NNPC FSTP Engineers

Introduction to Civil Engineering Structures

Course Code:

Contents

Bridges

Bridges

Bridges

Symbolize the work of the civil engineer Purpose is to bridge a gap The structural design and construction can be one of the most challenging and complex aspects of modern civil engineering.

Origin of Bridges

From the time human beings felt the need to cross obstacles without closing the way or gap beneath.

Progress of Bridge Engineering

Initially Bridges were in the form of accidentally fallen trees. Later deliberately felled trees. Presently complex suspension, cable-stayed and segmentally erected bridges are common. Design and construction of bridges is a multidisciplinary process.

Scope of Lecture

General introduction to Highway Bridge designs and construction.

Activities in a Bridge Project

Establishing a need Feasibility studies Conception of solutions Design of selected solution Construction Inspection Repair and maintenance

Establishing a Need
In highway system development there may be need: To Carry traffic over a river, valley or ravine. Carry traffic over existing road that should not be disturbed. Carry traffic over important service mains that cannot be economically re-routed or relocated. Construct roadway over swampy areas that may not be economically back-filled.

Possible Viable Alternatives

Tunnel Helicopter shuttle Ferry service or pontoon service Earth or concrete dam Note: 1) Choice of appropriate solution depends on the result of a feasibility study. 2) Assume bridge emerged the best option.

Feasibility Study for a Bridge: Details

Possible access problems to site including height and load restrictions, gradient, traffic and obstructions. Local ground features that might give an indication of soil strata, drainage, and groundwater level. Nature, distribution and condition of nearby or onsite structures and buildings which may be affected during the site work. Topographical and geological maps.

Feasibility Study for a Bridge: Details (Contd)

Presence of service mains. Uses of adjacent buildings that may preclude certain types of construction, e.g. piling. Borehole records of nearby sites, and nature of mining activities in the area if applicable. Information on present and former uses of site and adjacent sites. Rights of way requirements. Etc., etc, etc.

Conception of Solution
Requirements: The bridge has to be Structurally sound. Economical. Aesthetically pleasing. Easy to maintain and repair. To meet these conditions may require moving the bridge site upstream or downstream.

Ideal Sites for Bridges over Rivers

Where the reach of the river is straight. Where the channel is narrowest. Where bridge can easily be linked to approach roads. Where soil strata are competent enough to support substructure. Where underwater construction is minimal. Where pier heights are not expensive. Where construction site is not easily liable to flooding.

Aesthetic Qualities of the Bridge

Harmony with its neighbours and surrounding. Well proportioned in terms of lengths, deck thickness and support arrangement. Visual stability to give confidence to users. Appropriate surface finishing - rough or smooth. If painted, colouring must be chosen to create harmony and avoid excessive reflection.

Selection of Material of Construction

Any of the following options can be selected: Steel Normal weight concrete (reinforced/pre-stressed) Lightweight concrete (reinforced or pre-stressed) Aluminium Composite construction (steel/concrete) Timber Glass reinforced plastics

Method of Construction

This influences the selection of the bridge type and may be any of the following: Construction on formwork and falsework. Construction using permanent forms. Incremental launching - span by span. Segmental construction - cast in place or using pre-cast units.

Possible Foundation Types

Spread footings Rafts Pile foundations; Pier foundations Mass concrete abutments Reinforced earth abutments Anchored walls Box structures Cellular abutments

Bridge Types
1. Beam bridge (flat) 2. Arch bridge 3. Suspension bridge 4. Cable-stayed bridge

Selection Criteria for Bridge Types

There are no hard and fast rules for the selection of bridge types. In general however, the available rule-ofthe-thumb guide which is currently widely used is based on span ranges.

Span and Bridge Types

. Span (m)
0 - 45 40 - 90 85 - 135 120 - 185 185 - 365 365+ Bridge type I type pre-tensioned girder Pre-cast segmental constant depth box Pre-cast segmental variable depth box Cast-in-place segmental bridges Cable stayed bridges Steel suspended bridges

Beam Bridges
Can be divided into two main groups: 1- Simple beam: Transmits the loads vertically through piers or abutments and is horizontally self supporting. Economical for spans up to 50 metres.

Beam Bridges (Contd)

2- Cantilever: This transmits the loads through piers which are normally central to the beam. It provides bridges with spans of up to 540 meters. There are many variations in beam design, ranging from steel truss design to pre-stressed concrete units.

Beam Bridges (Contd)

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Beam Bridges (Contd)

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Beam Bridge Examples

Beam Bridge

Beam Bridge

Arch Bridges

Used since Roman times in Europe. The main load-carrying component of the bridge, the arch, is in a state of direct compression throughout its length, hence materials that are good in compression but poor in tension, such as masonry or brickwork, can be used to construct the arch.

Arch Bridges (Contd)

Can carry greater loads than the beam bridges because the load-carrying member, the arch, is in a state of compression throughout. The arch supports the traffic either above or below the main structural form (the arch).

Illustration of Arch Bridges

Illustration of Arch Bridges (Contd)

Arch Bridge Bridge Examples

Arch Bridge

Arch Bridge

Arch Bridge

Suspension Bridges

A Suspension Bridge consists of a cablehung decking supported by towers. The general layout comprises a central suspended span with side spans; the latter may take the form of a simply supported beam over short spans. The towers are secured by main cables which are continuous between anchorages.

Suspension Bridges (Contd)

The foundations of the towers are constructed by caisson or cofferdam methods and the cable anchorages or foundations are taken through anchorage tunnels to suitable grounds.

Suspension Bridges (Contd)

The deck of the suspension bridge must be stiffened to prevent undue deflection and to provide aero-dynamic stability. This is achieved either by introducing a continuous truss alongside or below the deck. The supporting towers of many large span suspension bridges are constructed in a cellular design, in either steel or concrete.

Suspension Bridges

Simple Illustration

Suspension Bridge

Suspension Bridge

Arch and Suspension Bridges

Arch Bridge

Suspension Bridge

Moveable Bridges

Swing bridges: pivot on a central pier. Pivoted cantilever bridges: e.g. Tower Bridge, London. Vertical lift bridges: consist of simple beams or girders which are supported and raised by cables from high towers.

Choice of Bridge Systems

Clear span requirement: long span i.e. over 300 meters, steel construction is most likely solution. Concrete arch bridges are developed for increasingly longer spans. Steel construction may be cantilever girder, arch or suspension. The cantilever arms can be built without form-work and the centre sections can be floated out and lifted into position.

Choice of Bridge Systems (Contd)

Steel arch form is suitable for spans of up to 500 meters, but is difficult to construct. The suspension bridges are the best known form for spans over 600 meters.

Choice of Bridge Systems (Contd)

For a given span and a given load the main girder weight decreases in the following order:

Cantilever Arch Suspension

Choice of Bridge Systems (Contd)

Foundation costs:

Suspension Arch Cantilever

Foundations for cantilevers are simple by comparison with the other forms, owing to their vertical loading, and normally the cheapest. Foundations for suspension bridges are usually the very extensive and costly.

Design of Bridges
The design process can be divided into four broad areas, namely: 1. Preliminary assessment. proportioning and load

2. Structural analysis. 3. Structural Design. 4. Detailing.

Proportioning and Loading Assessment

Generally the loads considered include: Dead load or self weight Live load or imposed load Wind load Impact loading Centrifugal force due to curvature Secondary forces due to effects of creep and shrinkage.

Proportioning and Loading Assessment (Contd)

Thermal effects due to temperature variation Construction load Forces due to breaking and acceleration of vehicles Earthquake or seismic forces Support settlement

Proportioning and Loading Assessment (Contd)

Horizontal forces on piers due to water current,waves and debris. Impact on piers due to collision (e.g. ships) Buoyancy effect Earth pressure on abutments, etc. Note: The loads above can be satisfactorily estimated for any bridge using code of practice recommendations.

Note
Dead load tends to dominate the design of long span bridges compared to live loads. Live load components are subdivided into: uniformly distributed loads point load due to wheel loads from abnormal vehicle loading. Codes of practice provide adequate factors of safety to be applied to the load and material properties. Wind load is very important in long span bridges hence they are checked for aerodynamic stability.

Structural Analysis
Relevant equations relating the applied loads to the material constant and internal reactions are written. Solution of the equations with appropriate boundary conditions yields the internal reactions. Depending on the complexity of the method of analysis used, the system of simultaneous equations may run into tens of thousands.

Methods of Structural Analysis

Othotropic plate theory Simple beam and related theories Grillage analysis Space frame analysis Folded frame analysis Finite strip method Finite element method

Structural Design
Involves proportioning the various members of the structure such that: permissible stresses are not exceeded; deflection is acceptable; cracking is not excessive; and fire resistance is adequate. Note: An important requirement of a design is that it must be executable in the locality.

Detailing
Most important phase of the design process. Detailer must understand real intentions of the designer. Detailer must have an idea of how components are assembled or constructed on site. Should have adequate knowledge of structural behaviour to ensure that reinforcements are placed at appropriate positions. On major bridge projects it is preferable for an engineer to do the draughting.