Moisture Distribution Through Solid Waste Landfills

B S Thandaveswara, Fellow
D Sivakumar, Non-member
The solid waste generated in urban areas is increasing day by day. Many Municipalities and Corporations are facing the problem
of managing large volumes of solid waste generated in urban areas. Leachate from sanitary landfill is recognised as one of the
important ground water pollutants. The contaminants are released from the solid waste to the water through physical, chemical,
and microbial process and percolate through the unsaturated soil, polluting the ground water with organic and inorganic matters.
Several models have been formulated to predict the leachate movement through solid waste landfills. All these models use hydrologic
water balance techniques and are used to predict the leachate volume at the landfill bottom. Therefore, the movement of leachate
and the estimation of leachate rate in a landfill site are important steps in designing the collection systems or identifying the treatment
alternatives to reduce the migration of pollutant from the leachate to both the surface water and ground water. This paper mainly
dealt with the movement of leachate (moisture content) with respect of depth and time variation using two dimensional numerical
model techniques with central difference explicit finite difference scheme. The results obtained from the above model are used to
provide general guidelines for the design of new waste landfills with proper collection and treatment systems.
Keywords : Landfill; Solid waste; Leachate; Mathematical model and analysis
NOTATION
D :
diffusivity coefficient [L
2
T]
K :
hydraulic conductivity [L

T]
K
s
:
saturation hydraulic conductivity [L

T]
P : precipitation [L]
q :
moisture flux [L
3
T]
t
e
: effective rainfall duration [T]
t
p
: ponding time [T]

:
moisture content [L
3
L
3
]

s
:
saturation moisture content [L
3
L
3
]

: suction pressure [L]

s
: saturation suction pressure [L]
INTRODUCTION
Large quantity of solid wastes are being disposed off on land
is a common practice (Tchobanoglous
12
, Misra and Mani
9
).
Generally, when the water that flows through the solid waste,
the more pollutants are leached. The rate of generation of
contaminated water (leachate) and the time taken by leachate
to reach the surface and ground water depends on the move-
ment of leachate through the solid waste. The estimate of
leachate rate in a landfill site is of considerable importance in
the design of an appropriate collection system or the treat-
ment alternatives to reduce the offsite migration that might
pollute surface water and ground water resources (Karfiatis
and Demetracopoulos
6
). The movement of water through the
solid waste takes place in the vertical downward direction only
when the precipitation is usually distributed evenly over the
landfills. In this condition, the movement of water is governed
by the one dimensional flow equation. As discussed else-
where, several models have been formulated to predict
leachate volumes discharged at the bottom of the solid waste
landfills and is based on water balance technique (Fenn
5
,
Dass
2
, Perrier and Gibson
10
, and Khanbilvardi
8
). Demetra-
copoulos
4
, Korfiatis and Demetracopoulos
7
, and Demetra-
copoulos
3
described the formulation and solution techniques
to compute the leachate mound head in the saturated zone of
a landfill.
Various pollutants down through the unsaturated zone of
solid waste and clay liner to the water table and its complexities
have not been yet fully understood. In this paper, the govern-
ing equations, boundary conditions and method to find the
solution of flow through solid waste are presented. The
movement of moisture content with respect to depth and time
variation using two-dimensional numerical model techniques
with central difference explicit finite difference scheme is
discussed
11
. Finally, a detailed parametric analysis has been
performed to investigate the effects of various parameters
associated with the hydraulic properties of porous medium.
NUMERICAL MODELS
Governing Equations and Boundary Conditions
A solid waste column Y
n
, mm of height is divided into n
equal increments of depth. Each soil increment is therefore,
B S Thandaveswara is with the Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600 036 and D
Sivakumar is with the Department of Civil Engineering, Anjali Ammal
Mahalingam Engineering College, Tiruvarur 614 403.
This paper was received on August 19, 2002. The written comments on the
paper will be received till June 30, 2004.
Vol 84, March 2004 63
Y
n
/n mm thick. Assuming that the initial moisture distribu-
tion is known and that values of the moisture content are
specified at upper and lower boundaries at all time t, the
vertical transport of an incompressible fluid through and
unsatured flow medium may be written as

t

K
y
-

(
,
-

(
,
(1)
K K
s
(


s
)
B
(2)
in which and
s
are the moisture content and Saturation
moisture content of solid waste respectively, K
s
is Saturation
hydraulic conductivity, D is the Diffusivity coefficient and B
is a constant exponent is equal to 2b + 3 in which b is also a
constant and it is estimated from the relation

s
(


s
)
b
, where,
s
is the Saturation suction head or
saturation suction pressure and b is found to be 2.15
11
. The
Diffusivity coefficient (Khanbilvardi
8
) is given by
D K (

);

(
s


s
) b (
s

)
b - 1
(3)
in which is the suction head. The solution of equation (1)
requires initial and boundary conditions. Two cases of initial
boundary conditions are considered. (i) For surface moisture
below saturation, at
y 0, P K () D ()

y; 0 t t
p
(4)
in which P is the net precipitation intensity, (LT
1
) and t
p
is
the time required for surface to become saturated and would
be equal to ponding time. t
p
depends on the solid waste
characteristics and ratio of P

K
s
. (ii) For P smaller than K
s
, the
saturation time (t
p
) is infinity. After the surface becomes
saturated, and rainfall continues, the surface condition can be
expressed as follows. At
y 0, P K
s
,
s
and

y 0; t
p
t t
e
(5)
in which t
e
is the time of effective precipitation and is equal
to 2 h. However, due to the highly porous nature of solid
waste, "the moisture gradient being zero" never occurs. The
boundary condition presented herein physically implies that
saturation has been attained at surface when the ponding time
is very small.
NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS OF MOISTURE
MOVEMENT USING FINITE DIFFERENCE
APPROXIMATION
The partial differential equations, in general, must be solved
using numerical methods. Finite difference equations are
formulated from the original partial differential equations for
continuity and momentum. In numerical methods for solving
partial differential equations the calculations are performed
on a grid placed over the y-t plane. The y-t grid is a network
of points defined by taking depth increments of length y
and time increments of duration t. Numerical schemes
transform the governing partial differential equations into a
set of algebraic finite difference equations. The finite differ-
ence equations represent the spatial and temporal derivatives
in terms of the unknown variables on both the current time
line, i + 1 and the preceding time line, i, where all the values
are known from the previous computation.
A finite difference method may employ either an explicit
scheme or an implicit scheme for solution. The main differ-
ence between the two is that in the explicit method, the
unknown values are solved sequentially along a time line from
one depth point to the next, while in the implicit method the
unknown values on a given time line are all determined
simultaneously. The explicit method is simpler but may be
unstable, which means that small values of y and t are to
be selected for convergence of the numerical procedure of the
numerical procedure. The explicit method is as the results
available given at the grid points. The implicit method is
mathematically more complicated. The method is stable for
large computation steps with little loss of accuracy and hence
works much faster than the explicit method. The finite differ-
ence method is represented by the mesh points on the depth
- time and mesh points on distance-depth-time plane. Assum-
ing that at time t, the moisture content of solid waste is known.
The simplest scheme determines the partial derivatives at
point (i + 1, j + 1) in terms of the quantities at adjacent points
(i, j + 1) (i, j ) and (i + 1, j ) using

i - 1
j - 1

i
j - 1
-

D
i
j
- D
i - 1
j

,

i
j

i - 1
j

,
y
2
-

D
i
j
- D
i - 1
j

,

i
j

i - 1
j

,
x
2
-

K
i
j
- K
i - 1
j

,
y
(
(

(
(

t
2
(6)
In the present study, a forward difference scheme is used for
the time derivative and a central difference scheme is used for
the spatial derivative. It may be noted that the spatial deriva-
tive is written using known terms on time line i.
PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS
Equation (1) indicates that the influence of the hydraulic
conductivity and the diffusivity coefficient. The parametric
analysis of moisture movement through the solid waste of a
perungudi solid waste dumping ground has been performed
for the present study. It is located 20 kms from Chennai and
details of the perungudi dumping ground are given Table 1.
The analysis was performed for an unsaturated condition.
64 IE(I) Journal-EN
About 700 tonnes of wastes are transferred daily through
light mechanical vehicles 3 tonnes capacity and 1 tonne ca-
pacity of Auto track trailers. This dumping ground is a marshy
wetland. The solid wastes come from (1) residential area -
60%, (2) commercial area - 14%, (3) restaurants, hotels,
marriage halls, schools, institution - 5 -12% and (4) industry -
2%. The solid waste is generated from the total area of
174 km
2
, and an estimated total waste per capita per day is
500 g average (Ref. Chennai Corporation, Chennai).
Effect of Grid Size on the Moisture Profiles for
Unsaturated Conditions
The parametric analysis has been performed for six condition
as indicated in Table 2. For all conditions, the moisture
condition of solid waste is assumed to be below the field
capacity of 46.4%. Therefore, the experiments were con-
ducted using Perungudi Solid Waste with the initial moisture
content of 24.3% and the effective porosity was found to be
63.3%. These conditions are assumed for the numerical analy-
sis to conduct the parametric analysis. Further, it is also
assumed that the intensity of rainfall is less than the hydraulic
conductivity (P/K
s
is less than one). The parameter used in
the simulation are (i) rainfall intensity 45 mm/h, (ii) total depth
of solid waste in Perungudi dumping yard is 1100 mm and
(iii) the total length of area is 1875.0 m. The ponding time is
determined by using Green - Ampt model technique (Appen-
dix A) and is 0.96 h corresponding to a saturated hydraulic
conductivity of 145 mm/h. The moisture profiles are com-
puted for different values of time, varying between zeros to
time to ponding and are shown in Figures 1 to 6.
When the results obtained from the NR 2 compared with
NR 1, it may be observed that the results are affected by
changing the depth increment (ie, the movement of moisture
content will be increasing to 400 mm from 300 m at the end
of 0.48 h and increase to 450 mm from 425 mm at the end of
0.96 h). Similarly the results obtained from NR 4 compared
with NR 3, it may be observed that by changing the depth
increment the results are affected as in case of NR 1 and
NR 2. And the similar observation has been found for NR 5
and NR 6. From the observation made in the parametric
analysis, it may observed that the movement of moisture
Table 2 The summery of twelve numerical runs (NR) (effect of
grid size) for unsaturated conditions
Run Nos
x, m y , mm t, h
NR 1 187.5 110 0.48
NR 2 187.5 220 0.48
NR 3 187.5 110 0.24
NR 4 187.5 220 0.24
NR 5 187.5 110 0.16
NR 6 187.5 220 0.16
Table 1 Details of dumping ground
Particulars Availability
Total area of solid waste dumping
ground
323.76 ha
Total model area of solid waste
dumping ground
122.10 ha (1875 m 651.2 m)
Solid waste thickness 1100 mm
Soil cover (Clay loam) 300 mm
Hydraulic gradient 1.8 m from the top of soil cover
Slope of land 5% towards south
x = 187.5 m
y = 110 mm
t = 0.48 h
0.00
-200.00
-400.00
-600.00
-800.00
-1000.00
-1200.00
D
e
p
t
h
o
f
S
o
l
i
d
W
a
s
t
e
i
n
m
m
Time t = 0.0 h
Time t = 0.48 h
Time t = 0.96 h
0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
Moisture Content, mm /mm
3 3
Figure 1 Effect of grid size on the moisture profiles for unsaturated
condition (NR 1)
0.00
-200.00
-400.00
-600.00
-800.00
-1000.00
-1200.00
D
e
p
t
h
o
f
S
o
l
i
d
W
a
s
t
e
i
n
m
m
0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
Moisture Content, mm /mm
3 3
x = 187.5 m
y = 220 mm
t = 0.48 h
Time t = 0.0 h
Time t = 0.48 h
Time t = 0.96 h
Figure 2 Effect of grid size on the moisture profiles for unsaturated
condition (NR 2)
Vol 84, March 2004 65
content at the end of 0.48 h has reached to a depth is less than
the movement of moisture content at end of 0.96 h. It was
demonstrated that the changes in distance step do not affect
the moisture profile. It may also observed that for the time
step of 2 equal parts and for the time step of 6 equal parts gave
the same results of depth of penetration of moisture through
the solid waste.
Effect of Ponding time on the Moisture Profile for
Unsaturated Conditions
The parametric analysis has been performed for four different
cases on moisture profile as indicated in Table 3. In all these
four cases, it is assumed that the moisture condition of solid
waste is below the field capacity of 46.4%. The other assump-
tion regarding initial moisture content, effective porosity,
rainfall intensity, size of the field and ponding time is same as
in the earlier case. In all these four cases, the total length of
0.00
-200.00
-400.00
-600.00
-800.00
-1000.00
-1200.00
0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
D
e
p
t
h
o
f
S
o
l
i
d
W
a
s
t
e
i
n
m
m
Time t = 0.0 h
Time t = 0.24 h
Time t = 0.48 h
Time t = 0.72 h
Time t = 0.96 h
x = 187.5 m
y = 110 mm
t = 0.24 h
Moisture Content, mm /mm
3 3
Figure 3 Effect of grid size on the moisture profiles for unsaturated
condition (NR 3)
0.00
-200.00
-400.00
-600.00
-800.00
-1000.00
-1200.00
D
e
p
t
h
o
f
S
o
l
i
d
W
a
s
t
e
i
n
m
m
0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
Moisture Content, mm /mm
3 3
Time t = 0.0 h
Time t = 0.24 h
Time t = 0.48 h
Time t = 0.72 h
Time t = 0.96 h
x = 187.5 m
y = 220 mm
t = 0.24 h
Figure 4 Effect of grid size on the moisture profiles for unsaturated
condition (NR 4)
Figure 5 Effect of grid size on the moisture profiles for unsaturated
condition (NR 5)
Figure 6 Effect of grid size on the moisture profiles for unsaturated
condition (NR 6)
Table 3 The summery of five cases (effect of ponding time) for
unsaturated conditions
Cases
x, m y , mm t, h
1 187.5 110 0.48
2 187.5 110 0.24
3 187.5 110 0.16
4 187.5 110 0.12
66 IE(I) Journal-EN
landfill is divided into 10 discrete parts such that the x is
equal to 187.5 m and the depth of solid waste in the landfill
has divided into 10 equal parts (ie, y = 110 mm) but the
ponding time of 0.96 h only varying for these four cases. The
effect of ponding time on the moisture profile for unsaturated
conditions is shown in Figures 7 to 10. It may be observed
from the Figures 7 to 10, that the amount of moisture content
increased as the ponding time increased for a a given depth.
It was observed that at the end of ponding time of 4.96 h,
5.96 h, 6.96 h and 7.96 h, the moisture content at the top of
the solid waste are 46.55%, 49.91%, 53.08% and 55.18%
respectively for the Cases 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively. In addition
to the above, the depth of movement of water through the
solid waste and the moisture content at the top of the solid
waste increases as the ponding time increases for a given
moisture content.
Effect of Rainfall Intensity on Moisture Content Profile
As in the previous case the total depth of solid waste in
Perungudi Dumping Ground is 1100 mm and the total length
of area is 1875.0 m. The parameters used in the simulation are
rainfall intensity was shown in Figure 11(a). The total length
of the landfill has been divided into 10 discrete parts such that
the x is equal to 187.5 m and the depth of solid waste in the
landfill is divided into 10 equal parts (ie, y = 110 mm) but
the ponding time has been divided into only 2 equal parts is
equal to 0.48 h (ponding time t = 0.96 h). Different moisture
0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60
-1000.00
-500.00
0.00
D
e
p
t
h
o
f
S
o
l
i
d
W
a
s
t
e
i
n
m
m
x = 187.5 m
y = 110 mm
t = 0.48 h
Ponding Time = 0.96 h
Ponding Time = 1.96 h
Ponding Time = 2.96 h
Ponding Time = 3.96 h
Ponding Time = 4.96 h
Moisture Content in mm / mm
3 3
Figure 7 Effect of ponding time on the moisture profile for unsaturated
condition (Case 1)
Ponding Time = 0.96 h
Ponding Time = 1.96 h
Ponding Time = 2.96 h
Ponding Time = 3.96 h
Ponding Time = 4.96 h
Ponding Time = 5.96 h
x = 187.5 m
y = 110 mm
t = 0.24 h
0.00
-250.00
-500.00
-750.00
-1000.00
-1250.00
D
e
p
t
h
o
f
S
o
l
i
d
W
a
s
t
e
i
n
m
m
0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50
Moisture Content, mm /mm
3 3
0.60
Figure 8 Effect of ponding time on the moisture profile for unsaturated
condition (Case 2)
Figure 9 Effect of ponding time on the moisture profile for unsaturated
conditions (Case 4)
0.00
-125.00
-250.00
-375.00
-500.00
-625.00
-750.00
-875.00
-1000.00
-1125.00
-1250.00
0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60
Moisture Content in mm / mm
3 3
D
e
p
t
h
o
f
S
o
l
i
d
W
a
s
t
e
i
n
m
m
x = 187.5 m
y = 110 mm
t = 0.12 m
Ponding Time = 0.96 h
Ponding Time = 1.96 h
Ponding Time = 2.96 h
Ponding Time = 3.96 h
Ponding Time = 4.96 h
Ponding Time = 5.96 h
Ponding Time = 6.96 h
Ponding Time = 7.96 h
Figure 10 Effect of ponding time on the moisture profile for unsaturated
condition (Case 3)
Vol 84, March 2004 67
profiles at different elevation are presented in Figure 11. It
may be observed that at the top of solid waste (0.0 mm), as
the time increases the moisture penetration into the solid
waste increases and also as the rainfall increases, the amount
of movement of moisture through the solid waste increases
till the ponding time reaches and vice versa. It has been observed
that the pattern of movement of water through the solid waste
is same as the depth increases from the ground level. Finally
the water profiles reaches the horizontal at the depth of 550
mm from the ground level beyond which there is no penetra-
tion of moisture (ie, all the solid waste below 550 mm having
the initial moisture content of 24.3%). This above observation
was made for Effect of Moisture Content with respect to
Depth and Varying Rainfall Intensity.
CONCLUSION
The movement of moisture content with respect to depth and
time variation with central difference explicit finite difference
scheme has been analysed. A detailed parametric analysis were
performed to investigate the effect of various parameters
associated with the hydraulic properties of the porous me-
dium such that (i) Effect of grid size on the moisture profiles
for unsaturated conditions, (ii) Effect of ponding time on the
moisture profile for unsaturated conditions and (iii) Effect of
rainfall intensity on moisture content profile. This model is
also used to predict the leachate quantities generated from the
existing solid waste landfills and to design the collection
systems or indentifying the treatment alternatives to reduce
the migration of various pollutants from the leachate to the
ground water. The spatial and temporal variation of moisture
distribution with respect to effect of grid size, ponding time
and rainfall intensity can be used to predict the direction of
movement of mass transport (contaminant transport) with
respect to depth. Thus, the results obtained from the para-
metric analysis are providing general guidelines for the appli-
cation of the model in practical cases, the design of new solid
waste disposal facilities and evaluation of existing landfills.
REFERENCES
1. V T Chow, D R Maidment and L W Mays. Applied Hydrology.
McGraw-Hill-Book Company, New York, 1988.
2. P Dass, G R Tamke and C M Stoffel. Leachate Production at Sanitary
Landfill Sites. Journal of Environmental Engineering, Preceedings of the ASCE,
vol 103, no EE6, 1977, pp 981-988.
3. A C Demetracopoulos, G P Korfiatis, E L Bourodimos and E G Nawy.
Unsaturated Flow Through Solid Waste Landfills : Model and Sensitivity
Analysis. Water Reso Bull, Am Water Reso Assocn, vol 22, no 4, 1986,
pp 601-609.
4. A C Demetracopoulos. Overview of Landfill Bottom Liner Hydraulics.
Water Reso Bull, Am Water Reso Assoc, vol 24, no 1, 1988, pp 49-56.
5.D G Fenn, K J Henley and T V Degree. Use of Water Balance for
Predicting Leachate Generation from Solid Waste Disposal Sites. Rep.
S W - 168. U S Environmental Protection Agency, Wasignton, D C, vol 8-11, 1975.
6. G P Karfiatis and A C Demetracopoulos. Moisture Transport in a Solid
Waste Column. Journal of Environmental Engineering, Proc. ASCE, vol 110,
no 4, 1984, pp 780-796.
7. G P Karfiatis and A C Demetracopoulos. Flow Charecteristes of Landfill
Leachate Collection Systems and Liners. Journal of Environmental Engineering,
Preceedings of the ASCE, vol 112, no 3, 1986, pp 538-550.
8. R M Khanbilvardi, S Ahmed and P J Gleason. Flow Investigation for
Landfill Leachate (FILL).Journal of Environmental Engineering, Preceedings of the
ASCE, vol 121, no 1, 1996, pp 45-57.
9. S H Misra and D Mani. Pollution Through Solid Waste. Ashish Publishing
House, New Delhi, 1993.
10. E R Perrier and A C Gibson. Hydrologic Simulation on Solid Waste
Disposal Sites. EPA-SW-868, Cincinnati, Ohio, U S EPA, 1980.
11. D Sivakumar. Solid Waste Leachate Quantity and Quality Estimation.
M Tech Project Thesis. Department of Civil Engineering. Indian Institute of Technology
Madras, 1999.
12. G Tchobanoglous, H Theisen and R Eliassen. Solid Wastes Engineering
Principles and Management Issues. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
1977.
APPENDIX A
Green - Ampt Model Calculation for Ponding Time
(Chow
1
)
Based on the experiments carried out for the solid waste in the laboratory
for Perungudi Dumping Yard, initial moisture content (), field capacity,
Permanent wilting point (
r
), total porosity of solid waste were found to
be 24.3%, 46.4%, 11.8% and 63.3%, respectively. Similarly, the hydraulic
conductivity of solid waste is found to be 145.0 mm/h. The duration (t)
and intensity (i) of rainfall is assumed to be one hour and 45 mm/h
respectively. For the above condition, the following parameters were
0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
at 0.0 mm from G.L.
at 110.0 mm from G.L.
at 220.0 mm from G.L.
at 330.0 mm from G.L.
at 440.0 mm from G.L.
at 550.0 mm from G.L.
Time in min
M
o
i
s
t
u
r
e
C
o
n
t
e
n
t
,
m
m
/
m
m
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0.00 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00
Time in min
R
a
i
n
f
a
l
l
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
,
c
m
/
h
(a) Hyeto Graph
Figure 11 Moisture content profile with varying rainfall intensity
68 IE(I) Journal-EN
calculated to determine the ponding time using Green-Ampt Infiltration
model.
(1) The effective saturation S
e
is 0.243, using the equation
S
e


r

r
(1)
(2)
The effective porosity
e
is 0.515; it is the difference between
porosity () and the residual moisture content (
r
).
(3)
From the calibration curve (Figure A), the suction pressure is
0.53 m of water, corresponding to the initial moisture content of
24.3%.
(4)
The pore size distribution index () is 0.8 (Figure B); it is the slope
of log-log best-fit curve drawn between effective saturation (S
e
)
and the suction pressure ().
(5)
The bubbling pressure
b
is 90.4 mm of water using the equation.
S
e

(
(

(2)
(6)
The wetting front capillary pressure
f
is 57.8 mm of water, using
the equation

f

2 - 3
2 - 2
(3)
(7) The cumulative infiltration and infiltration rate after one hour of
rainfall intensity of 45 mm/h on a clay loam soil are calculated as
follows
(i)

f
57.8 0.248 29.767 mm
(ii)
The ponding time (t
p
), for i = 45 mm/h,
t
p

k
f

i (i k)
(4)

145 29.767
45 (145 45)
0.96 h
(8) Thus, the ponding time for the solid waste is 0.96 h and it is used
for parameteric analysis.
4.00
2.00
0.00
0.00 40.00 80.00
Moisture content, Percentage
S
u
c
t
i
o
n
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,
m
o
f
w
a
t
e
r
Figure A Calibration curve
1.00
0.10
0.01 0.10 1.00
S
u
c
t
i
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Saturation Moisture content
(Volume of water per volume of water)
Figure B Pore size distribution curve
Vol 84, March 2004 69