VITAMIN

Impaired health reduces impact of vitamins

Vitamins are essential for normal metabolic function, but there is increasing evidence that their role in poultry health might be more profound still. When the birds metabolic and absorptive systems come under attack from mycotoxins and pathogens, the complex functions of vitamins are worth particular attention.
Dr. Balkar S. Bains
Events or substances that interfere with absorption from the intestine or with metabolism may also affect the uptake and/or bioavailability or vitamins. In these circumstances, a thorough review of the effects of toxins and pathogens on vitamin metabolism is necessary. Diseases such as Coccidiosis, Histomoniasis, Mycotoxicosis, Salmonellosis, Malabsorption or Runting Stunting Syndrome, Proventriculitis, Viral enteritis, etc. All have the potential to reduce the availability of vitamins due to the damage to the intestinal mucosa. Contamination of the feed with mycotoxins or bacterial toxins affects the absorptive and metabolic functions, which may increase the birds requirement for dietary vitamins through a number of mechanisms.

Table 1. Liver vitamin A, E and D3 concentrations

Control A iu/g 117 244 363 Infected A iu/g 77 45 88 Control E mcg/g 7.1 4.9 5.6 Infected E mcg/g 0.6 1.1 3.4 Control D3 pic/ml 65.5 103 116 Infected D3 pic/ml 64.5 64.5 142

Week 1 Week 2 Week 3

Source: Kouwenhoven.B; 1983

and adversely affect commercial parameters. The causative agents include Eimeria spp, Histomonads, several pathogenic and opportunistic bacteria, bacterial toxins, fungi and their toxins as well as several strains of viruses. All the pathogens tend to persist in poultry environments and infections become endemic in commercial flocks. The clinical disease may vary significantly from subacute with minimal clinical symptoms to an acute form with classical symptoms and often with significant mortality. The significant economic effect of gastroenteritis results from poor digestion and absorption of nutrients from the feed as well as rapid passage of nutrients due to excessive intake and excretion of water. The loss of water-soluble nutrients through excessive loss of intestinal water such as water-soluble vitamins is often not fully appreciated in practice. Similarly the intestinal dysfunction significantly influences the bioconversion and transportation of vitamins essential for metabolic functions.

Fat soluble vitamins

The enzymes which digest fat develop during the first few days after hatching and the fat-soluble vitamins are only absorbed as part of the lipid micelle. During the first few days after hatching, the chicken is dependent upon the supply of fat-soluble vitamins from the maternal source and it is unable to utilise vitamins from feed. Any infection of the intestinal mucosa during the rapid growing phase of a broiler chicken can significantly reduce the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. The frequently experienced Malabsorption Syndrome in broilers is a typical case where fat-soluble vitamin absorption is significantly reduced as demonstrated under controlled experimental conditions (Table 1). In field cases where the maternal source of fat-soluble vitamins is depleted rapidly, typical signs of vitamin E and D3 deficiency have been observed during the first three to four weeks of age. Supplementation of fat-soluble vitamins via feed or drinking water is usually ineffective during the critical period of the infection cycle. To minimise adverse economic effects such as reduced growth rate, feed conversion efficacy, poor immune response to vaccine etc., adequate vitamin reserves from the maternal source and an additional supply during the recovery period must be ensured.

Block to absorption
Vitamins are absorbed intact from the intestinal contents active and passive processes into the mucosal cells lining the intestine. The integrity of mucosal cells is not only essential for the absorption of vitamins but also for the bioconversion or activation for some vitamins prior to being absorbed into the blood circulation. The absorption of fatsoluble vitamins (A, E &D3) in excess of normal physiological and metabolic requirements results in storage in the liver in case vitamin intake or absorption is inadequate. Storage and availability of fat-soluble vitamins in day old chickens depends upon the maternal supply of vitamins into fertile eggs, which are ultimately transferred to the liver prior to hatching.

Water soluble vitamins

The B-group of vitamins are water soluble and their main functions are related to providing energy from macronutrients and they are involved in protein, carbohydrate and fatty acid metabolism (Table 2). There are no significant reserves of B- group vitamins in any organs with the exception of organs with higher metabolic requirements such as kidneys, liver and heart, which may have some vitamin reserves. After hatching, a day old chicken has very little reserves of B-vita9

Gastro-enteritis and vitamin metabolism

There are a number of enteric pathogenic agents that are responsible for a variety of clinical entities that impact chicken health
WORLD POULTRY -Vitamin special 2001

Table 2. Vitamins play essential roles in anabolism and metabolism

Vitamin Thiamine (B1) Riboflavin (B2) Metabolic Functions Carbohydrate metabolism Oxidation of lipids, carbohydrates and amino acids Pyridoxine (B6) Protein and amino acid metabolism Pantothenic acid Lipid, carbohydrate and protein metabolism Nicotinic acid Lipid, protein and carbohydrate metabolism Biotin Carbohydrate and protein metabolism Cyanocobalamin Lipid and protein (B12) metabolism Folic acid Protein formation

Table 3. Vitamin supplementation and broiler performance - 14 day

Basal Vitamin Supplement Weight (g) FCR Mortality % 316 1.32 1.82 1/3 of Basal Vitamin Supplement 307 1.35 2.36

Table 5. Biological effects of mycotoxins

Interrupt cellular metabolism Block metabolic pathways- lesions Interact with DNA and RNA protein synthesis Interrupt cell membrane transport React with enzymes React with cofactors such as vitamins

Source: Laljequist and Brake.

VITAMIN

Table 4. Broiler performance after withdrawal of vitamins

Control Av. Weight (g) FCR g/g 1279 0.37 Withdrawal 28-49 days 1103 0.32

Source: Teeter, R.G. 1993.

Table 6. Plasma vitamin level (ng/ml) as affected by Aflatoxin

Vitamin Thiamine Riboflavin Pyridoxine Pantothenic acid Biotin Niacin Choline Aflatoxin 0ppm 55 38 133 300 6.1 590 130 Aflatoxin 5ppm 35 35 66 100 4.0 460 49 Change % -36 -8 -50 -67 -34 -22 -62

Adapted from Voigt, M.N. et al 1980

on all the major visceral organs that contribute directly or indirectly to the most commonly recognised signs and lesions. The toxins affect all body organs, however the most common signs exhibited under practical conditions are invariably related to the function of those organs. The signs commonly observed in chickens as a result of mycotoxin intake invariably relate to organs such as liver, kidneys, reproductive tract, bursa, skeleton, vascular system and gastrointestinal tract. The adverse effects associated with mycotoxins include lesions of the mucous membranes, dermal and footpad lesions, bursal atrophy, fatty infiltration both of liver and kidneys, bile duct proliferation, etc. The clinically recognised parameters include depressed appetite, lesions in the mouth, gizzard and intestines, thin egg shell, decreased fertility and hatchability, poor feathering, poor growth rate and feed conversion, immunosuppression, bruising, diarrhoea and rickets.

Mycotoxin-induced vitamin deficiencies

mins available to meet its physiological metabolic requirements. For rapidly growing chickens, a continuous supply of Bgroup of vitamins is essential. The metabolic function of B-vitamins to some extent is specific but also interdependent to complete various metabolic pathways. The first and most important function of Bgroup vitamins is the production of energy from carbohydrates, proteins and lipids to maintain essential functioning of organs such as the brain, heart, liver and kidneys. Therefore any deficiency of B-vitamins leads to inadequate supply of energy, being observed as inactivity and depression in a flock. The other functions include the synthesis of proteins and fatty acids essential for growth, reproduction and immune response. Therefore an inadequate supply of B-vitamins will lead to inefficient utilisation of nutrients resulting in reduced growth rate, adverse feed conversion efficiency and sub-optimal immune response. During the course of infection, decreased feed intake reduces the vitamins available to the chicken and at the same time increased metabolic activity requires a continuous supply of vitamins. The overall effect depends upon the severity and the duration of the course of infection. The adverse effects of inadequate vitamin supplementation to broilers have been demonstrated in controlled studies. Reducing vitamin supplementation to a third of the basal level is deleterious to live10

ability and growth up to 14 days (Table 3), whilst Jadev and colleagues (1997) found that in 7-week old chicks, weight gain could be improved from 1315 to 1658 g by B-complex supplementation. The effect of gradual depletion of vitamins has also been demonstrated in controlled studies (Table 4). In adult hens the inadequate supplement or deficiency of vitamins is expected to affect not only gradual decline in egg production, and in breeder flocks adversely affects fertility, hatchability and the liveability of the progeny.

Mycotoxins and vitamin metabolism

The occurrence of mycotoxins in poultry feed is well recognised in almost every part of the world engaged in commercial poultry production. The level and the mycotoxin types present in a compound feed depend upon the feed ingredients and the factors that promote toxin production. The types of mycotoxins that are of economic significance include aflatoxin, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, T2 toxin, ochratoxin and fumonisins. The adverse effects of mycotoxins are dependent upon the nature of the toxin, concentration, duration of exposure, age, nutritional status and the stress factors in the flock. Mycotoxins are a diverse family of chemical substances produced by moulds that are toxic to poultry. In general they are well known for their specific pathological effects

Both the pathological and clinical signs of mycotoxicosis resemble the signs that result from vitamin deficiencies. Vitamin deficiency symptoms are the direct result of incomplete or absence of specific vitamin participation in the biochemical and metabolic pathways necessary to utilise nutrients and maintain tissue integrity. The mechanism of mycotoxin induced tissue and organ damage is the result of complex biochemical processes that may react with other enzymes and cofactors (Table 5). Absorption and bioconversion of vitamins may be adversely affected due to cell membrane damage caused by mycotoxins and their metabolites in organs such as the gastrointestinal tract, liver or the kidneys. These arguments lead to the evaluation of whether mycotoxins induce vitamin deficiency-like signs are due to: 1. Higher requirement of specific vitamins to metabolise toxins 2. Vitamins required to eliminate toxin metabolites from the tissues 3. Vitamins are destroyed by mould growth in the feed ingredients 4. Lower intake of vitamins due to appetite depression and reduced feed intake 5. Nutritional interaction or some unknown factors 6. Tissue regeneration to repair organ damage 7. Protein synthesis such as antibody production as a result of immunosupression.
WORLD POULTRY -Vitamin special 2001

Table 7. Mycotoxins and liver a-tocopherol (mg/g)

-tocopherol IU/kg 14 100 1000 Control 2.6 40 234 T2 (4ppm) 2.1 24 167 OA (2.5ppm) 1.6 16 110

Table 8. Role of vitamins in mycotoxicosis

Niacin Thiamine, folic acid Enhance conjugation Decrease mortality Prevent DNA loss and increase liver weight Reduce defects of mineral metabolism eg. Egg shell, osteoporosis Reduces uric acid and MDA in plasma due to T2 toxin. Decreases MDA formation Decreases plasma uric acid Ameliorate peroxidative effect Reduce lipid accumulation in liver Metabolise, detoxify aflatoxins Interacts to metabolise aflatoxins Maintain calcium homeostasis Maintain growth rate

Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)

Figure 1. Effect of ochratoxin on laying performance (from Haazele et al., 1991)

Vitamin E

Biotin Pyridoxine Riboflavin Vitamin D3 Vitamin B12

Figure 2. Ochratoxin and shell quality (from Haazele et al., 1991)

Figure 3. Aflatoxin B1 (1mg/kg) and response to biotin supplementation (200mg/kg) (adapted from Bryden et al., 1979)

B-vitamin requirements increased

Vitamin requirements of the modern chicken during mycotoxicosis is not yet critically evaluated. However there are studies that indicate that aflatoxins negatively influence the plasma level of certain B-vitamins (Table 6). It is interesting to note that six B-group vitamin levels are adversely affected by aflatoxin. These vitamins are important in metabolism and many other related functions including immune response and synthesis of many protein molecules. In addition there are reports that liver vitamin A and plasma carotenoid decrease during aflatoxicosis. One report has shown that the ingestion of aflatoxin at 5g per gram of feed by broilers over a three-week period decreases most Bvitamins from the plasma, bile and liver. The level of thiamine, riboflavin, pyridoxine, pantothenic acid and choline decreased by 60% in bile; pyridoxine, pantothenic acid and choline decreased by more than 49% in
WORLD POULTRY -Vitamin special 2001

plasma; thiamine, pyridoxine, pantothenic acid, choline, folate and niacin decreased by more than 19% in the liver. These results suggest that aflatoxins significantly influence the vitamin status of the chicken and are therefore implicated in inducing vitamin inadequacy in affected flocks.

Supplementation vital
Apart from measuring vitamin status, there have been several studies reporting the response to vitamin supplementation to improve specific economically important parameters, which are measurable in practical terms. The high incidence of thin eggshells and broken eggs can be reduced significantly by supplementation of ascorbic acid in the feed as illustrated in Figures 1 and 2. Similarly, accumulation of lipids in visceral organs may be reduced by adequate supplementation of biotin in the feed (Figure 3). Fat-soluble vitamins normally have reason-

able tissue reserves that can only be maintained with adequate supplementation in the feed to prevent appearances of deficiency signs. Vitamin E is important for its antioxidant functions in the body and maintaining its tissue levels by adequate supplementation would be necessary during mycotoxicosis (Table 7). Vitamin E is very important in maintaining immune function; therefore during mycotoxicosis substantially higher supplementation may be necessary to meet normal physiological requirements. Under practical conditions, supplementation of vitamins is frequently practised to alleviate clinical signs or to improve commercial parameters suggestive of mycotoxicosis in the flock. The application or involvement of vitamins in mycotoxicoses is summarised in Table 8 as a guide for practical considerations. The level and duration of vitamin supplementation varies widely depending upon personal experience in the field and the incidence of mycotoxicosis. For the proper use of vitamins a basic understanding of their function and application is essential to achieve practical results.
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