International Journal of Creative Mathematical Sciences & Technology (IJCMST) 2(1): 76-82, 2012

ISSN (P): 2319 7811, ISSN (O): 2319 782X

COMPUTATIONS IN QUOTIENT RINGS

Md. Arshaduzzaman1
1

BDCET, Jharsuguda, Odisha, India

Abstract: The present paper deals with quotient rings, ideals, computations in quotient
rings.

Keywords: Ideals, Quotient rings, Euclidean ring, Principal ideal ring, Abelian group. INTRODUCTION
We define a quotient ring in a way similar to our definition of a Quotient group. The analogue of a normal subgroup is called an ideal, and a quotient ring consists of the set of cosets of the ring by one of its ideals.

IDEAS AND QUOTIENT RINGS

If (R, +, ) is any ring and (S, +) is any subgroup of the Abelian group (R, +), then quotient group (R/S, +) is defined. However, R/S is does not have a ring structure induced on it by R unless S is a special kind of subset called an ideal. 1.1 definition: A nonempty subset I of a ring R is called an ideal of R if, for all x, y I and r R, (i) (ii) xyI x r and r x I.

condition (i) implies that (I, +) is a subgroup of (R, +). In any ring R, R it self is an ideal, and {0} is an ideal. 1.2 PROPOSITION. Let a be an element of a commutative ring R. The set {arr R} of all multiples of a is an ideal of R called the principal ideal generated by a. This ideal is denoted by (a). Proof. Let ar, as (a) and t R. Then ar as = a (r s) (a) and (a). Hence (a) is an ideal of R. (ar) t = a (rt)

For example, (n) = n, consisting of all integer of n, is the principal ideal by n in . The set of all polynomials in Q[x] that contain x2 2 as a factor is the principal ideal (x2 2) = {(x2 2) p(x) p(x) Q[x]} generated by x2 2 in Q[x]. The set of all real polynomials that have zero The set of all polynomials in (x) = {xp(x)p(x) R[x]} is the principal ideal generated by x in R[x]. It is also the set of real polynomials with 0 as a root. 76
Corresponding Author: Md. Arshaduzzaman, BDCET, Jharsuguda, Odisha, India

International Journal of Creative Mathematical Sciences & Technology (IJCMST) 2(1): 76-82, 2012

ISSN (P): 2319 7811, ISSN (O): 2319 782X

The set of all real polynomials, in two variables x and y, that have a zero constant term is an ideal of R[x, y]. However, this ideal is not principal. In many rings, every ideal is principal; these are called principal ideal rings. 1.3 THEOREM. A Euclidean ring is a principal ideal ring. Proof. Let I be any ideal of the Euclidean ring R. If I = {0}, then I = (0), the principal ideal generated by 0. Otherwise I contains nonzero elements. Let b be a nonzero elements of I for which d(b) is minimal. If a is any other element in I, then, by the division algorithm, there exist q, r R such that a = qb + r where r = 0 or d (r) < d(b). Now r = a q b I. since b is an element for with d(b) is minimal, it follows that r must be zero and a = qb. Therefore, a (b) and I (b). Conversely, any element of (b) is of the form qb for some q R and qb I. Therefore, I (b) and I = (b). Hence R is a principal ideal ring. 1.4 Corollary. Z is a principal ideal ring and so is F[x], if F is a field. Proof. This follows because Z and F[x] are Euclidean rings. 1.5 Propsition. Let I be ideal of the ring R. If I contains the identity 1, then I is the whole ring R. Proof. Let 1 I and r R. then (I, +) is a normal subgroup of (R, +), and we denote the coset of I in R that contains r by I + r. Hence I + r = {i = r Ri I }. The cosets of I in R are the equivalence classes under the congruence relation modulo I. we have r1 r2 mod I if and only if r1 r2 I.

By a well known Theorem, the set of cosets R/I ={I + rr R} is an Abelian group under the operation defined by. (I + r1) + (I + r2) = I + (r1 + r2). 1.6 Theorem. Let I be an ideal in the ring R. Then the set of cosets forms a ring (R/I, +, ) under the operations defined by (I + r,) + (I + r,) = I + (r1 + r2) and (I + r1)(I + r2) = I + (r1r2).

1.7 Definition. This ring (R/I, +, ) is called the quotient ring (or factor ring) of R by I. 77
Corresponding Author: Md. Arshaduzzaman, BDCET, Jharsuguda, Odisha, India

International Journal of Creative Mathematical Sciences & Technology (IJCMST) 2(1): 76-82, 2012

ISSN (P): 2319 7811, ISSN (O): 2319 782X

Proof. As mentioned above, (R/I, +) is an Abelian group; thus we only have to verify the axioms related to multiplication. We first show that multiplication is well defined on cosets. Let I+ r'1 = I + r1 and I + r'2 = I + r2 so that r'1 r1 = i, I and r'2 r2 = i2 I. Then r'1r'2 = (i1 + r1)(i2 + r2) = i1i2 + r1i2 + i1r2 + r1r2. Now, since I is an ideal, i1i2, r1i2 and i1r2 I. Hence r'1r'2- r1r2 I and I+ r'1r'2 = 1 + r1r2, which shows that multiplication is well defined on R/I. Multiplication is associative and distributive over addition. If rl, r2, r3 R, then (I + r1){(I + r2)(I + r3)} = (I + r1)(I + r2r3) = I + r1(r2r3) = I + (r1r2)r3 = (I + r1r2)(I + r3) = {(I + r1)(I + r2)(I + r3)}. Also (I + r1){(I + r2)(I + r3)} = (I + r1){I + (r2 + r3)} = I + r1(r2 + r3) = I + (r1r2 + r1r3) = (I + r1r2) + (I + r1r3) = {(I + r1)(I + r2)} + {(I + r1)(I + r3)}. The other distributive law can be proved similarly. The multiplicative identity is I + 1. Hence (R/I, +, ) is a ring. For example, the quotient ring of Z by (n) is Z/(n) = Zn, the ring of integers modulo n. A coset (n)+ r = {nz + rzZ} is the equivalent class modulo n containing r. If R is commutative, so is the quotient ring R/I, because (I + r1)(I + r2) = I + r1r2 = I + r2r1= (I + r2)(I + r1).

1.8 Example. If I = {0, 2, 4} is the ideal generated by 2 in Z6, find the tables for the quotient ring Z6/I. Solution. There are two cosets of Z6 by I, namely, I = {0, 2, 4} and 5}. Hence Z6/I = {I, I + l}. The addition and multiplication tables given in Table 10.1 show that the quotient ring Z6/I is isomorphic to Z2. I + 1 = {1, 3,

78
Corresponding Author: Md. Arshaduzzaman, BDCET, Jharsuguda, Odisha, India

International Journal of Creative Mathematical Sciences & Technology (IJCMST) 2(1): 76-82, 2012

ISSN (P): 2319 7811, ISSN (O): 2319 782X

Table 1.1 the quotlent ring Z6/{0, 2, 4}

+ I I+1

I I I+1

I+1 I+1 I

I I+1

I I I

I+1 I I+1

COMPUTATIONS IN QUOTIENT RINGS

If F is a field, the quotient rings of the polynomial ring F[x] form an important class of rings that will be used to construct new fields. Recall that F[x] is a principal ideal ring, so that any quotient ring is of the form F[x]/(p{x)), for some polynomial p(x) F[x]. We now look at the structure of such a quotient ring. The elements of the ring F[x]/(p(x)) are equivalence classes under the relation on F[x] defined by f(x) g(x) mod (p(x)) if and only if f(x) g(x) (p(x)).

1.9 Lemma. f(x) g(x) mod (p(x)) the same remainder when divided by p(x).

if

and

only

if

f(x)

and

g(x)

have

Proof. Let f(x) = q{x)p(x) + r{x) and g{x) = s(x)p(x) + t(x), where r(x) and t(x) are zero or have degrees less than that of p(x). The following statements are equivalent. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) f(x) g(x) mod (p(x)). f(x) g(x) (p(x)). p{x)f(x) g(x). p(x){q(x) s(x))p(x) + r(x) t(x). p{x)r(x) t(x). r(x) = f(x).

Hence every coset of F[x] by (p(x)) contains the zero polynomial or a polynomial of degree less than that of p(x).

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Corresponding Author: Md. Arshaduzzaman, BDCET, Jharsuguda, Odisha, India

International Journal of Creative Mathematical Sciences & Technology (IJCMST) 2(1): 76-82, 2012

ISSN (P): 2319 7811, ISSN (O): 2319 782X

1.10 Theorem. Let P be the nomial p(x) of degree n > 0. precisely those of the form

ideal (p(x)), generated by the poly The different elements of F[x]/(p(x)) are

P + a0 + alx + + an-1xn-1 where a0, a1, ..., an-1 F. Proof. Let P + f(x) be any element of F[x]/(p(x)) and let r(x) be the remainder when f(x) is divided by p(x). Then, by Lemma 1.9, P + f(x) = P + r(x), which is of the required form. Suppose that P + r(x) = P + t(x) where r(x) and t(x) are zero or have degree less than n. Then r(x) t(x)mod(p(x)), and by Lemma 1.9, r(x) = t(x).

1.11 Example. Write down the tables for Z2[x]/(x2 + x + 1). Solution. Let P = (x2 + x + 1) so that

Z 2 [ x]/( x 2 x 1) {P a0 a1 x a0 , a0 Z 2 } {P, P 1, P x, P x 1}
The tables for the quotient ring are given in table 1.2. The addition table is straight forward to calculate. Multiplication is computed as follows. (P + x)2 = P + x2 = P + (x2 + x + 1) + x + 1 = P + x + 1 and (P + x) (P + x + 1) = P + x2 + x = P + (x2 + x + 1) + 1 = P + 1.

Table 1.2. The ring Z2[x]/(x2 + x + 1)

+ P P+1 P+x P+x+1

P P P+1 P+x P+x+1

P+1 P+1 P P+x+1 P+x

P+x P+x P+x+1 P P+1

P+x+1 P+x+1 P+x P+1 P

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Corresponding Author: Md. Arshaduzzaman, BDCET, Jharsuguda, Odisha, India

International Journal of Creative Mathematical Sciences & Technology (IJCMST) 2(1): 76-82, 2012

ISSN (P): 2319 7811, ISSN (O): 2319 782X

P P+1 P+x P+x+1

P P P P P

P+1 P P+1 P+x P+x+1

P+x P P+x P+x+1 P+1

P+x+1 P P+x+1 P+1 P+x

1.12 Example. Find the sum and product of P + 3x + 4 and P + 5x 6 in the ring Q[x]/(x2 2) = {P + a0 + a-1x|a0, a, Q}, where P is the principal ideal generated by x2 2.

Solution. (P + 3x + 4) + (P + 5x 6) = P + (3x + 4) + (5x 6) = P + 8x 2. (P +3x + 4)(P + 5x 6) = P + (3x + 4)(5x 6) = P + 15x2 + 2x 24. By the division algorithm, 15x2 + 2x 24 = 15(x2 2) + 2x + 6. Hence, by Lemma 1.9, P + 15x2 + 2x 24 = P + 2x + 6. There are often easier ways of finding the remainder of f(x) when divided by p(x) than by applying the division algorithm directly. If deg p(x) = n and P = (p(x)), the problem of finding the remainder reduces to the problem of finding a polynomial r(x) of degree less than n such that f(x) r(x) mod P. This can often be solved by manipulating congruences, using the fact that p(x) 0 mod P. Consider Example 1.12 in which P is the ideal generated by x2 2. Then x2 2 0 mod P and x2 2 mod P. Hence, in any congruence modulo P, we can always replace x2 by 2. For example, 15x2 + 2x 24 15(2) + 2x 24 mod P 2x + 6 mod P and so P+ 15x2 + 2x 24 = P + 2x + 6. In Example 1.11, P = (x2 + x + l), so x2 + x + l 0 mod P and x2 x + 1 mod P. (Remember + 1 = 1 in Z2.) Therefore, in multiplying two elements in Z2[x]/P, we can always replace x2 by x + 1. For example, P + x2 = P + x + l and P + x(x + 1)= P + x2 + x = P + 1. We have usually written the elements of Zn=Z/(n) simply as 0, 1, ..., n 1 instead of as [0], [1], ..., [n 1] or as (n) + 0, (n) + 1, ..., (n) + n 1. In a similar way, when there is no confusion, we henceforth write the elements of F[x]/(p(x)) simply as a0 + a1x + + an1xn1 instead of (p(x)) + a0 + a1x + + an1xn1.

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Corresponding Author: Md. Arshaduzzaman, BDCET, Jharsuguda, Odisha, India

International Journal of Creative Mathematical Sciences & Technology (IJCMST) 2(1): 76-82, 2012

ISSN (P): 2319 7811, ISSN (O): 2319 782X

REFERENCES
[1]. [2]. [3]. [4]. [5]. [6]. [7]. [8]. Birkhoff, Garrett and Saunders Maclane, A Survey of Modern Algebra, 3rd ed. Macmillan, New York, 1965. Dean, Richard A., Elements of Abstract Algebra, Wiley, New York, 1966. Fraleigh, John B., A First Course in Abstract Algebra, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1967. Herstein, I. N., Topics in Algebra, 2nd ed. Wiley, New York, 1975. Maclane, Saunders and Garrett Birkhoff, Algebra, Macmillan, New York, 1967. McCoy, Neal H., Fundamentals of Abstract Algebra, Allyn and-Bacon, Boston, 1972. Paley, Hiram and Paul M. Weichsel, A First Course in Abstract Algebra, Holt, Reinhart and Winston, New York, 1966. Weiss, Edwin, First Course in Algebra and Number Theory, Academic Press, New York, 1971. _______________________

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Corresponding Author: Md. Arshaduzzaman, BDCET, Jharsuguda, Odisha, India