Chemistry 1

Chapter 6 How do rocks provide useful materials?

Setting the scene
Most rocks are used for building walls. Some rocks, like iron ore, are different. You cant grow anything in it, you cant eat it and you cant build with it. But if it is heated with limestone, coke and air, it produces iron, and from iron we can make steel, which is one of our most useful materials. Concrete and steel are the most used building materials in the new London Olympic stadium. The source of both of these materials is rocks. Which other materials are used to build the Olympic stadium and where have they come from?

ICT
In this chapter you can learn to use multimedia to create an effective information campaign about mining.

Practical work
In this chapter you can learn to: make careful observations during decomposition reactions make predictions about concretes strength work safely when heating chemicals compare the properties of metals give scientific explanations of results

Chapter 6 How do rocks provide useful materials?

C1 6.1
Learning outcomes

Know the sources of useful raw materials. Know that rocks provide stone, metals and other useful materials. Know that rocks provide materials that can be used just as they are (stone) or as reactants in chemical reactions to make new materials (e.g. metals). Understand how limestone is used as a reactant to make products such as calcium oxide (lime) and calcium hydroxide. Understand how all metal carbonates decompose on heating.

What sorts of materials are there?

Some materials occur naturally iron ore, coal, crude petroleum, limestone, water and air. Some materials are used in the form they are found wood, fresh water, gold, air and sulfur. More often, raw materials are used as reactants in chemical processes. Materials like iron and steel do not occur naturally but we can make them using raw materials such as iron ore, coal and air. Iron and steel are manufactured materials. They are useful products that we need for modern lifestyles. Rocks can be quarried or mined to provide essential building materials such as stone for building homes, factories and offices. One of the most important rocks and naturally occurring resources is limestone. Limestone is quarried and used as building stone. The stone can be broken into smaller pieces and used as aggregate and chippings in concrete. Large amounts of limestone aggregate are used for making roads. Table 6.1 shows the five most important raw materials and some of the useful manufactured materials we can obtain from them.
Table 6.1 The five most important raw materials.

Raw material
Rocks

Useful manufactured materials obtained from the raw material

Metals (iron, aluminium, copper) Alloys (steel, brass) Building materials (cement, glass) Fuels (petrol, diesel) Plastics (polythene, PVC, polyester) Nitrogen for making ammonia, nitric acid, fertilisers Oxygen for breathing equipment Table salt, sodium hydroxide, chlorine and hydrogen from brine (sodium chloride solution) Fruit and vegetables Plant oils for cooking and medicines Fuels from biomass materials Phytomining

Crude oil

Test yourself
1 Make a list of the types of rocks you know of that are used without being changed, other than cut to shape. 2 Name three different types of plastic. 3 Name three materials, other than food, that come from plants. 4 Explain why petrol and diesel cars must have a supply of air to work.

Air Sea water

Plants

How do rocks provide building materials?

Limestone is mainly calcium carbonate, CaCO3. It contains calcium ions, Ca2+, combined with carbonate ions, CO32. Each carbonate ion has one carbon atom bonded to three oxygen atoms with an overall charge of 2.
2 O C O O Heat O C O + O 2

Figure 6.1 A carbonate ion is like an oxide ion with carbon dioxide added to it. If you give it a good shake by heating it, the carbon dioxide will split off.

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C1 6.1 What sorts of materials are there?

Decomposing limestone to make calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide

Calcium carbonate is found in the Earths crust in several forms limestone, chalk and marble. Calcium carbonate decomposes when it is heated strongly. The products are calcium oxide (lime) and carbon dioxide: calcium carbonate calcium oxide + carbon dioxide CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g) This is an example of thermal decomposition using heat to break down a compound to simpler products. This is a chemical change a new substance is made, and the change is not easily reversible.

Test yourself
5 a  Write word equations for the decomposition of magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate. b Explain why you would expect calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate to have similar chemical properties. c Write a balanced symbol equation for the thermal decomposition of zinc carbonate, ZnCO3(s).

Many carbonates of other metals decompose on heating in a similar way to calcium carbonate. The lower a metal is in the reactivity series (see Figure 6.14), the more easily its carbonate will decompose. For example, copper carbonate decomposes easily to make copper oxide: copper carbonate (green) copper oxide (black) + carbon dioxide CuCO3(s) CuO(s) + CO2(g) In fact, all metal carbonates will break down to make an oxide and carbon dioxide in the same way. But the higher the reactivity of the metal, the hotter it has to be before it breaks down. If you heat sodium carbonate strongly in a Bunsen flame, it will not decompose. It is not that it does not decompose at all, it is just that a Bunsen flame at 1000C is not hot enough to make it happen.

Lime
Calcium oxide (lime) reacts vigorously with water to form calcium hydroxide. The reaction is strongly exothermic, which means that lots of heat is produced: calcium oxide + water calcium hydroxide CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s) Both calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide are useful substances. They are used in industry as cheap alkalis to neutralise acidity. Calcium hydroxide is used by water companies to neutralise acids in water supplies. If chlorine is reacted with calcium hydroxide, it makes bleaching powder. Farmers and gardeners also use calcium hydroxide on acidic soil to neutralise acidity, particularly when manure is used as a fertiliser. Figure 6.2 shows the reactions of calcium carbonate, calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide. Calcium hydroxide is slightly soluble in water. Only 2g of the solid dissolve in 100g of water. This weak solution is called limewater and it is used to test for carbon dioxide. When carbon dioxide is bubbled into limewater (calcium hydroxide solution), calcium carbonate forms as a milky precipitate: calcium hydroxide solution + carbon dioxide calcium carbonate + water Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

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C1 6.1 What sorts of materials are there?

Test yourself
6 Copy Figure 6.2 and fill in the blank spaces.
Heat

Calcium carbonate (limestone) CaCO3 (s) Bubble ..................... into limewater

Calcium oxide (......................) CaO (s)

Calcium hydroxide solution (limewater) ....................

Add water .............................. (slaked lime) Ca(OH)2 (s)

Dissolve in ........................ .

Figure 6.2 The reactions of calcium carbonate, calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide

A family of reactions
Figure 6.3 Limestone and marble are slowly dissolved by acid rain because carbonates react with acids.

All metal oxides react with acids to neutralise them. For example, solid magnesium oxide dissolves in sulfuric acid to make a magnesium salt and water. magnesium oxide + sulfuric acid magnesium sulfate + water MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l) All metal oxides react in exactly the same way. Because they neutralise acids, metals oxides belong to a family of substances called bases. Soluble metal oxides are a special type of base called alkalis. Carbonates behave in a similar way to oxides: magnesium + sulfuric acid magnesium + water + carbon carbonate sulfate dioxide MgCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

The reaction is similar to the oxide reaction, with the inclusion of carbon dioxide. All metal carbonates react this way. Similarly, soluble metal carbonates (sodium and potassium carbonate) dissolve in water and turn universal indicator blue they are alkaline. Carbonates also belong to the chemical family of bases.

Reactions of carbonates

HOW SCIENCE WORKS

PRACTICAL SKILLS

Figure 6.4 Washing soda is used to soften water and prevent soap scum.

Limewater Use a drinking straw to blow gently (exhaled air contains carbon dioxide) through 15cm3 of calcium hydroxide solution (limewater) in a large test tube. Do not suck.

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C1 6.1 What sorts of materials are there?

Observe what happens to the solution. Continue to blow for 2 minutes. Observe what happens to the cloudiness when excess carbon dioxide is added.

Decomposition of copper carbonate

copper carbonate clamp and stand

Bunsen flame

limewater

Figure 6.5 Apparatus for investigating the decomposition of copper carbonate.

Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 6.5. Heat the copper carbonate gently and observe what happens to the green powder as you heat it watch carefully. Observe the change in the calcium hydroxide solution. Important: remove the test tube of limewater when you let the apparatus cool. Draw an illustrated diagram showing all the observations you made and explaining the chemical changes happened. Try the same procedure with other metal carbonates and add the results to your diagram.

Decomposing limestone Place a 1cm long marble chip (calcium carbonate, CaCO3) on a gauze on top of a tripod resting on a heat-resistant mat. Heat the marble chip strongly with a roaring Bunsen flame for 5 minutes. Dim the lighting and observe the intense white light produced by the material when it is heated strongly. This is called limelight. After heating, allow the chip to cool and pick it up with tongs (do not touch it with your fingers). Put it in a test tube. Poke it with a stirring rod and note how the hard marble has become soft and crumbly. Put a few drops of distilled water from a dropping pipette onto the white solid. Note the hiss of steam when the first drop hits the solid. Feel the heat transferred by touching the bottom of the test tube. Add more water to the test tube so that it is half full. Put a bung in the end and shake. Filter the mixture and split the filtrate between two test tubes. Breathe air through one half to see if it acts as limewater. Add a few drops of universal indicator solution to the other half and note the colour. Make an illustrated chart of the limestone cycle, complete with chemical equations for the changes that happen. Use pictures to illustrate this.

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C1 6.2 How do you make cement and concrete?

Carbonates and acids Do all carbonates react with acids in the same way? Compare the reactions of small amounts of magnesium oxide, magnesium carbonate, zinc oxide and zinc carbonate with sulfuric acid and with hydrochloric acid. Use 0.1mol/dm3 acid solutions. Do the reactions on a spotting tile. Use a grid to report the results.

Test yourself
7 Limestone is insoluble in water, but calcium hydroxide is slightly soluble. a Why does this make calcium hydroxide better than limestone for use on acid soils? b What is the chemical name for limewater? c Why would you not put a corrosive hazard label on limewater? d Write an equation for the reaction between limewater and carbon dioxide gas. 8 Baking powder is an important ingredient in soda bread, drop scones (American pancakes) and cakes. Baking powder contains a carbonate and a weak acid. Predict how it will react: a (i) when the food is made hot and cooked (ii) when the baking powder mixture is made wet b What effect will this have on the food as it cooks and solidifies.

Limestone

HOW SCIENCE WORKS

ACTIVITY

Limestone can be used to neutralise acid soils and lakes damaged by acid rain. You are given some limestone and a weak acid to neutralise. Is it best to add the limestone directly to the acid or thermally decompose it first? Find out and explain your findings.

C1 6.2
Learning outcomes

Understand how limestone is used as a reactant to make cement and concrete. Understand what happens when cement or concrete sets. Appreciate that there are advantages and disadvantages to exploiting limestone and producing materials from it.

How do you make cement and concrete?

In addition to calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide, limestone also provides a starting point for the manufacture of cement. Cement is used to make concrete, our most common building material (Figure 6.6). It is also used in the extraction of iron from iron ore (see Section 2.3). Cement is made by roasting powdered limestone with clay in a rotating kiln (Figure 6.7). When cement is used for building, it is normally mixed with two to three times as much sand, as well as water this mixture is called mortar. Mortar reacts slowly and sets to form a very hard material. Bricklayers use mortar to hold bricks together firmly. Concrete is made by mixing mortar with aggregate (small pieces of broken rock). As the mortar sets around the aggregate, it produces a hard, stone-like building material. The mixture will even set underwater at room temperature. Not many people realise that! The cement in the mortar sets because there is a chemical reaction. The cement takes in water to make a strong crystalline lattice round the sand and aggregate particles.

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C1 6.2 How do you make cement and concrete?

stone for buildings and aggregate

iron and steel heat with iron ore + coke

dry feed of powdered limestone and powdered clay

quarried

900C approx.

LIMESTONE
heat quicklime for neutralising acidity water slaked lime for neutralising acidity heat with clay cement aggregate + sand + water concrete Kiln rotates; mixture slowly moves along cement

Figure 6.7 Powdered lime and clay are roasted in a rotating kiln to make cement.

Cement is most simply described as anhydrous calcium silicate. Cement is formed when acidic silicon hydroxide reacts with calcium oxide formed by roasting calcium carbonate: calcium carbonate calcium oxide + carbon dioxide calcium oxide + silicon hydroxide calcium silicate + water The anhydrous calcium silicate is hydrated by molecules of water. These bind to the calcium silicate to form a strong crystal lattice. The sand and gravel is trapped in this crystal lattice and you get a rock-like product.

Figure 6.6 Important uses and products of limestone

Making concrete and cement beams

What factors decide the strength of a concrete beam? Design an investigation to find out. You can make moulds for a beam out of the strong metal foil from a takeaway food container. Use a piece of wood as a guide so your beam is always the same size and shape. Making concrete means mixing cement powder, aggregate (sand and gravel mixed) and water together thoroughly. This is then poured into the mould and left to set. When set, it can be very strong but sometimes buildings collapse. The factors that affect the strength include the amount of cement or water in the mixture. What other factors could there be? Make a series of different beams. Decide on the mixes you will use. Write your results in a table. Leave the beams for at least 24 hours to set. Test their strength using a simple set-up as shown in Figure 6.9. Make a presentation to show what you find out.

HOW SCIENCE WORKS

PRACTICAL SKILLS

Figure 6.8 Most concrete comes ready-mixed in a big truck. If you dont keep the concrete mixer turning, it will set in a solid block.
small concrete beam stool or table to support beam load hung on beam washing-up bowl of sand to break fall of masses

Figure 6.9 Your beam is a bridge load it until it breaks. Make sure the masses fall into a bucket or bowl of sand or rags so that they do not damage the floo

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C1 6.2 How do you make cement and concrete?

Quarrying or countryside?
You need a lot of limestone rock to make all the cement and concrete we need for buildings, roads, bridges and other works. But there are important environmental, social and economic issues involved in quarrying and mining. An example of the implications of these types of issues in the UK is the quarrying of limestone and the production of building materials from it. Against: Limestone is found in some of the most beautiful areas of Britain the Yorkshire Dales, the Peak District in Derbyshire, the Chilterns in Buckinghamshire and the Sussex Downs. The quarrying of limestone can spoil the countryside and create environmental problems. For: Limestone is an important raw material for industry. Every year about 90 million tonnes of limestone are quarried in Britain. The limestone industry provides useful products for society. It also creates jobs and increases our wealth as a country. How do we balance the benefits of quarrying with the problems it causes? Look at Figure 6.10, which shows a quarry near Littleham.

HOW SCIENCE WORKS

ACTIVITY

1 Suppose you live in Littleham. Make separate lists

showing three advantages and three disadvantages of the nearby quarry for Littleham. Residents Association. Write a letter to the chief executive of Limestone UK, the quarry operators, expressing the complaints you have had from members of the residents association. UK. Write a reply to the chairman of the Littleham Residents Association describing your efforts to reduce problems caused by the quarry and the improvements and advantages it has created for the area and people of Littleham. Science can help us in many ways, but there are some questions that science cannot answer at all. These tend to be questions in which beliefs are important, where views are personal or where we cannot obtain reliable evidence.

2 Suppose you are the chairman of the Littleham

3 Suppose you are the chief executive of Limestone

4 Explain why science cannot tell us whether the quarry

at Littleham has provided the residents with a richer or a poorer lifestyle.

Littleham Village

new road to motorway tree screening plantation new village hall built by big donation from the quarry company unsightly waste tip large quarry blasting twice weekly at 3pm smoke pollution old quarry has been landscaped

quarry works and offices 50 people, many from Littleham are employed here

heavy traffic to and from the quarry, glassworks and roadbuilding areas

vegetation has been removed and there is a loss of habitat for wildlife

Figure 6.10 The quarry and surrounding area near Littleham

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C1 6.3 How do rocks provide metals?

Test yourself
9 Metal oxides are bases. This means that they neutralise acids to form a salt and water. In the cement kiln reaction: a what is the acid? b what is the base? c what is the salt formed? 10 Calcium oxide is CaO, silicon hydroxide is Si(OH)4, calcium silicate is Ca3SiO5. a Write a complete word equation for making cement b Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.

C1 6.3
Learning outcomes

Understand how metals can be extracted from their ores. Consider the social, economic and environmental impact of quarrying, mining and extracting metals. Consider the benefits and drawbacks of using metals and recycling metals.

How do rocks provide metals?

As well as building materials, rocks provide important metal ores. These ores contain enough metal or metal compounds to make it economic to extract the metal (Table 6.2).
Table 6.2 The ores from which we extract some important metals

Name of ore
Bauxite Iron ore (haematite) Copper pyrites Rutile

Name and formula of metal compound in the ore

Aluminium oxide, Al2O3 Red iron oxide, Fe2O3 Copper sulfide, CuS, and iron sulfide, FeS Titanium dioxide

Metal obtained
Aluminium Iron Copper Titanium

A few metals, such as gold, are so unreactive that they are found in the Earth as the metals themselves (see Figure 6.11). Extracting these metals does not involve a chemical reaction. So these metals can be obtained by simply mining, concentrating and purifying the metal. Discovery of gold in river sediments has often sparked gold-rush fever among prospectors.

From ores to metals

Extracting (getting) metals from their ores usually involves four stages (Figure 6.12): 1 Mining (digging up) the ore. 2 Concentrating (separating) the ore. 3 Reducing (converting) the ore to the metal. 4 Purifying the metal. After mining, the ore must be separated from impurities such as soil and waste rock. This is called concentrating the ore. The ores of some metals are in very limited supply. Others are more plentiful, but even the richest ores are impure. Iron ore (haematite) is more than 80% pure Fe2O3 in many parts of the world,

Figure 6.11 Attractive crystals of gold on quartz

An ore is a rock or mineral from which a metal can be extracted.

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C1 6.3 How do rocks provide metals?

Ore below ground ore Stage 1 Impure ore mixed with soil and rock Stage 2 Concentrated ore Concentrate (separate) the ore Mine (dig up) the ore

but copper ores rarely contain more than 1% of the pure copper compound. It is important to find a source of the metal ore that makes it economically sensible to extract the metal. It is no use spending lots of effort concentrating an ore if the metal you produce is not valuable, and the prices of metal go up and down all the time. Nearly all metals are too reactive to exist on their own in the Earth. Their ores are compounds usually metal oxides or substances that can easily be changed into oxides by roasting in air. The metal is obtained from the metal oxide by removing oxygen. This loss of oxygen by the metal oxide is an example of reduction. There are two main methods of reducing metal compounds depending on the position of the metal in the reactivity series (Figure 6.14). Carbon is included in the reactivity series even though it is not a metal. Any element in the reactivity series can displace an element that appears lower in the series from its compounds. Figure 6.13 shows that the metals zinc, copper, lead and iron in the middle of the reactivity series are less reactive than carbon. This means that they can be extracted cheaply by reduction of their oxides with carbon (coke) or carbon monoxide. Sodium and aluminium are above carbon in the reactivity series, so their compounds cannot be reduced to the metals using carbon. They are extracted by electrolysis. This involves decomposing the molten oxide or chloride to the metal using electricity. Titanium is an expensive metal. It is produced by reducing the ore using a less expensive metal, magnesium in this case. TiO2(s) + 2Mg(s) Ti(s) + 2MgO(s)

Stage 3 Impure metal

Reduce (convert) ore to metal

Stage 4 Pure metal

Purify the metal

Figure 6.12 The four stages in extracting a metal from its ore Sodium Calcium Magnesium Aluminium Titanium Carbon Zinc Iron Lead Copper Silver Gold Most reactive Decreasing reactivity

Counting the cost of extracting metals

Extracting metals from their ores involves turning huge quantities of raw materials into useful and much more valuable metals. The metals can be used to manufacture a vast range of desirable products vehicles, tools, pans, cutlery, cans, jewellery, pipes, girders and so on. The extraction of metals followed by the production and sale of valuable metal products creates jobs for many people. This improves their standard of living and adds to the wealth of a nation. But we, as a society, dont get these benefits for nothing. There are social, environmental and economic costs.

Least reactive

Figure 6.13 The reactivity series showing the position of carbon

Social costs
People who work in the mining and metals industries are exposed to health and safety risks. Some of the processes involve chemicals that are toxic (poisonous), and workers can suffer damage to their hearing from loud factory noise. It is important to remember, however, that it is possible to work safely with hazardous chemicals and in noisy factories by taking suitable precautions. Adverse effects may extend beyond the mines and factories to people living in the area. But this will not happen if appropriate health and safety regulations are followed.

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C1 6.3 How do rocks provide metals?

jobs with good salaries

Large industrial operations like mining and quarrying often involve rapid changes in the number of people employed and living in an area. This can put great strain on social services such as schools and hospitals.

Environmental costs
benefits

metal ore drawbacks

Where there is mining, quarrying and the use of heavy machinery, wildlife habitats and farmland will be destroyed. The extraction of ores and transport of materials also create noise and pollution. The pollution comes in various forms air pollution from factory chimneys and vehicle exhausts, dust from blasting and unsightly tips of waste materials.

Economic costs
Large industrial operations also incur huge economic costs because of the use of expensive machinery and materials, particularly fuels. Fuels are needed to operate machinery, to heat buildings and maintain chemical processes, as well as to transport workers and materials.

pollution and noise

Figure 6.14 One of the benefits and one of the drawbacks of exploiting metal ores

When you next buy a can of cola or a piece of jewellery, remember that although these items may add to your enjoyment, their production has social, environmental and economic costs.

Test yourself
11 a  Copy and complete the following word equation for the formation of tin: tin oxide + carbon ___________ b Now write a balanced chemical equation for the process (tin oxide is SnO2). c Why do you think that tin is no longer produced in Cornwall (Figure 6.15)?

Mines

HOW SCIENCE WORKS

ICT

Figure 6.15 Derelict tin mine buildings in Cornwall. If the price of tin increased greatly in world markets, tin mining might well return to Cornwall.

Imagine that you are the owner of a mining company or an environmentalist and create a marketing campaign for or against mining in a local area.

12 Look carefully through the previous section headed Counting the cost of extracting metals. a Make a list of other benefits and drawbacks similar to the two already shown in Figure 6.14. b Sketch Figure 6.14 and add further artwork and labels to your own diagram to show benefits and drawbacks.

Recycling metals

HOW SCIENCE WORKS

ACTIVITY

Do you and your family recycle metals? Scrap metals such as those from drinks cans, aluminium foil and old domestic machines can be melted down and used again. Local authorities are now expected to achieve certain targets for recycling waste materials such as metals, glass, paper and plastics. In many areas, there are strong reminders to encourage the recycling of these materials.

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C1 6.4 How are metals extracted from ores using carbon?

1 Extracting metals usually involves four stages (see Figure 6.13). Which of these stages are avoided if metals are recycled? 2 Now look carefully at Counting the cost of extracting metals. Use this

section and Figure 6.8 in the Quarrying or countryside activity to list the advantages of recycling metals. transported to where it can be re-used. The metal has to be separated from other material, and sometimes one metal has to be separated from others. a Bearing in mind that the metal has to be melted down during the recycling process, how do you think metals are separated from paper? b The two metals recycled in the largest amounts are aluminium and iron (steel). How do you think these are separated? aluminium. Why do you think there is this difference? and write a few sentences about them. in your area?

3 Recycling is not always easy. Scrap metal has to be collected and then

4 Practically all the gold we use is recycled, but only about half the 5 Find out about the plans and targets for recycling metals in your area 6 What further initiatives could be taken to improve the recycling of metals

Cash for cans

ACTIVITY

Could your school make money from recycling aluminium cans? Find out!

C1 6.4
Learning outcome

Understand how metals can be extracted from their ores by reduction with carbon (coke).

How are metals extracted from ores using carbon?

The main raw material for making iron is iron ore (haematite). Haematite is impure iron oxide, Fe2O3. The iron ore is usually obtained by opencast mining. Iron is extracted from the iron ore in a blast furnace. A blast furnace is a large tower about 15 metres tall. A blast of air burns coke inside the furnace and generates very hot carbon monoxide (CO). This reacts with the iron oxide (Fe2O3): iron oxide + carbon monoxide iron + carbon dioxide Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2 In the reaction between Fe2O3 and CO, carbon monoxide gains oxygen forming carbon dioxide. This gain of oxygen is called oxidation, and the carbon monoxide is said to be oxidised. At the same time, iron oxide loses oxygen. This loss of oxygen is called reduction, and the iron oxide is said to be reduced. Iron oxide, which supplies oxygen, is described as the oxidising agent and carbon monoxide, which takes oxygen, is described as the reducing agent. Oxidation and reduction always occur together. If one substance gains oxygen

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C1 6.4 How are metals extracted from ores using carbon?

and is oxidised, another substance must lose oxygen and be reduced. We call the combined process redox (reduction + oxidation). It may seem confusing, but notice that during redox reactions: the oxidising agent (in this case iron oxide) is reduced the reducing agent (in this case carbon monoxide) is oxidised.

Blast furnace
Ignition tube blast furnace

HOW SCIENCE WORKS

PRACTICAL SKILLS

Mix together one spatula of iron oxide, one spatula of potassium manganate crystals and two spatulas of carbon powder. Put this in a hard glass ignition tube and loosely plug the ignition tube with mineral wool. Secure the tube in a clamp and stand placed on a heat-resistant mat. Heat the tube with a strong Bunsen flame until there is evidence of reaction. Allow the apparatus to cool, break open the tube and use a magnet to investigate the contents to see if the iron oxide has been reduced to iron. Reducing a metal compound with carbon Mix one spatula of lead oxide and one spatula of charcoal in a disposable container such as plastic weighing dish. Put the mixture in a hard-glass test tube and heat it strongly for at least 5 minutes. (Use a clamp stand as you did for the ignition tube blast furnace). Allow the mixture to cool and tip the products onto a heat-resistant mat. Examine it for signs of reaction. Repeat the procedure using copper oxide but keep the charcoal and oxide as separate layers, charcoal on the top.

Test yourself
13 The reaction between carbon dioxide and coke (carbon) to form carbon monoxide is a redox reaction. a What is a redox reaction? b In this redox reaction, which substance is: (i) oxidised (ii) reduced (iii) the oxidising agent (iv) the reducing agent? 14 a  Name two metals, other than zinc and iron, that can be obtained by reducing their oxides with carbon (coke) or carbon monoxide. b Name two metals, other than sodium and aluminium, that are obtained by electrolysis of their molten compounds.

Reactivity
Compare metals reactivity

HOW SCIENCE WORKS

PRACTICAL SKILLS

Put small amounts (2g) of copper, zinc, iron, magnesium, silver and if possible gold in 5cm3 of 0.4mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid in test tubes. Make observations about the reactivities of the metals. Displacement reactions Use a spotting tile. Compare the displacement reactions between lead, copper, zinc, iron and magnesium and their salts. Use 0.1mol/dm3 solutions of copper sulfate, magnesium sulfate, fresh iron sulfate, zinc sulfate and lead nitrate (lead sulfate is insoluble). Record your results in a grid.

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Chapter 6 How do rocks provide useful materials?

C1 6.5
Learning outcomes

Know that iron from a blast furnace contains only about 96% iron. Know that most iron is converted into steel. Know that a mixture of metals (and sometimes other materials) is called an alloy. Explain how alloys are designed to have specific properties. Know that most metals in everyday use are alloys since pure metals are too soft to be useful.

Alloys and why iron is converted to steel

Iron from a blast furnace contains about 96% iron. The main impurity in this iron is carbon from the manufacturing process. This makes the metal brittle, so it has only limited uses. It is mainly used as engine blocks because it is cheap and strong in compression. It was used for old-fashioned cannons and cannon balls. Removing all the impurities from the iron would produce pure iron. This is too malleable (easily shaped) and too soft for most uses. Most of the hot, molten iron from a blast furnace (Figure 6.16) goes straight to a steel-making furnace. Here it is converted into steels with the ideal strength and hardness. Steels are alloys mixtures of iron with carbon and often other metals. Steel is made by blowing oxygen under pressure onto the hot, molten iron. The oxygen converts a lot of the carbon to carbon dioxide. This escapes as a gas.

Using alloys
Alloys are mixtures of metals, or metals mixed with small amounts of other materials. Alloys have the typical properties of metals for example, they conduct electricity. But alloys can also have properties very different to the metals they are made from. Alloys have properties for specific uses. Some are designed for hardness, some for resistance to corrosion and others have special magnetic or electrical properties. Alloys are usually made by melting the main metal and then dissolving the other elements in it. Bronze is an alloy (88% copper, 12% tin). It is much harder than pure copper. It brought a change to the early tools used humans. Brass (70% copper, 30% zinc) is an alloy we still use frequently. The most important alloys are steels. The composition, properties and uses of various steels are shown in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3 The composition, properties and uses of various steels.

Type of steel

Composition

Properties
Easily pressed into shapes Hard but brittle

Uses
Car bodies, washing machines, food cans Tools such as drills and chisels

Low-carbon steel 99.8% iron (mild steel) 0.2% carbon 98.0% iron High-carbon steel 1.7% carbon 0.3% manganese 73.7% iron 0.3% carbon 18.0% chromium 8.0% nickel

Figure 6.16 Molten iron being poured from a furnace.

Stainless steel

Hard and resistant to corrosion

Cutlery, pans

Most metals in everyday use are alloys. Like iron, pure copper, pure aluminium and pure gold are too soft for most uses. So they are mixed with small amounts of other metals to make them harder. During the last 40 years, aluminium alloys have been used more and more. These include duralumin, which contains 4% copper. Aluminium alloys are light, strong and corrosion resistant. They are used

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C1 6.5 Alloys and why iron is converted to steel

for aircraft bodywork, overhead electricity cables and lightweight tubing. It is rare for anything to be made from pure aluminium it is almost always an alloy.

Comparing properties
Compare the strengths of iron and steel

HOW SCIENCE WORKS

PRACTICAL SKILLS

Get a piece of iron and a length cut from a 10cm nail (mild steel). Compare the two samples for colour and make a simple judgement about their densities. Test and compare the strength of the two samples using a bar-breaker apparatus. Make a report about your findings. Comparing mild steel and stainless steel A 5cm nail is a good sample of mild steel. Similar stainless steel nails can be bought in DIY stores. Put the two types of steel in different Petri dishes with some ordinary tap water for 5 days. Photograph the different amounts of rusting over the 5 days. Comparing the properties of an alloy Solder is an alloy of tin and lead. Put 2g samples of tin, lead and solder on an upturned crucible lid on a pipeclay triangle. Heat strongly from below and observe the order in which the samples melt. Stop heating and investigate the order in which the samples re-solidify.

Test yourself
15 a  Give two uses of iron and two uses of steel. b Name two alloys that contain copper. c How is iron from a blast furnace converted into steel? 16 Duralumin is an alloy of approximately 4% copper, 2% magnesium and 94% aluminium. It is much harder and stronger than aluminium. It is used for making aeroplanes when weight is important. Cupronickel is an alloy of 25% nickel and 75% copper. It is used to make our silver coins. It is resistant to corrosion, even by salt water. Sterling silver is an alloy of 7.45% copper and 92.55% silver. It is much harder than pure silver. Which of these alloys would you use for the purposes below? a parts for a racing car b a beautiful dinner service c a seawater intake pipe for a boat. In each case explain why.

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Chapter 6 How do rocks provide useful materials?

C1 6.6
Learning outcomes

Explain how aluminium is extracted from its ore. Know which other metals are extracted using electrolysis.

Other ways of producing metals

Making aluminium metal

Figure 6.17 Reactive metals such as aluminium need electrical energy to separate them from their ores.

Aluminium has only been available for about 200 years. It began to be used as a metal material much later than iron and copper because it was so much more difficult to extract from its ore. Aluminium is too high in the reactivity series to extract it from its ore by reduction with carbon. Most reactive metals are produced by electrolysis of a molten compound.
Figure 6.18 One problem is that bauxite needs the red sand washed out of it. This leaves a great deal of unsightly waste material.

carbon anodes + aluminium oxide dissolved in molten cryolite molten aluminium carbon-lined iron

Aluminium metal is produced by the electrolysis of molten aluminium oxide (Al2O3), a white solid obtained from bauxite ore. The aluminium oxide has a very high melting point and is dissolved in molten sodium aluminium fluoride (cryolite) to make it melt at a lower temperature. Only aluminium and no sodium is produced during electrolysis because sodium is higher in the reactivity series (see Figure 6.13). The aluminium metal is produced at a temperature above its melting point so it flows away from the electrode and collects in the bottom of the electrolysis container (Figure 6.19). The oxygen is produced as a gas and at these high temperatures it steadily burns away at the carbon electrode making carbon dioxide that is allowed to escape. Electrolysis uses electrical energy to pull the stable aluminium and oxide ions in aluminium oxide away from each other and then to turn them back into atoms. In carbon smelting (for less reactive metals such as iron) the carbon reduces the oxide to the metal. The carbon takes oxygen away and gives electrons to the metal ions to make them into metal atoms. In electrolysis, the electric current gives electrons to the aluminium ions to make them into metal atoms. The outcome is exactly the same so the electric current reduces the metal ion by giving it electrons. At the negative electrode: aluminium ions (Al3+ ) are given electrons to make aluminium atoms (Al(l)). At the positive electrode: oxide ions (O2 ) have electrons taken away to make oxygen atoms that join to make molecules (O2(g)). Other reactive metals such as sodium and magnesium are also made in this way.

Figure 6.19 Aluminium oxide is decomposed by electrolysis in this industrial cell. The molten aluminium is siphoned from the bottom.

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C1 6.6 Other ways of producing metals

Electrolysis involves: heating the materials to very high temperatures, melting metal compounds passing a very large electric current through them. All these stages and the energy costs add a great deal to the cost of the overall process.

Making titanium
Titanium metal is light and strong. This makes it useful for many applications, such as in spectacle frames. It is also resistant to corrosion, making it an ideal material for the outer skin of submarines. Extracting titanium from its ore has special problems. You cannot use carbon because titanium carbide is formed and that makes the metal brittle. Titanium is extracted by displacing it using a more reactive, cheaper metal. Magnesium is often used for this. The main ore of titanium is rutile titanium oxide (TiO2). This has to be converted into titanium chloride (TiCl4) before it can be reacted with magnesium.The titanium chloride is heated with magnesium in an inert argon atmosphere. The magnesium chloride is washed out using dilute acid. All the stages and the energy used in this process makes titanium an expensive material to use. TiCl4 + 2Mg Ti + 2MgCl2

Metal displacement
Mix a spatula of zinc metal powder with copper oxide.

HOW SCIENCE WORKS

PRACTICAL SKILLS

Make a small pile of this on a tin lid, heat from below with a Bunsen burner. When the reaction has finished, wash the residue with dilute hydrochloric acid. Explain the changes that have taken place.

Test yourself
17 a  What is the name of the aluminium ore from which aluminium oxide is obtained for electrolysis? b Why is cryolite used in the process? c Explain why no sodium metal is produced, even though sodium ions are present. d Use your knowledge of the reactivity series for metals to predict three metals, other than aluminium, that cannot be reduced by carbon and so must be made by electrolysis. 18 Magnesium is made by the electrolysis of molten magnesium chloride. Magnesium chloride contains Mg2+ and Cl ions. a What is the other product of the electrolysis reaction? b Write statements (as for aluminium above) about for what happens at the electrodes. 19 a  Write a word equation for the reaction that produces titanium. b Write a short piece of advertising text about why people should choose titanium spectacle frames.

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Chapter 6 How do rocks provide useful materials?

C1 6.7
Learning outcomes

Know how copper is extracted and purified. Explain how copper can be extracted by phytomining or bioleaching.

Copper: the first man-made metal

Copper was one of the first metals to be discovered and used by people. It was probably an accidental discovery. People are thought to have kept their wood fires in place with rocks rich in copper ore. The hot charcoal made carbon monoxide and this reduced the copper ore to copper metal and lumps of the metal were found in the ashes of the fire. The way of extracting copper from its ore has not changed since. It is still smelted with carbon in a furnace. It has been an important metal for a long time for making bronze (a mixture of copper and tin), brass (copper and zinc), cooking pots and in the modern world for making electrical wires. copper oxide + carbon monoxide copper metal + carbon dioxide CuO(s) + CO(g) Cu(l) + CO2(g) Copper is expensive. There is always a high demand for it and the supply of copper-rich ores is limited. There is a worldwide shortage of good-quality copper ore. So any methods of extracting or recycling copper from the environment would be cost-effective. Normally, metal ores need a reasonable percentage of the metal in them before it is worth the bother and the cost of crushing all that rock and separating the part that contains the metal compounds. However, because copper is so expensive and in short supply, it is sensible to mine copper ores that contain only small amounts of the metal compounds. In fact, old copper coins often exceed their face value in the value of their copper metal content. When low-grade copper ores are mined, there is a lot of waste material that gets dumped on the surface, and this looks ugly and poisons the land.

Figure 6.20 Copper has a red-brown, shiny appearance when polished. It is decorative as well as being a useful metal.

Phytomining and bioleaching

This is a unique instance where mining and conservation can act together. Plants called hyperaccumulators can grow in soil that contains metal compounds. Examples include members of the cabbage or mustard (brassicas) family (Figure 6.21). The plant roots take up the metal compounds, just as they would absorb any nutrient, and retain them in the plant tissue. If the soil is treated with chemicals, the take-up can be even better. After the growing season, the plants are harvested, dried and burnt. The metals remain in the plant ash as compounds. This ash can be used as a metal ore and smelted with carbon to extract the metal. This method can be used to decontaminate other areas affected by industrial pollution. These places are often called brown-field sites for example, disused factory land or the sites of old-fashioned gasworks. Industrial activity on this land can contaminate the site in many ways, including heavy-metal compounds getting into the soil. This contamination can be effectively cleaned up using bioremediation and the crop provides a valuable source of the metal. This process works well for copper, and also for cadmium (Cd), nickel (Ni) and cobalt (Co).

Figure 6.21 Plants such as rapeseed (Brassica napus) can take up copper and other metals from polluted waste near mines.

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C1 6.7 Copper: the rst man-made metal

Bioleaching is a similar process. In bioleaching, mixed metal ores are treated with bacteria or fungi in a watery environment. The microorganisms pick out certain metals for example, copper from the mixture even if they are present in low quantities. These metals are leached from the metal ore into solution. The solution can then be electrolysed or treated with scrap iron metal to displace the copper in a state in which it can be processed for use.
Cu2+ Cu Cu cathode + anode

Purification of copper metal by electrolysis

Copper ore is easily reduced to copper metal by smelting with carbon. But the copper obtained in this way contains several impurities (lead, nickel, zinc, gold and/or silver) that reduce its electrical conductivity. Pure copper is used in making electrical cables and circuits. So the impure copper is purified by electrolysis (Figure 6.22). Large impure slabs of copper are used as one electrode, and thin sheets of pure copper are used as the other. The plates are surrounded by acidified copper sulfate solution. This carries the current and remains unchanged overall. During electrolysis, copper from the impure electrode is reduced to copper ions and these ions are transferred into solution: at impure copper electrode: Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e The positive copper ions are attracted to the other electrode, where they are reduced to copper atoms and deposited: at pure copper electrode: Cu 2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s) As the impure anode crumbles away, all the impurities collect at the bottom of the cell as sludge. This sludge can be reprocessed to recover precious metals.

sludge beneath anode

Figure 6.22 The impure copper anode dissolves away and pure copper is deposited on the cathode.

Copper sulfate electrolysis

HOW SCIENCE WORKS

PRACTICAL SKILLS

Electrolyse copper sulfate solution using strips of copper foil as the electrodes. Weigh the electrodes before you start, then carefully rinse and dry the electrodes after the investigation and weigh them again.

Brassica phytomining

HOW SCIENCE WORKS

PRACTICAL SKILLS

Grow some fast recycling cabbage plants in compost that has copper sulfate added to it. Dry the leaves and turn the plants into ash (use a fume cupboard). Wash the ash with 0.1 mol/dm3 sulfuric acid and filter. Electrolyse the filtrate using carbon electrodes. Look for reclaimed copper on the negative electrode.

Test yourself
20 a Copper has many uses. Name five uses of copper metal. b Cornwall and north Wales have many disused copper mines. Explain why they may eventually be re-opened. c Give two benefits of re-opening disused copper mines. d Give two drawbacks of re-opening disused copper mines. 21 a Draw a flow chart to explain the stages of how the copper ore in the ground gets extracted by phytomining. b Draw a diagram to represent bioleaching of copper and how it is reclaimed from solution. c Explain the meaning of the words bioremediation and brown field.

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C1 6.8 Properties of metals

d Explain how a brown-field site can be cleaned up using plants. 22 a  How is copper extracted from copper ore? b Copper is used in electrical circuits. Explain why very pure copper must be used. c An alternative to purifying copper by electrolysis is to dissolve a copper compound and displace the copper metal (Cu) from solution by using a more reactive metal such as iron (Fe). Write a word equation for the reaction between copper chloride and iron metal.

C1 6.8
Learning outcome

Evaluate the benefits, drawbacks and risks of using metals.

Properties of metals
The main metal elements that feature in important uses are alloys of transition metals in the central block of the periodic table (see Figure 6.24). The transition metals include iron, copper, chromium, nickel and titanium.

He

TRANSITION METALS REACTIVE METALS Ti

Cr

NONMETALS
Ni Cu Zn Ag POOR METALS

Mn

Fe

Pt

Au

Figure 6.23 Copper is a versatile metal strong and hard enough to stand up to wear in a busy kitchen, a good conductor of electricity, flexible enough to be shaped easily into pipes and cables, and a good conductor of electricity and heating.

Figure 6.24 The position of the transition metals in the periodic table

Like other metals, transition metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. They can also support heavy loads and can be bent or hammered into shape. So they are useful as structural materials and for making things that must conduct heat or electricity well. Steel is one of our most important structural materials. It is used in girders, joists and bridges. Copper has properties such as resistance to corrosion by water and a very low resistance to electrical current. These make copper useful for electrical wiring and in making pipes for plumbing. Aluminium and titanium are useful metals because of their low density and resistance to corrosion. Both metals occur in ores as their oxides, but these oxides cannot be reduced by carbon. Current methods of extracting the two metals are expensive because large amounts of energy are needed and there are several stages in each process. These costs have limited the use of titanium.

Test yourself
23 Explain why: a steel is used for making girders to support structures b copper is used for making domestic water pipes c aluminium is used for making aeroplane bodies d titanium is used for making military jet planes.

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C1 6.8 Properties of metals

Why use metals?

A In France, most of the gutters and downpipes on houses are made of zinc alloys that are soldered together. B In snowy countries, roofs are often made of painted sheet metal that is left very smooth. C Many domes on buildings are covered with copper sheet to make them waterproof. The copper reacts with the air and rain to go bluegreen.

HOW SCIENCE WORKS

ACTIVITY

HOW SCIENCE WORKS

PRACTICAL SKILLS

Density of metals Materials blocks kits should contain blocks of brass, steel, aluminium and lead. Measure and weigh the blocks. Calculate the density of different metals using: mass density = volume Tensile strength Use the apparatus shown in Figure 6.26.
clamp

Figure 6.25 Lead flashing where tiles meet a wall

D Where roof tiles meet a wall, lead flashing is used to keep the structure watertight. E Temporary shelters for disaster victims are sometimes made of corrugated sheet steel. It is cheap, waterproof and easy to transport. But the shelters get cold in winter and hot in summer. F In many countries concrete cancer has attacked steel reinforced concrete structures. The concrete gets cracked, water gets in and the concrete structure fails. 1 What alternative materials could be used instead of metals in examples A, B, C and D? B, C and D. 2 Describe the properties of metals that make them useful in examples A, 3 Explain the properties of metals that are useful in example E. 4 Explain the properties of metals that are a drawback in example E. 5 Why are steel rods used to reinforce concrete beams? 6 Explain what is happening in example F to make the structure fail. 7 A solution would be to use copper-rod reinforced beams. Why is this likely not to happen? 8 A possible good solution would be to use titanium-rod reinforced beams. Why is this unlikely to happen?

metal wire

slotted masses

retort stand

Figure 6.26 Apparatus to measure the breaking strength of a wire.

Compare the breaking strength of wires made from copper, steel, nickelchrome alloy (nichrome), tinlead alloy (solder) and aluminium. Make a presentation of your results.

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Chapter 6 Homework questions

Homework questions
1
This question is about new ways of extracting copper. Answer the questions as you read the passage. Copper ores contain copper sulfide (CuS). At one time, all copper was extracted from these sulfide ores by first converting the copper sulfide to copper oxide, and then reducing this to copper by heating with carbon. During the last 20 years, the supply of copper-rich ores has become limited. This has led chemists to look for new ways of extracting copper from lowgrade ores. a What is the main environmental problem of mining low-grade ores that contain vast amounts of worthless rock? Fortunately, there are helpful bacteria in most copper ores. These bacteria use oxygen in the air to oxidise insoluble copper sulfide to soluble copper sulfate (CuSO4). b Write a word equation for this reaction. The bacteria found in the ore can tolerate: conditions heat generated by the reaction the copper compounds which are poisonous to most organisms.
acidic

c Copy and complete the following sentences using words from the box below:
constant measured changed altered

independent output

dependent valid

In this experiment, the __________ variable is the type of metal wire used. This is the variable that is changed or __________ by the investigator. The __________ variable in the experiment is the force needed to break each wire. This is the variable that is __________ when the independent variable changes. In order to make the experiment __________, it is important that only the independent variable affects the dependent variable. All other possible variables must be kept __________. d State two variables that you would control to ensure that the wires are tested fairly.

To extract the copper, a heap of crushed rock is sprayed with dilute sulfuric acid; dilute copper sulfate solution trickles from the bottom of the pile. c What conditions help this process to go faster? d What conditions in this process might have a damaging effect on wildlife and the environment? Finally, copper metal is extracted from the copper sulfate solution by electrolysis.

The strengths of two metal wires can be compared by measuring the force needed to break each wire using the apparatus shown in Figure 6.26. a Describe briefly how you would carry out the experiment. b What measurements would you record?

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Chapter 6 Exam corner

Exam corner
a The areas of Britain that contain limestone are often have very nice scenery like in the Peak
District in Derbyshire. These areas are often where limestone is quarried. (i) What are the possible environmental impacts of quarrying limestone? Explain the problems they cause. (4 marks)

Student A
Heavy lorries, noise and dust
Examiner comment

Student B

There is a mark for identifying an impact and a mark for explaining why this is a problem. Student A has identified three problems the first two score marks, but there are no explaining marks.

Alkaline dust prevents many native plants from growing. The quarries spoil the landscape and the scenery for tourists.

Examiner comment Two problems identified and the damage they cause is explained 4 is the maximum mark.

(ii) Explain two reasons why the limestone industry is economically important to Britain.

(4 marks)

Student A
Used to make cement
Examiner comment

Student B

Only one product identified with no

explanation.

Limestone is used to make concrete ,which is used in the construction industry. Limestone is also used to make lime that is used to treat farmland when soil is too acidic.

Two problems identified and the reasons they are economically useful are explained.
Examiner comment

b Iron is made by smelting iron ore with coke in a blast furnace.

(i) What chemical could you find in iron ore?
(1 mark)

Student A
Rust

Student B
Iron oxide
Not the correct chemical name.

Correct name given.

Examiner comment

Examiner comment

(ii) How is it turned into iron metal in the blast furnace? Name the products of the reaction.

(2 marks)

Student A
It reacts with coke
Examiner comment

Student B

Not enough detail; it is not coke (carbon) that

iron reacts with.

The iron oxide is reduced to iron metal when it reacts with hot carbon monoxide. The carbon monoxide takes the oxygen and becomes carbon dioxide. The iron oxide becomes iron metal.

Examiner comment Process described, reactants and products identified, though only the products were asked for.

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Chemistry 1