670 Table I.

Size distribution Total output (million tonnes) 36 130 43

Feng Liu et al of cement plants in China, 1980. Source: Ref. 6. Average production/year (thousand tonnes/plant) 553 62 12

Type of plant Key plants Local plants Rural plants

Number of plants 65 2100 3500

(Table 1 ), and each plant often has more than one kiln. The unit capacities of clinker kilns in China are much smaller than in the West. Average unit capacities of rotary and vertical kilns used in China were, respectively, about 90,000 and less than 30,000 tonnes of clinker per year in 1990, while average unit capacities of Japanese and American rotary kilns were, respectively, about 1 million and 320,000 tonnes of clinker per year in the mid-1980s.3-5 1.2. Production process The Chinese cement industry possesses the most diversified production technologies in the world, from 1940s-vintage wet-process production lines to advanced precalciner kilns, and from the most primitive vertical kilns to some very efficient mechanized vertical kilns. Small plants, thriving on their low capital costs and access to local consumers, gained substantial market share because of strong demand in the 1980s. Their share of total cement production rose from 68% in 1980 to 83% in 1989. The number of mechanized vertical kilns, either newly built or converted manual kilns, increased from 467 units in 1980 to 3241 units in 1990. The larger and more expensive rotary kilns increased from 305 to 671 units in the same period.3 By importing equipment, the cement industry was able to put 16 precalciner kilns into operation in the 1980s (a few being domestically manufactured); but these modern units produce only about 5% of cement output. Figure 1 shows the cement production structure in China-in 1990.
Total Cement Production in 1990 100%

~~~~~

Fig.

I. China cement production by kiln type (1990).

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1.3. Energy consumption

trendsf

Cement manufacturing consumed about 41 Mtce energy in 1990, accounting for 34% of the energy used in the building materials industry, or about 4% of total energy use in the country. Coal comprises 77% of the total: electricity contributes 23%. Oil and gas consumption is negligible. Energy costs are about 40% of total production costs .6 In the U.S., energy costs are 21% of the value of shipments ( 1991). The costs of electricity and fuel are comparable, indicating that energy conservation measures for coal and electricity are comparable in importance. In the U.S. the cost of electricity to the cement industry was 51% of energy costs in 1991. In 1990, the average fuel intensity of the key dry-process cement plants was about 165 kgce/tonneclinker and the average fuel intensity of the key wet-process plants was about 205 kgce/tonne-clinker. The fuel intensities of vertical kilns span a wide range, from 110 to more than 220 kgce/tonne-clinker, depending on the kilns technological sophistication, such as levels of mechanization and electronic controls as well as operation skills.8 The average fuel intensity of mechanized vertical kilns, which produced 60% of China s cement, was about 165 kgce/tonne-clinker in 1990. The industry-wide weighted-fuel intensity was about 180 kgce/tonne-clinker [authors estimate]. The average kiln s fuel use per tonne of clinker in U.S. plants in 1985 was about 157 kgce-tonne-clinker (an average of both dry and wet processes), about 10% better than present Chinese practice.5 Japanese plants reached an average level of about 110 kgce/tonne-clinker in the late 1980~.~ The fuel intensity of key plants, consisting of both dry and wet processes, decreased 1 l%, from 207 kgce/tonne-clinker in 1981 to 185 kgce/tonne-clinker in 1990. However, the electricity intensity of key plants rose 1 l%, from 99 kWh/tonne-cement in 1981 to 110 kWh/tonne-cement.3 The reduction of fuel intensity in the key plants is credited to new production facilities as well as systematic energyconservation work. The increase of automation, use of cyclones for heat exchange, and improved pollution control are the primary reasons for increased electricity intensity. There are no time-series data to show the trend in energy efficiency of small plants. 1.1. Environmental concerns

Particulate emissions are the main pollutant of the Chinese cement industry. Most cement plants do not have sufficient dust-collection equipment, and many do not have any. The building materials industry emits the largest amount of particulates among all industries, accounting for 55% of total industrial particulate emissions in the surveyed cities, much from cement plants. NOx emissions are elevated because of the high-temperature clinkering process. SO, emissions are moderate because cement kilns also generate an alkaline substance that neutralizes sulfur. As a large coal user, the cement industry is a major target for CO1 reduction. Cement production also generates extra CO2 emissions because calcining limestone liberates carbon dioxide. Quarry activities in cement manufacturing also cause the destruction of land and vegetation.
2. PROCESS STAGES AND ENERGY INTENSITIES

Cement is a powder made up of microcrystals of materials like di- and tri-calcium silicates. When water is added, a certain amount combines with these materials to form hydrates of definite chemical composition. Adhesion of the hydrates to each other, and to added materials such as sand, is the basis for the strength of concrete. Most cement is hydraulic, which means that it will even set or harden under water. Portland cement is the dominant kind. To manufacture cement, raw materials such as limestone are ground to a fine powder. These materials are calcined, that is, CO, is largely driven off at high temperatures to form lime and related compounds (e.g., CaCO, - CaO + CO& The resulting materials are then partially melted. When hardened, this product is clinker, consisting of microcrystals of the kind just mentioned. The clinker is ground to a powder with particle size appropriate to the application. Added materials, e.g. aluminum and iron

tThe abbreviations kgce and tee stand for kg and tonne of coal equivalent energy. One tee = 7 million kcal = 27.8 million B.t.u. = 29.3 GJ. Primary energies are shown in this report. Except where electrical energy is explicitly stated in kWh, electricity is compared with other energies at 3.25 x (electrical energy) or 11.7 MJ/kWh. to account for losses in generation and distribution. Thus, 1 kWh consumed is accounted at 0.399 kgce.

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compounds, can be varied to change the cement properties to achieve more rapid setting or more resistance to chemical attack (at the sacrifice of some strength). Cement manufacturing is divided into three production stages: raw material preparation; clinker production; and finish grinding. Raw material preparation mainly uses electricity, although quarrying and drying may also consume fuel. (In many cases, waste heat from the pyroprocess is used for drying raw materials.) Most of the fuel is used in the pyroprocess of clinker production. Electricity is also used for materials handling in the clinker production stage. Finish grinding uses electricity only. Portland cement is produced by grinding clinker with 3-5% gypsum and a small amount of chemical additives. Gypsum is added to control the setting time of the cement when it is mixed with water. Other materials such as blast furnace slag, power plant fly ash, and limestone can be added in the final grinding to reduce clinker consumption. The portion of clinker in cement is about 85% in China and about 93% in the U.S.5*6 2.1. Raw materials preparation In U.S. wet-process plants about 6% of the total energy is used in raw material preparation, while I Energy use for drying (about 5% of the total) is a significant the dry-process plants use about 12%. addition in the dry-process. No similar information is available for Chinese plants. Because of the special requirements of vertical kilns, small plants have a unique raw material preparation process called pelletizing. Ground raw materials are mixed with pulverized coal, usually anthracite, and are pressed into pellets with a diameter of 5-10 mm. Moisture content is controlled at 12-14%; and standards for mechanical strength and thermal stability are also met. 2.2. The pyroprocess-clinker
production

During pyroprocessing, raw materials are heated to 1400C and undergo a series of physical and chemical changes that turn raw materials into clinker. Clinker is then rapidly air-cooled to enable heat recovery and to improve quality. Theoretically, producing one tonne of clinker requires at least 1.6 GJ heat. In practice, heat consumption is much higher due to losses. For example, Chinese key plants produce clinker at an average heat consumption of 5.4 GJ/tonne-clinker. Advanced precalciner kilns use about 3 GJ/tonne-clinker. The best mechanized vertical kilns in China can achieve 3.2 GJ/tonneclinker. In the following only the vertical kiln will be discussed in detail, since the other kilns are well known. 2.3. The vertical-kiln process A vertical kiln has a fixed, vertical cylindrical steel shell with a refractory-linked inner wall and a layer of outside insulation. The top is cone-shaped to facilitate feeding raw materials. Sophisticated vertical kilns have mechanized feeding and discharging equipment and electronic controls, while primitive vertical kilns are operated manually. Figure 2 depicts a stylized vertical-kiln. The size of a vertical kiln is restricted by the difficulties in maintaining uniform air flow, combustion, 5%
10% Preheating Zone

CalcinationZone

85%

CoolingZone

Fig. 2. The basic structure of vertical kilns.

Energy efficiency

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calcination. and the sinking rate of raw materials as the kiln volume increases. Suitable sizes are in the diameter range of 2.5-3.0 m. The height of the kilns is determined by the time needed for raw materials to stay in the preheating, calcining, and cooling zones. Pellet composition, air-blowing power, and operation procedures all influence the choice of kiln height. The popular 2.5-m diameter mechanized kilns are 8-10 m high with production capacity ranging from 5 to 10 tonne-clinker/hour. 2 An annual capacity of 50,000 tonne-clinker is considered high. In vertical-kilns, the fuel-embodied raw material pellets are added at the top to meet with counterflowing hot air. Combustion and calcination of the pellets proceed from the surface to the inside of the pellet. The temperature of the preheating zone ranges from 20 to 1000C. Its length varies with onsite kiln operation and the height of the cone-shaped part of the kiln, but usually is 5-10% of the kiln s height. The calcining zone is usually in the range of 0.5-1.0 m, about lo-15% of the kiln s height. The temperature in this zone ranges from 1000 to 1400C. Operation and control in the calcining zone are the key to high-quality clinker and low consumption of materials and energy. In the cooling zone, clinker is cooled by the air blown in from the bottom. This process preheats combustion air and provides upward hot air flow for pellet preheating. The length of the cooling zone is about 75-85% of the kiln s height. Faster pellet feeding tends to increase the length of the preheating zone and pushes the calcination zone downward, thus shortening the length of the cooling zone. Energy sinks for two groups of mechanized vertical kilns are shown in Table 2. The best mechanized vertical kilns can achieve good energy efficiency because the heat loss via exhaust or tail gases is low (presumably due to the counterflow of gases through the compact feed zone), because the same air stream cools the clinker and supports the pyroprocess (no direct exhaust from clinker cooling), and because radiation losses are low due to the very short high-temperature section. The single largest heat loss in both groups is from chemically incomplete combustion and the associated accumulation of CO. Inadequate air supply, uneven air distribution, and oversupply of coal all contribute to CO production. Inadequate blower capacity and leakage are common causes of insufficient air supply. Improvement of air distribution inside the kiln requires better-quality pellets (in terms of strength, size, and porosity) and careful kiln operation. Oversupply of coal is usually associated with overground coal powder and high fuel density in the raw feed. Under conditions of low temperature and lack of oxygen, overground coal powder reacts with CO2 to generate CO. Physically incomplete combustion relates to unburned residual fuel in the pyroprocess. Poor pellet quality and poor operation often result in this waste. Pellets containing oversize coal grains, uneven mixing of raw materials and coal powder, and excessive discharge speed are some examples. Heat loss through tail gases is the second largest source of heat losses in the vertical kiln pyroprocess. Prevention procedures are mainly operational, including adjusting the length of the preheating zone and avoiding surface flame. It is unknown whether this heat can be economically recovered by a wasteheat boiler. Combustion control in vertical kilns is more difficult than in rotary kilns, because the flow of raw materials is simply subject to gravity, which is harder to control than with a rotating shaft. The fuel and raw material mix is also predetermined in the vertical-kiln process, thus reducing the flexibility of

Table 2. Heat balance of two groups of mechanized

vertical kilns (in MJ/tonne-clinker).

Source: Ref. 12.

Group A (7 units) Drying heat consumption Tail gas heat loss Heat loss due to chemically incomplete combustion Heat loss due to physically incomplete combustion Waste heat in clinker Radiation heat loss Clinker formation heat consumption Other heat consumption Total heat balance 627.5 417.9 1210.5 247.6 171.7 29.1 1711.1 86.5 4501.9 ( 154 kgcelton-clinker)

Group B (19 units) 615.5 230.3 724.4 79.6 163.3 16.7 1729.2 142.4 3701.4 (126 kgce/ton-clinker)

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the firing system. Operating skills are important for energy efficiency and product quality, especially when electronic controls are not installed. This points out the importance of training kiln operators. 2.4. Rotary kilns The wet process is highly inefficient in energy use and has been abandoned in favor of the dry process in most industrialized countries. In China the wet process still comprises about 10% of production capacity. There are two types of dry processes of interest, preheater and precalciner, in order of increasing energy efficiency. Compared to the wet process, the dry process is able to shorten the rotary kiln by eliminating the evaporation zone, but fuel savings are limited if waste heat is not recovered. The preheater dry process reduces fuel consumption by utilizing waste heat in a preheater to the kiln at the feed end. One kind is the cyclone or suspension preheater, a system of multi-stage cyclones and riser ducts. Presently, about 2.5% of Chinese cement production is from suspension preheater kilns. The average fuel intensity of suspension preheater kilns was about 135 kgce/tonne-clinker in 1990, comparable to the fuel intensity of the U.S. preheater plants in the middle 1980~.~,Cyclone preheaters are widely used in converting wet-process kilns and renovating inefficient dry-process kilns. The commercial-scale precalciner process dates back only a couple of decades. The precalciner is a separate combustion chamber between the suspension preheater and the rotary kiln. The precalciner process divides fuel use between the precalciner and the rotary kiln. In 1985 U.S. precalciner systems had an average fuel intensity of 123 kgce/tonne-clinker.5 Kaiser Cement, one of the most advanced cement plants in North America, has achieved a fuel intensity of 104 kgce/tonne-clinker for a kiln that produces about 4500 tonne-clinker/day. 4 China now designs and constructs small-to-medium (365,OOCL730,000tonne-clinker per year) precalciner kilns. Such domestic designs are at the early 1980s level of their U.S. counterparts in terms of energy efficiency and other major technical indicators. I5 The 17 dry-process key plants of all types in China had an average fuel intensity of 164 kgce/tonne-clinker in 1990. Nine of the 17 have fuel intensities over 200 kgce/tonne-clinker, indicating low penetration of successful technologies. 2.5. Finish grinding Hot clinker is rapidly air-cooled and conveyed to a storage tank where it is ready for the final grinding process. Hot gases recovered from the cooler can be used for drying and preheating raw materials. Electricity use in finish grinding usually comprises about 10% of the energy use in cement production. On a worldwide basis, about 40 kWh are used to grind each tonne of clinker.5 Most cement plants in China use ball mills for finishing grinding while more efficient roller mills are the norm in the industrialized countries. The electricity intensity of finish grinding in the Chinese plants ranges from 35 to 45 kWh per tonne of clinker. 3
3. ENERGY-CONSERVATION MEASURES AND COST ANALYSISt

A critical consideration for the economies of projects in China is the relative cost of foreign- and domestically-manufactured equipment. The exchange rate for the rmb yuan is three to four times lower than its domestic buying power. Thus, one dollar converted into rmb at the official exchange rate can buy three dollars worth of goods-if domestic goods of the kind and quality desired are available. Much of the modern cement plant equipment is now manufactured in China, but some of the most modern components are not. Thus some of the actual demonstration-project costs are high because major items of foreign equipment are included. Such projects might be cost-effective were it not for the disparity between the exchange rate and the purchasing power of the currency for domestic equipment. Of course, even if certain types of equipment are not now manufactured in China, in the near future most could be. During the last 10 years the central government sponsored many energy-conservation projects in the

tMore than 70 energy-conservation important ones here.

measures

have been adopted by the Chinese cement industry.

We only discuss the more

Energy efficiency of China s

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615

cement industry.? Undertakings ranged from renovations of vertical kilns and wet- and dry-process kilns to the introduction of advanced precalciner facilities. These projects provide information for the assessment of the energy-conservation potential and related direct costs in the Chinese cement industry.

3. I. Renovation

of small cement plants (equipped

with vertical kilns)

Although, on average, mechanized vertical kilns consume less coal per tonne of cement clinker than the present array of rotary kilns, many are very inefficient. The fuel intensities of mechanized vertical kilns range from 110 kgce/tonne-clinker to 225 kgce/tonne/clinker, and the average fuel intensity of 165 kgce/tonne-clinker indicates a great potential for efficiency improvement. As indicated in Table 2, most heat losses at vertical kilns stem from chemically incomplete combustion and high-temperature tail gases. Drying feed materials also consumes substantial heat. Renovation of the mechanized vertical-kiln plants not only increases energy efficiency, cement quality, and plant capacity, but also helps control air pollution. The following groups of measures are usually implemented:* ( 1) retrofit raw material grinding facilities: automating the load control of grinders; installing high-efficiency classifiers (to sort ground materials according to their fineness); installing roller grinders; retrofitting efficient electric motors; (2) pre-mix control of raw materials and fuel: careful analysis of the chemical and physical characteristics of the raw materials and fuel for accurate raw feed prescription; (3) raw feed ingredient control: using minerals that contain fluoride and sulfur as additives;$ computerizing the weighing process; (4) uniformity control of raw feed mixture: automating the blending process; (5) computer-controlled pellet production: water content and raw feed mixture control; (6) retrofit vertical kilns: optimizing kiln size and shape; using high-quality refractory lining materials; improving insulation; (7) computer-controlled kiln operation: optimizing air flow, temperature distribution, and the speed of feeding and discharging; (8) improve finish grinding efficiency: pre-grinding clinker crushing; roller grinding process; high-efficiency classifiers; and (9) particulate emissions control. According to SBBMI data on demonstration projects, these measures usually result in a lO-30% reduction in fuel intensity. Since renovation of mechanized vertical-kiln plants brings about substantial increases in production capacity, the avoided investment in new capacity often more than pays for the investment, and the energy savings seem to be a costless byproduct. The increased production capacity is desirable because of the strong growth in demand for cement. In one example (Ref. 10) of such a renovation project, the simple payback was 2 years, with half the savings coming from increased capacity and the other half from reduced fuel and electricity intensities (with the two forms of comparable importance).l Renovation of vertical kilns is justified in straight economic terms. Since economic benefits from increased cement production usually make up a large proportion of the total benefits, some have questioned the validity of classifying the renovation of vertical kilns as an energy-conservation undertaking. Government policymakers should recognize that, since the return on such projects is rapid, economic incentives are already high and the enterprises should provide most of the capital. Converting manual vertical kilns to mechanized vertical kilns is also an important energy-conservation opportunity. The SBBMI plans to close all manual-kiln plants with less than 50,000 tonne

tIndustry-wide energy-conservation programs initiated by the central government were the breakthrough of energy policy in China in the 1980s. The building materials industry was one of the major targets of energy-saving programs. Summarized here are the measures enacted in the early 1980s: after official inspections for energy efficiency and production scale of more than 6700 small cement factories, more than 1100of them were closed.x Precalciner kilns from various countries were imported, and in order to enable domestic production of precalciner kilns, 17 key manufacturing technologies of the precalciner process were also imported. By 1990, China was able to produce major components of the 1000 ton/day and 2000 ton/day precalciner kilns.lh Many retrofit projects were co-sponsored by the SBBMI. From 1980 to 1989, through low-interest loans and appropriations, the government invested YSOO million in energy-conservation demonstration projects in the building materials industry, resulting in I .5 Mtce/year energy-savings capacity, 60 MW electricity capacity (on-site generation through waste-heat boilers), and 8.7 MUyear increased cement production capacity.h Investment by local governments and enterprises is estimated to be at least three times as much as that of central government seed funds. iThese are major conservation measures that have been applied in the past. In a particular project they are not necessarily all adopted. It is difficult to evaluate each measure because single measures are rarely applied. #This measure is designed for saving fuel, but may result in additional pollution. Such a measure should be used with caution. IThis is one of the best performance demonstration projects. On the average, retrofit results are probably less impressive. Capital cost of new mechanized vertical kilns and cement sales profit are obtained from personal communications between Shumao Wang and SBBMI officials.

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cement/year capacity and convert others to high-efficiency mechanized kilns. Decentralized administration and strong demand for cement in the last 10 years have hindered this process. 3.2. Electricity savings Because of process mechanization, the electricity intensity of cement production in China has been rising during the past 15 years or so. We expect the intensity to continue to increase as the industry introduces more modern production lines and closes or converts existing manual vertical kilns. Since electricity costs are now comparable to fuel costs, electricity conservation is an important goal. Some 12,000 grinding machines are used for raw material grinding or clinker grinding in China. Grinders use 60-70% of electricity at a cement plant. Ball mills predominate, but more-efficient roller mills save about 20-30%. For final grinding, product quality may be best achieved with a high-pressure roller mill followed by a ball mill. I7 Many grinding mills are operated open cycle, or once through. Much more efficient operation is achieved with a closed cycle. The separator, or classifier, divides the not yet fully ground feed into fine and coarse portions with the latter re-fed to the mill, which is reoptimized for closed-cycle operation. I8 High-efficiency classifiers, for example, modern cyclone air classifiers with circumferential screens, also reduce electricity consumption. The 0-SEPA cyclone classifier imported from Japan reduces electricity use by 8% while increasing cement production by 68% compared with popular Chinese models. Often grinding capacity limits plant capacity. As indicated, conservation measures in the grinding process usually involve a combination of devices. A system used in Xinjiang Cement Plant includes a roller grinding machine, a ball grinding machine, and a high-efficiency classifier. This system reduced electricity consumption in raw material and finish grinding by 30 and 25%, respectively, compared to the ball mill systems it replaced.r3 Roller grinding machines and high-efficiency classifiers are now being produced domestically, at decreased cost. It is estimated that average electricity use for grinding will be reduced about 25% with roller mills and high-efficiency classifiers. This would result in about an 18 kWh reduction per tonne of cement production. However, increased electricity use in other aspects of cement production may offset much of this specific efficiency gain. At plants with suspension preheating, roughly 20% of plant electricity may be used to operate the fans that drive the cyclone preheaters. Adjustment of geometries and gas flows can yield substantial savings. (There are no Chinese data.)
4. ENERGY-CONSERVATION SCENARIOS

4.1. A projection

of cement production

capacity for year 2000

From 1980 to 1988, increases in cement production and real GNP were closely related. Annual growth rates were 13 and lo%, respectively. From 1988 to 1990, when the economy slowed, cement production also leveled off. When the economy regained momentum in 1991, cement production immediately resumed strong growth. We expect the demand for cement to keep pace with the growth of GNP in the coming years. The major determinants of cement demand are the scales of building and infrastructure construction, as well as major water projects. These activities have been intensive in the last decade and will remain so, or even be expanded, in the next 10-15 years. In industrialized countries, consumption of bulk materials like cement has saturated relative to GDP. In the U.S., cement consumption per constant dollar of GDP peaked in the late 1920s and has fallen 64% since then.r9 However, the per capita level of cement consumption is low in China, well below that of the U.S., and even smaller relative to Japant13 (see Fig. 3). For most materials per capita consumption in Japan is lower than in the U.S., because the U.S. economy is more materials-intensive, especially if one corrects for exports of the materials consumed to manufacture products for export. However, U.S. consumption of cement is relatively low because of the frequent use of wood for construction of small buildings. From Figure 3, we conclude that China s cement consumption relative to GDP is not yet approaching saturation. The SBBMI projects an 8% annual growth rate for cement

tCement consumption data are not available for each selected country. We use production data instead. Conclusions altered because production data usually do not substantially differ from consumption data.

will not be

Energy efficiency of China s cement industry

677

O),,,,,,,,,,,,,,.,,.,,,,,, ,,,,
0
1. India 2000 4000 3. 6000 South 8ooo loo00 12ooo Moo0 $ PPP/cl?pita (1999 Pricea) Korea 5. USA

,,

1Swo

1Sooo

20 IO

2.

China

4.

Japan

6.West

Germany

7. 8.

France UK

Fig. 3. Cement production per capita vs purchasing power parity per capita, selected countries. Cement production data for the selected countries are from Refs. 20 and 21. Data for China, India, and South Korea cover the years 1970-1989. Data for the remaining countries cover the years 1965-1988.

production from 1990 to 2000, in line with the expected 8-9% annual GDP growth. A cement output of 4.50 million tonnes in 2000 is implied by the 8% growth rate. We adopt this as our capacity forecast. 4.2. Description of scenarios

Scenario I: Business as Usual (BaU) Solution indicates that investment patterns follow those of the 1980s. Much of the needed capacity is met by building vertical kilns (VK), which, we presume, are less efficient than those in Scenarios II and III. Construction of modern precalciner kilns (PK) takes a minor role. This scenario does not recommend any specific option of production processes to meet the targeted output. Scenario II: Moderate Solution provides most of the needed capacity with advanced mechanized VKs, a mature domestic technology. Construction of PKs takes a moderate role. The capacity ratio of VK/PK in new capacity is assumed to be 3:2. Scenario III: Expensive Solution provides most of the needed capacity with PKs. Advanced VKs are the complement. The VK/PK capacity ratio in new capacity is assumed to be 1:3. We assume that 10 million tonnes of cement production capacity (from small dry-process kilns) will be retired before 2000 in all three scenarios. Thus the net increase of annual cement production capacity from 1990 to 2000 will be 250 million tonnes, an addition of 25 million tonnes per year. (We use the annual output as an approximation for annual capacity.) Similar capacity growth was achieved from 1984 to 1988 when annual cement output increased about 22 million tonnes per year. 4.3. Results and implications The 1990 production shares by kiln type are shown in Fig. 1. Based on experiences in the 1980s the renovation of existing facilities is projected to have the results shown in Table 3.h The most important of