficient in some stations to meet the above purposes. Where these purposes can not be met by natural ventilation, forced ventilation or combination of the two with cooling and heating systems, where necessary, may be resorted to ensure clean air to reach various areas in the power station. While designing the system, emphasis should be on minimizing energy usage and obtaining good average conditions with minimum complexity and maximum dependability. a) Natural Ventilation

Natural ventilation is adopted in surface power houses where main working areas are above the ground level. Proper ventilation of power house building is achieved by providing adequate windows and ventilators. The object of providing windows and ventilators is two-fold, that is, to get fresh air and light. The minimum area of windows and ventilators to be provided shall be around onetenth of the floor area. Windows should be well distributed and located at low level. Effort should be made to develop cross-ventilation. The ventilators should be fixed as high as possible for proper expulsion of warm air. b) Forced Ventilation

Forced ventilation system is to be used in under ground and surface power houses having considerable working areas below ground level. Following points need to be considered while designing forced ventilation system : The inlet fan capacity to be kept 10 percent more than the exhaust fan capacity. In portions of the power station building where moisture condensation is anticipated, dehumidified air should be supplied to prevent condensation, as condensation causes deterioration of point, corrosion of metal surfaces and breakdown of insulation on electrical equipment.

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The quantity of air required for the power station building should be worked out from the number of air changes preferred for the various premises of the building as given in Table 1 below PREFERRED NUMBER OF AIR CHANGES Power House Areas Main generator room, service bay, governor gallery, light and heavy storage rooms, dewatering and drainage sumps, draft tube gallery, record room Approach gallery and passages, electrical panels and cable gallery, compressor room, terminal board room Oil storage and oil purification rooms, oil sludge room, , machine shop, electrical laboratory, battery room, telephone and communication equipment room All offices, reception room, toilets and control room Preferred Air Changes per Hr 2

4 6

One air change per hour means that the quantity of air equivalent to the total volume of the room is supplied to and exhausted from the room each hour. The number of air changes per hour provided for any room is dependent upon the number of occupants. Rooms like toilet, battery room, oil storage rooms & paint storage rooms which may contain air contaminated with objectionable or harmful odors, carbon dioxide gas or smoke, should be exhausted directly to the outside of the building during all seasons. The spacing of supply and exhaust openings in long rooms or galleries should be such that sufficient air changes per hour are provided along the full length of the room. DG set room should be provided with ventilation to remove heat given off by the generator, exciter, engine surfaces, exhaust piping, and heat exchanger, as well as with ventilation for engine combustion. Space above the control room ceiling, should be provided with sufficient ventilation to remove the heat given off by the high-intensity control room lighting. Outlets and inlets should be arranged to provide uniform cooling and to avoid hot spots.

Equipment - The principal supply and re-circulating fans are normally installed in or adjoining air handling room containing heating and cooling coils and filters. Provisions for filtering, heating or cooling, booster fans, humidity control and exhaust fans are included in the system as required. Air Cleaning - It is desirable to clean the air entering the power plant building in order to remove the air-borne dust particles The air filters are usually located upstream of the fan. The choice of the air filter may be made by reference to the manufacturers catalogues on the basis of lowest annual cost. Cooling - Wherever practicable, cooling should be provided by circulation of outside air through the ventilation system or by circulation of pool or tail water through water-to-air

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coil-type heat exchangers in the ventilation system depending on which method is most economical. Where suitable outside air or water temperatures are not obtainable, cooling may be provided with chilled water coils in the ventilation system or package-type air conditioning units. Fans - Forced air ventilation is provided by propeller, axial or centrifugal type fans powered by electric motors. Propeller fans may be used either to supply or exhaust where no duct system, filters or other restrictions are in the air passage. When duct system is used, axial or centrifugal fans may be used. Ducts - Where positive ventilation requires ducts for proper air distribution, considerable advantage may be achieved by incorporating the ducts into the building structure. The transfer of air by ducts should be as direct as practicable with the fewest possible bends. Ducts are usually constructed of galvanized sheet iron or aluminum sheets with suitable stiffeners. Insulation for ducts should be provided where required to avoid condensation or where justified to conserve energy. Air Distribution Control - To regulate the flow of air in a ventilating system, control dampers shall be provided throughout. At outside air intakes, multi-louver dampers shall be used to control the amount of air admitted. A similar damper is required on inside air intakes to control the amount of re-circulated air. These two dampers shall be interconnected to permit regulation of the proportion of outside air to inside air used in the ventilating system. Exhaust Fans- Air is exhausted from the building through exhaust openings provided with louvers or by axial-.flow exhaust fans located near the roof in the main generator room. Individual centrifugal fans and connecting ducts are usually installed to exhaust air from toilets, battery rooms and oil storage rooms. 7.6.2 Air-Conditioning

The bulk of the cooling requirements will normally be provided through the ventilation system either with outside air or water-to-air coils located in the air handling units . When the desired temperatures and humidity inside the power station are not obtainable by ordinary ventilation, air-conditioning may be resorted to by heating or cooling the entering air to the desired temperature to maintain comfortable working conditions. Depending on the requirement of high-tech control equipment and the utility, air-conditioning is provided in areas like control room, offices and meeting rooms etc. Package-type air handling units or package type air conditioners are generally used at desired places. Package-type air conditioners - Required ventilation and exhaust air and chilled or heated water are normally provided from the central system when package-type air conditioners are used. Completely self-contained units with direct expansion coils, electric heaters, fans, and filters may occasionally be justified for small power stations.

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7.7 OIL STORAGE AND HANDLING SYSTEMS i) General - In most powerhouses, separate oil storage and handling systems are required for governor-lubrication oil and transformer insulating oil. The systems are based on the use of a common oil for unit lubrication and governor-systems and for transformers and circuit breakers. In small and medium capacity powerhouses, installation of oil storage and handling system is avoided as it involves high cost and requires lot of space in the power house. Clean oil is generally stored in original oil barrels and dirty oil purified through portable oil purifiers. In large power houses involving five or more large units, centralized oil storage and handling system is provided. ii) System Requirements

a. Governor-lube oil. The following operations are normal system requirements: Filling dirty oil storage tank from tank car or truck. Moving oil from clean oil storage tank by either the purifier or transfer pump to the generator-turbine unit. Draining or returning overflow oil from the generator-turbine unit to the dirty oil storage tank. Moving oil from either storage tank to a tank car or truck for disposal. Re-circulating oil in any equipment on generator turbine unit through purifier and back to equipment. Re-circulating oil from any storage tank through purifier and back to tank.

b. Transformer oil. The system requirements for insulating oil are essentially the same as for governor-lube oil with each operation relative to transformers or circuit breakers instead of generator-turbine units. iii) Oil Storage Room : The oil storage room should be located at a low elevation in the powerhouse. A depressed area in the concrete should be provided below all openings to accommodate the oil storage, handling and purifying system. The room should be in mass concrete of fire resistant construction and have automatic closing fire doors. iv) Equipment a) Oil Storage Tanks - Clean and dirty insulating oil tanks should each hold a minimum of 110 percent of the oil required to fill the largest transformer. Clean and dirty governor-lube oil tanks should each hold a minimum of 110 percent of the oil required to fill the governor system and all the bearings of the largest generator-turbine unit. b) Pumps - Oil pumps should be positive displacement type and should be provided with safety relief valves and high temperature shutdown. Suction lift should not exceed 4.5 m (15 ft), and pump speed should be limited to 1,200 rpm. Control should be manual, but timer switches should be used to prevent continuous pump operation beyond the normal time

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required for each oil transfer. Pump capacity may be provided in single or duplex units, but if single, a standby pump for convenient exchange should be available. c) Dirty / Waste Oil Pumps - A pump should be provided to pump waste oil to a deck waste valve. Capacity should permit emptying the largest tank in approximately 8 hr or less. The pump should have a hose valve suction connection for the hose connecting to the insulating oil tank, governor-lube oil tank, or floor sump. A suction line filter is required to protect the pump from foreign material. Manual-timer switches should be located in the oil room and at the deck valve. d) Clean Oil Pumps Governor-lube oil - A governor-lube oil pump sized to fill the bearings and governor of the largest unit in approximately 8 hr or less should be installed in the oil storage room. An adjustable back pressure valve and the safety relief valve should bypass excess oil back to the clean governor-lube oil tank. The safety relief valve should be set to maximum system operating pressure, and the adjustable back pressure valve to pump rating but not higher than 95 percent of the safety relief valve setting. Manual-timer switches should be located in the oil room and at each unit. Insulating oil - The insulating oil pump should have approximately 105-110 percent of the capacity of the purifier to be used at the transformers. Back pressure and relief valve provisions should be as noted in 12-5c(1).Manual-timer switches should be located in the oil room and at each deck valve. e) Oil Purifiers - Each powerhouse should be provided with a governor-lube oil purifier and an insulating oil purifier. Portable purifiers are preferred. Overall purifier dimensions, access doors and ramps, and elevator sizes must be coordinated in the early powerhouse planning to permit purifier access to the oil storage room, transformer locations, and purifier connections at generator-turbine units. Governor-lube oil purifier - The governor-lube oil purifier should be either a centrifuge or coalescent type. A low-vacuum purifier may be added to remove excess water and dissolved gases. The purifier should be capable of processing oil with up to 1 percent water and 0.5 percent solids by volume to no more than 0.25 percent water and 0.02 percent solids and remaining solids not exceeding 40 microns in size. The separated water should not contain more than 0.5 percent oil by volume. Purification should be attained in one pass. The purifier rating should normally provide for purification of the dirty oil tank capacity within 8 hr. However, in the case of very large tank requirements, reasonable access for the portable purifier may limit its size and justify longer periods. Purifier units should include required pumps, oil heaters, controls, and wheeler carriage. Insulating oil purifier -. The insulating oil purifier must be designed so that the processed oil meets the transformer oil purity requirements. This normally consists of a filtration system and a high-vacuum purifier.

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7.8

DIESEL ENGINE-GENERATOR SET

i) General: Diesel Engine-generator set is provided as a source of emergency electric power during isolation of the power station from the grid. The decision for or against providing DG set should be made during the preliminary design stage. The power requirement is normally moderate, being confined to the required power to return a main unit to service along with critical control and pumping requirements. The mechanical design responsibility includes location; engine specifications; and exhaust, cooling, and fuel and ventilation provisions. For a small and medium size power house, one no. 100 kVA Diesel Set shall be sufficient to meet the power requirement during black starting whereas for large size power house, capacity of Dg set may be 500 t0 1000 KVA. The D.G. set shall be as per the relevant standards. ii) Location : To determine a suitable location for DG set, access, space for maintenance, noise, ventilation, exhaust piping are all factors that must be considered. A location within the powerhouse structure with moderate noise and exhaust gas isolation from the main working areas is preferred. The location should permit a short, direct routing of the exhaust pipe to an outdoor termination which will not exhaust directly on personnel nor near an intake vent. A gallery location or other location away from principal working areas is usually satisfactory. iii) Engine : The engine should be a diesel, a standard product of a manufacturer and should be a model which has performed satisfactorily in an independent stationary power plant for a minimum of 8,000 hr in a two-year period of base-load operation. To determine the capacity for a new installation, requirement of all essential auxiliaries and illumination etc should be considered. The requirement specified should be consistent with equipment normally available as standard or optional in the industry. iv) Exhaust Provisions : The muffler should be furnished with the DG set and exhaust pipe size should be as recommended by the engine supplier. The portion of the exhaust pipe located within the powerhouse should be insulated. The muffler is usually located outdoors, and protection provided as required for personnel safety. v) Cooling : Cooling water for the DG set cooling may be tapped from Cooling Water Supply System for the generating unit. An exhaust fan removing air heated by engine surfaces and generator-exciter unit may discharge to either outdoors or main generator room. vi) Installation : The installation of the DG set and all auxiliaries is normally accomplished by power house installation contract under the technical supervision of engine generator supplier.

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Diesel Generating Set in Power House

7.9

ELEVATORS

i) General : Principal considerations relative to powerhouse elevators include justification, location, size, type, and operating characteristics. ii) Justification : The justification for powerhouse elevators rests on a number of interrelated factors, the combination of which can indicate a clear requirement, no requirement, or be equivocal. Many existing power houses are satisfactory without elevators, and rather definite justification should be apparent to warrant including one or more in the powerhouse design. Principal factor for providing elevator is total vertical distance and number of operating levels for the movement of portable equipment and maintenance tools. iii) Size : For small powerhouses a 5,340-N elevator approximately1.5 1.2 m (is usually adequate. For large powerhouses (6 or more main units) a 11-kN elevator approximately 2.1 1.5 m is adequate. In all cases the size selected should be a standard size and capacity from the elevator manufacturers. iv) Type : Elevators should be basically the passenger type for conventional power houses.

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v) Design : Design of elevators and appurtenances should be a contractor responsibility and be in accordance with applicable provisions of Guide Specification CW-14210 and codes referenced therein. 7.10 LIGHTING / ILLUMINATION SYSTEM OF POWER HOUSE

i) General - Lighting / illumination in any power Station (small, medium or large) is the basic necessity. A comprehensive illumination system should be provided in all areas of power house including adjoining areas like switch yard, approach road, forebay and tail race deck. The system shall include distribution boards, lighting panels, junction boxes, lighting poles, lighting fixtures, cables, conduits, poles and masts, etc. ii) Design Criterion The illumination system is designed on basis of best engineering practice and should ensure uniform, reliable, aesthetically pleasing, glare free illumination. Power supply shall be fed from 230 V station ac power supply and 110/220 V station DC supply for emergency lighting. Emergency lighting from DC supply shall be provided in all other strategic locations for safe personnel movement during any emergency, like generator floor, turbine floor, switchgear room, control and relay room, cable spreader room, battery room and exit points and stair cases. DC lighting should be designed to switch on automatically on failure of normal ac supply and switch off after the normal ac supply is restored. Suitable number of ceiling fans should be provided in areas not covered by airconditioning and ventilation system. Standards IS : 3646 Illumination and glass index IS : 694 Wires IS : 732 Wiring installation conditions IS : 9537 iv) Illumination Levels and Type of Fixtures Location Average Illumination level (Lux) 200 Type of Fixture

iii)

a) Turbine Hall Operating floor

b) Switchgear rooms

200

HPSV high/medium bay Industrial trough type fluorescent Mirror optics with anti-

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c) Control room, computer room d) Offices, conference rooms etc. e) Battery rooms

300 300 100

glare feature Decorative mirror optics type -DoTotally enclosed corrosion resistant / vapour proof. HPSV flood light, weather proof HPSV medium bay/industrial trough type fluorescent Flame proof fluorescent fixtures suitable for hazardous area Industrial trough type fluorescent HPSV street lights Mirror optics fluorescent Corrosion resistant, vapour proof fluorescent

10(general) 50 (on equip.) g) Compressor room, pump house, 150 etc. f) Switchyard h) Turbine, auxiliaries like OPU etc. 150

i) Cable galleries j) Street lighting roads m) Workshop, general work bench n) Laboratory - General -Analysis area

50 20 150 150 300

v)

Equipment Requirement

All luminaries, their accessories and components should be of the type readily available in the market. All fixtures and accessories should be of reputed make and non-corrosive type. All outdoor fixtures should be weather proof type. Compact Fluorescent Lamps should be used extensively in small rooms where low level of illumination is required. Wiring shall be by multi-stranded PVC insulated colour code cable laid in GI conduits. Wiring for lighting circuits of ac, and dc systems shall be run in separate conduits throughout. Wire shall conform to IS: 694 and wiring installation shall be as per IS: 732. Conduits shall be of heavy duty type, hot dip galvanised steel conforming to IS: 9537. At least one 5/15A, 240 V universal socket outlet should be provided in offices, stores, cabins, etc. and 20A 240 VAC industrial type receptacles should be provided strategically in all other areas. All these receptacles should be 3 pin type and controlled with a switch. Suitable numbers of 63 A, 3 phase, 415 V ac industrial type receptacles with control switches should be provided for the entire plant for welding purposes, particularly near all major equipment.

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7.11 1.

REFERENCES

USBR Manual, 1110-2-4205 June 1995,on Hydroelectric Power Plants Mechanical Design 2. IS : 4721-1968 Code of practice for drainage and dewatering of surface hydel power stations. 3. EM 1110-2-4203 - General criteria and design procedures,. 4. Guide Specification CW-14330 - Detail design criteria for indoor bridge cranes. 5. IS 3177 1999 Code of Practice for E.O.T. Cranes and Gantry cranes 6. IS 807 2006 Design, Erection and Testing of Cranes and Hoists 7. IS 13834 (Part 5) - Overhead Traveling and Portal Bridge Cranes 8. IS 4720-82 Code Of Practice For Ventilation of Surface Hydel Power Stations 9. IS : 3103-1975 installation, operation, testing and maintenance of ventilating system 11. Guide Specifications CW-15487 for turbine lubricating oil and CW-16321 for electrical insulating mineral oil. 12. American Petroleum Institute (API) Standard 650, 13. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (design pressures 15 psi and over).

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CHAPTER - 8 COSTING, ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL ANALYSIS OF SMALL HYDRO ELECTRIC PROJECTS
8.1 INTRODUCTION

Economic analysis is a quantitative evaluation of the economic feasibility of the project and gives a comparison between the benefits and costs of the projects over the life time of the project. Financial analysis is a quantitative assessment of the ability of the project to repay the investment on a self-liquidating basis. Hence a project to be financially feasible, the anticipated revenue receipts over the life time of the project should be more than the project disbursements. In both economic and financial analysis, recurring annual costs and revenues are of primary concern. However, some other costs and benefits like recreational benefit available to the population because of the impoundment which may not yield revenue to the project is considered in the economic analysis but not in the financial analysis. The economic evaluation of a project is aimed at evaluating the following objectives : Determination of relative merits of different configurations of the project by comparing economic benefits and costs for each configuration. Determination of size and capacity of the project. Establish the ranking for developing sites. Establish construction priorities.

Sometimes the objectives like generation of employment due to the project and improvement in the environment are considered important if the project is being financed by the Government. In such cases, it is imperative to include these additional objectives. Effect of inflation may or may not be included in the economic analysis. If escalation is considered, it should be considered consistently for both costs and benefits. 8.2 DISCOUNT RATE

Discount rate signifies the time value of money and is the cost of the capital investment. In the public sector investments, the discount rate is the cost of borrowing in the bond market or from other financing institutions. The Government fixes the discount rates either by low or by notifications from the projects being funded by them. For investments by private sector, the usual practice of fixing discount rates is based on weighted average cost of capital. 8.3 NET PRESENT VALUE

For arriving at consistent figures for both benefit and cost so that they can be compared, the net present value criterion is adapted. The procedure is to calculate the present

187

value at the time of first expenditure of the future stream of net benefits. For calculating the net present value, a discount rate is first fixed. The net present value (NPV) of a project is expressed as : NPV = Where, NPV CFI Sn d n = = = = = Net present value Net cash flow in year I starting with initial investment Salvage value discount rate last year of cash flow

(1 + d ) + (1 + d )
i=D

CFi
i

Sn

Considered over the entire life of the project if the net present value of the project is negative or equal to zero, the project is un-remunerative and is rejected. For a project to be viable, the net present value of the project at should be positive. 8.4 INTERNAL RATE OF RETUREN (IRR)

The Internal Rate of Return (IRR) is defined as that discount rate which results in the net present value of project being zero. If the internal rate of return is determined to be less than the interest rate (or in other words, cost of funding) for the project, the project is economically not viable. 8.5 BENEFIT-COST RATIO (B/C)

The Benefit-Cost analysis is most commonly used tool for evaluating the economic viability of the project. The B/C ratio is the ratio of the present value of future cash flows (benefits) to the present value of the original and subsequent cash out flows. Project with a B/C ratio of less than one is economically infeasible and hence rejected. 8.6 ECOMIC EVALUATION

The economic evaluation as already described can be evaluated by adopting the following methodologies : (a) Net present value method (b) Internal rate return method (c) Benefit-cost ratio In the evaluation process for small hydropower projects, the decision regarding the projects fall into two types, namely : (a) (b) Screening Banking

188

In screening process, the objective is to retain all those projects which fulfill the criteria for economic viability as outlined below and reject those which do not fulfill and hence are economically infeasible: (1) (2) (3) NPV is positive IRR is more than the cost of capital B/C ratio is more than 1.

Since there s constraint in availability of funds for taking up many small hydro projects simultaneously, the projects can be ranked amongst the economically viable projects on the basis of the following criteria : (1) NPV basis Project with highest NPV ranked highest and others in the descending order of NPV arranged. Projects arranged in the descending order of B/C ratio, the first ranking project being the one with highest B/C ratio.

(2)

B/C Ratio

8.7

COSTS The annual operating costs consists of the following components : Operation cost Maintenance cost Replacement cost Interest Taxes Insurance FINANCIAL FEASIBILITY

8.8

The financial feasibility of a small hydro project can be established if the project can be self liquidating with realistic interest rates at an acceptable risk level. The financial feasibility is therefore dependent on the following factors : Characteristic of the project Type of developer Type and characteristic of energy demand Prevailing monetary situation in credit marked as if affects the cost of borrowing and availability of funds. ABSTRACT OF PRELIMINARY COST ESTIMATES FOR PRE-FEASIBILITY STUDY (CASE STUDY) (2 x300 kW) ITEMS 1. I-Works Cost (Rs. in Lacs)

8.9

189

A. B.

Civil Works E & M Works Including Turbine, Generator, Transformers, Cable and other Systems - Transmission line - 2 km Total I-Works (A+B)

150.00 240.00

4.00 394.00

2.

Establishment, Audit and other Expenses (11% of I-Works) 43.34 437.34 26.24 463.58 77,263/-

3.

Total cost (Rs. in lacs) Interest during Construction (12% of total cost) Total Project Cost (Rs. in lacs)

4 5 A

Installation cost/kW (Rs.) Generation cost Annual Expenditure (in lacs) i. Operation and maintenance cost

13.91

(3% of Total Project Cost) ii. Annual Depreciation (2.0% of Total Project Cost) iii Interest (@ 12 % of Project Cost) 55.63 79.80 4.20 M units 9.27

Total Annual Expenditure (Rs. in lacs) B. Annual Generation at 81% load factor (taking 10% downtime and 0.5% auxiliary consumption) C. Cost of Generation/kWh

Rs. 1.88

8.10

ABSTRACT OF PROJECT COST FOR DETAILED PROJECT REPORT (CASE STUDY) (2X9000 kW)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------S.No. Particular Cost (Rs. in Lacs) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------I. Works 1. 2. 3. A-Preliminary B-Land C-Works 190 25.00 5.00 1684.56

4. 5. 6. 7. 9. 9. 10.

K-Building M-Plantation O-Miscellaneous P-Maintenance O-Special T&P R-Communication (Approach road) S-Power Plant

40.00 5.00 30.00 25.00 37.00 10.00 4949.27 ----------Total 6809.83 ----------272.39 69.10 17.02 ---------(-) 35.44 69.10 ----------7200.00 Lacs

II III IV V VI VII

Establishment 4% of I-Works Ordinary T&P 1% of I-Works Losses on Stock 0.25% of C-Works Suspense Receipt and Recoveries Indirect Charges 1% of I-Works for audits and accounts

Grand Total Rs. 8.11

CIVIL COST APPRAISAL OF HYDRO ELECTRIC PROJECTS

The estimates of Hydro Electric Projects are framed in accordance with IS : 48771968 `Guide for Preparation of Estimates for River Valley Projects'. Accordingly the `Hydro Electric Installation' is dealt in Unit-III of the code. This unit is divided into Minor heads under `Direct Charges' & `Indirect Charges'. a) Direct Charges include: I II III IV V Cost of Works, Cost of Establishment, Cost of Tools & Plants, Suspense Receipts and Recoveries.

b) Indirect Charges include: (i) Captialised value of abatement of land revenue (ii) Audit & account charges.

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a) Direct Charges The provisions from `A' - Preliminaries to `Y' Losses on Stock fall Under - I Cost of Works which is further subdivided into detailed sub-heads accordingly to the nature and type of works. These are illustrated as under:1.1 `A' - Preliminary 1.2 `B '- Land 1.3 `C' - Works 1.4 `J' - Power Plant Civil Works 1.5 `K' - Buildings 1.6 `M' - Plantation 1.7 `O' - Miscellaneous 1.8 `P' - Maintenance 1.9 `Q' - Special T&P 1.10 `R' - Communications 1.11 `X' - Environment & Ecology 1.12 `Y' - Loses on Stock II. Cost of Establishment The provision towards the cost of engineering, supervision and administrative services is covered under this head. This is in the range of 8% to 10% of I-Works excluding the cost on `B' Land. III. Cost of Tools and Plants The provision as distinct from that under `Q' special T&P is meant to cover. "Survey instruments, camp equipments and other small tools". The provision is kept generally 1% of the cost of I-Works. IV. Suspense The provision under this head is kept NIL. V. Receipts and Recoveries Temp buildings = 15% of the capital cost Special T&P = 19.75% of the capital cost Inspection Vehicles = 25% of the cost of vehicles b) Indirect Charges (i) Capitalised value on abatement of land revenue:- This is taken as 5% of the cost of agricultural land or 20 times of the land revenue cost whichever is more. (ii) Audit & account Charges: This is taken as 1% of cost of I-Works.

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c)

Completion Cost

The completion cost is arrived at by phasing out the project cost based upon envisaged completion period and allowing an escalation due to inflation on material & labour. The component of interest during construction is also taken into account on loan arranged from external sources.

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CHAPTER - 9 ERECTION, COMMISSIONING, FIELD TESTING AND RENOVATION AND MODERNISATION

9.1 ERECTION / INSTALLATION The erection, testing and commissioning of turbines, inlet valves, generators, control equipment, all auxiliaries of the power house, transformers and switchyard other equipment is generally arranged through main supplier of the generating set or a separate Erection Contractor under technical supervision of equipment supplier, All services including storage at site, transportation of equipment from stores to Power House site, handling of equipment in P.H. and various consumables required during erection & commissioning etc should be arranged by the Contractor. 9.1.1 Erection and Testing Procedure - Following documents must be obtained from the equipment supplier at the time of procurement ; Erection & Commissioning Manual describing in detail the sequential steps such as equipment preparation on erection bay, handling of large and heavy pieces, levelling, anchoring, site welding, site painting, erection checks, site pressure tests, site flushing and cleaning of hydraulic systems, alignment and run out checks during erection of major equipment. The manuals shall contain the Log Sheets for taking measurements during installation. Field quality assurance plan indicating the field tests to be conducted by the Contractor and his sub-suppliers and witnessed by the Owner during precommissioning, commissioning and acceptance along with their acceptance criteria. Complete list of tools, tackles, handling devices, templates for initial setting maintenance, etc. along with descriptive literature and drawings. Pre-commissioning tests and procedures described in sequential steps for the precommissioning of all electrical and mechanical equipments and also containing sufficient details viz. checking of installations, ratings, cable terminal checking and operation test of all auxiliary equipments etc. necessary Log Sheets shall be annexed to facilitate proper recording of test results. The commissioning procedures describing in sufficient detail activities and tests for all systems covered. List of Field Acceptance Tests and Performance Evaluation Tests to be conducted during pre-commissioning and commissioning along with the method and procedure to be followed.

IX-1

9.1.2 Erection Tools, Tackles & Devices Tools, tackles and handling devices for erection procured with the supply of main equipment are to be used during erection and commissioning. They are to be maintained in good condition and stored with proper identification tacks after commissioning and handover of the project for capital overhaul and maintenance. in future. All necessary instruments required for inspection and testing shall be arranged by the Contractor. COMMISSIONING

9.2

The term COMMISSIONING means the activities of functional testing of the complete system after erection, including tuning or adjusting the equipment for optimum performance. 9.3 PRE-COMMISSIONING FIELD TESTS

Generally the following measurements / tests shall be performed during precommissioning stage: A. Turbine and Associated Mechanical Equipment Wicket Gates clearances in fully closed condition Characteristic - Servomotor stroke Vs wicket Gate opening Characteristic - Wicket gate openings Vs runner blade angles Wicket gates and runner blades opening and closing times and servomotor cushioning time Radial clearances between throat ring and runner blades Diametrical clearances of guide bearings Dielectric and Insulation Resistance Tests on all electrical motors as per relevant standards Operational tests on oil pressure system to verify : Safety and unloader valve settings Setting of pressure relays for automatic control of pumps Setting of pressure relay for emergency low pressure Setting of emergency low oil level in pressure tank Air replenishment in oil pressure tank in auto/manual mode Test to verify pumps capacity Low and high oil level in sump - alarm signals Tests to verify number of close/open operations with oil pump Pump operating regime i.e. pumping time Vs idling time with wicket gate & runner servomotors at 90% open position The governor shall be adjusted and tested in the field for optimum performance in simulated operating conditions. Specifically the following tests/checks will be performed :

IX-2

Verify logic control scheme from local/remote including start/stop, load control, emergency shutdown, controlled action shutdown, locking and other feature Verify stability and response of governor during : 10% to 20% step change load acceptance and rejection, or a combination of these. Verify parallel operation of unit as per drop settings selected. Verify setting range of permanent droop, on/off-line temporary speed droop, derivative time constants, frequency dead band, speed setting limits, gate setting limits, no load gate limit, speed relays etc. Verify servomotor response time Other test to verify performance as per applicable IEC code 308(1970) for testing of speed governing systems for hydraulic turbines.

B. a)

Operation of level controllers in OLU for automatic operation of pumps and signal for high oil level alarm. Calibration of instruments, switches and level controllers. Electrical Equipment Full functional checking and setting up of the following All ancillary AC apparatus All ancillary DC apparatus All alarms and trips All electrical protections Switchgear All associated turbine and generator control and miscellaneous items

9.4

TESTS PRIOR TO FIRST ROTATION The tests normally include following: A. Mechanical Equipment Governing system including oil pressure unit Compressed air system Operation of guide vanes with dry spiral casing Opening / closing operations of inlet valve with dry spiral casing Operation of intake gates Cooling water system Operation of emergency closing devices Operation of generator brakes

IX-3

B.

Electrical Equipment Magnetization test of the ready assembled iron core to verify the absence of hot spots (local overheating) 24 hours magnetizing test of stator core. Stator winding resistance Rotor winding resistance Insulation resistance of stator winding Insulation resistance of rotor winding H.V. dielectric test on stator and rotor Alignment of generating unit (rotor, runner, shafts) Measurement of air gap Measurement of Insulation resistance of thrust & guide bearing Rotor balancing Stator winding drying out, if necessary. Hydrostatic pressure testing on each surface air cooler and oil cooler. Field current determination Relay test Calibration and necessary test of RTDs /DTTs. Measurement of partial discharge of stator insulation. Shaft voltage, shaft current measurement. Phase sequence test Potential drop and polarity of field coils

9.5

INITIAL RUN, TEST RUN AND COMMISSIONING TEST

The test procedures for initial run, test run and commissioning tests on all individual systems/elements of the power plant and the generating units should be in accordance with the with IEC Publication 60545 "Guide for Commissioning, Operation and Maintenance of Hydraulic Turbines" or relevant IS to verify the guaranteed technical particulars, correctness of sequences and logics, operation of all safety and protection elements, testing of speed and pressure transients on load acceptance and rejection and smoothness of operations. Following commissioning tests shall invariably be included in tests recommended by Contractor before putting the machine on 72 hours continuous run for handing over : Checking and stabilize the performance of the governor for : Logic control scheme from local/remote including start/stop, load control, emergency shutdown, controlled action shutdown, locking and other feature Stability and response of governor during 10% to 20% step change and load acceptance and rejection, or a combination of these. Verify parallel operation of unit as per drop settings selected. Automatic starting, stopping, synchronizing and emergency shut down by simulating emergency conditions Checking the setting of over speed trip device by over speeding the machine Checking setting of various speed relays in governor

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Checking operation of machine without cooling water in guide bearing for half an hour. Checking speed rise and pressure rise at 75% and 100% sudden load rejection of individual generating unit and simultaneous 100% sudden load rejection from both units. . Checking shaft vibrations with contact less probe and bracket vibrations at bearing housings, throat ring and manhole of draft tube at various operating conditions. Operation of inlet valve and engagement of seal, Opening / closing time of inlet valve, Operation of level controllers in OLU for automatic operation of pumps and signal for high oil level alarm, Calibration of instruments, switches and level controllers Braking test for verifying stopping time Open circuit characteristic curves Short circuit characteristic curves Bearing heat run test Temperature measurement of thrust and guide bearing pads and of oil in oil baths. Load acceptance tests of above from no load to full load. Measure and record thrust bearing and upper guide bearing brackets deflections at dead load and operation loads. Test of inter turn short circuit of each field coils by measurement of resistance method. Testing of on-line monitoring systems and verification and calibration of various sensors. Recording and analyzing of base line data of vibration, air gap, moisture in oil and any other parameters acquisitioned through on-line monitoring systems.

Tests on Excitation Equipment Load rejection test to determine maximum voltage rise under AVR control. Excitation system frequency response (phase & gain) curves of generator Overall response of machine and excitation system voltage changes. Tests of maximum excitation limiter. Tests of volts per cycle regulation. Minimum excitation limiter test. Effectiveness of voltage regulator forcing action in demagnetizing the main regulator field. Voltage build up test on auto-control. Steady state accuracy of voltage control from no load to full load. Test to determine the range of voltage adjustment on auto control and manual control. Dielectric test for excitation transformer. Adjustment of AVR. Test of ceiling voltage and steady state ceiling voltage. Test of excitation system operation at simulated component-failure.

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The commissioning test reports and protocols are prepared and issued by erection and commissioning agency. 9.6 TRIAL RUN

Immediately upon completion of commissioning the generating unit is kept on trial operation during which period all necessary adjustments are made while operating over the full load-range enabling the plant to be made ready for performance and guarantee tests. The duration of trial operation of the complete equipment is normally 72 hours continuous run. The trial operation is considered successful, provided that each item of the equipment can operate continuously at the specified operating characteristics for the period of trial operation. The trial operation report comprising of observations and recordings of various parameters measured in respect of the above trial operation is prepared. This report, besides recording the details of the various observations during trial run, also include the dates of start and finish of the trial operations. The report should record all the details of interruptions occurred, adjustments made and any minor repairs done during the trial operation. If any defects or irregularities affecting the safety or reliability of the Works arises during the trial run, the trial run is interrupted and started again after such defects or irregularities have been corrected. 9.7 FIELD ACCEPTANCE TEST To prove the Guaranteed Performance Parameters e.g. capacity and efficiency of the equipment, one generating unit selected by the Purchaser after completion of commissioning and running the sets for commercial operation, is tested in accordance with the test programme set out in respective Technical Specifications and the agreed procedure. 9.7.1 Field Acceptance Test for all units - These tests consist of: a. Stator dielectric tests. These tests consist of: Insulation resistance and polarization index, Corona probe test, Corona visibility test, Final AC high potential test, Partial discharge analysis (PDA) test, and Ozone detection (optional). Rotor dielectric tests. Stator and rotor resistance tests. Heat run tests. Measurement of power output at nominal power and maximum power and temperature rise. Speed rise and pressure rise on load throw off. Voltage rise on load throw off Vibration tests

b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

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9.7.2

Special Field Acceptance Test for Parameter Guaranteed Under Penalty for One Unit only Tests for turbine output and Efficiency The guaranteed range of outputs for each scheme should be tested. The testing should be in accordance with IEC Publication. No. 41 International Code for the Field Acceptance Tests of Hydraulic Turbines or relevant IS or standard of the country or origin. The turbine output in each test is determined by measuring the electrical output of each unit and subtracting generator losses calculated from the generator works test results. When comparing the site test results with the guaranteed performance, the error in the test results are assumed to be as allowed in IEC Publication No. 41 or relevant IS or standards of the country of origin.

A.

B.

Generator Output, Efficiency and Temperature Rise The generator output in relation to guaranteed temperature rise shall be tested at site by performing a heat run in accordance with relevant IS. The resistance temperature detector installed in the generator stators are used to measure machine temperature.

C.

Supervisory control and communication equipment is tested as per specification. The calibration of various testing instruments is done by `authorized agencies' and institutions. The site performance tests should be completed before the expiry of the Defects Liability Period or issuance of Final Acceptance Certificate.

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