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GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING TOLERANCING [GD & T]

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FORM TOLERANCES Form tolerances control the form of individual features. So No Datums are allowed.

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Type of Tolerance Flatness

Shape of tolerance zone 2 parallel planes

2D or 3D 3D

App. Of feature modifier No

Straightness [controls surface line elements]

2 parallel lines 2D 2 parallel planes or cylindrical zone 3D Yes No

Straightness [controls axis or median plane]

2 Concentric circles Circularity (Roundness) 2D No

2 Concentric cylinders Cylindricity 3D No

FLATNESS

Surface must flat within 0.2 (total) Tolerance Zone = 2 parallel planes. Flatness is a condition of a surface having all of its elements in a one plane. Tolerance zone for a flatness control is 3D. A flatness tolerance applies to surface. It is equivalent to two equal straightness tolerances applied at right angles to each other. All points on the surface must lie within the tolerance zone, thus flatness controls deviations such as waviness, concavity & convexity. Flatness is a form tolerance & datums are not allowed, since flatness controls the surface, the material condition modifiers MMC, LMC, RFS, are not applicable.

FLATNESS APPLIED ON A UNIT BASIS

Flatness may be applied on a unit basis as a means of preventing abrupt surface variation within a relatively small area of the feature. The unit variation is used either in combination with a specified total variation or alone. For verification entire surface must lie in a tolerance zone of 0.3 & additionally each 25 x 25 unit must fall within 0.05 zones. FLATNESS-DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS The manufacturability or producibility of a flatness tolerance, or any geometric tolerance for that matter, is not just dependent on the size of the tolerance zone. The size of a controlled surface is also a factor. A large geometric tolerance in conjunction with an extremely large feature can be more difficult to produce than a small geometric tolerance on a small feature. When selecting geometric tolerance the designer should consider the size of the controlled feature as well as the size of the geometric tolerance. Flatness is often used in datum features. Specifying a flatness control on a primary datum surface will limit the amount of rock or instability of the surface relative to the datum reference frame. The rock or instability cannot be eliminated; it can only be minimized through a flatness control. There is an old rule of the thumb that states; datum features should be as good as the features are related to it.

WHERE FLATNESS IS APPLIED? Sheet metal flexible or flanged surfaces that will be bolted, screwed or welded together. Flatness is also used on gasket or seal surfaces. M/C bed. Bed of Bench-vice. FLATNESS VERIFICATION There are many ways to check a flatness specification. Some are better than the others. As with verifications for any geometric tolerance, the procedure used for verification will depend on many factors. How many parts are there to check? Is this the 1st part produced or 1000th? Is the tolerance well within the process capability? Are statistical process controls being done? How tight is the tolerance? What kind of equipment is available? Is it an in-process check or final check?

VERIFICATION METHODS By Spirit Level. By CMM (co-ordinate measuring machine). By feeler gauge check.

The part to be measured is set up on a surface plate or measuring plane, using one fixed and two adjustable supports spaced as far apart as possible. An indicator gage is set to zero on the area above the fixed support. The other supports are adjusted to give zero readings above each support. Readings are taken at a sufficient no. of points on the surface to ensure that the tolerance is not exceeded. STRAIGHTNESS Straightness is a condition in which all the points in a line are colinear. Straightness controls lines drawn on a surface, axis of shafts & holes and edges of parts. There is one important point to note, the tolerance zone applies to each line on the surface independently. The tolerance zones for different lines may vary in position (up & down) relative to each other. Thus a surface could be wavy, convex, and concave and get still meet the straightness requirements.

STRAIGHTNESS LINE ELEMENTS This is a 2D specification and controls line elements of surfaces. No material condition modifiers are allowed. Can be used on dowel pins or shaft.(e.g. outer edge of the cylinder)

For verification no. of line elements should be lie in tolerance zone of two parallel lines of 0.05

STRAIGHTNESS LINE ELEMENTS IN TWO DIRECTIONS

STRAIGHTNESS OF CYLINDRICAL SURFACE

STRAIGHTNESS AXIS AT MMC

Straightness of an axis is a condition where an axis is a straight line. The tolerance specifies a tolerance zone within which the derived median line must lie. This type of control is used where the size of pin is important, but the pin can bow or bent beyond the perfect form limits of size.

Straightness is a form tolerance and datums are not allowed. Since straightness of an axis controls the axis of the feature, the material condition modifiers MMC can be applied. SPECIFYING STRAIGHTNESS PER UNIT LENGTH WITH SPECIFIED TOTAL STRAIGHTNESS, BOTH RFS

STRAIGHTNESS MEDIAN PLANE Straightness can be applied to the median plane of a non-cylindrical feature. This is the same concept as straightness of an axis. In this case it is just applied to a median plane. This control may be applied when the local size of the feature must be maintained but the feature may be allowed to bow or wrap. This straightness median plane control will require the application of material condition modifiers. The part below is specified at MMC.

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For verification each c/s element must fall within tolerance zone. (Two parallel lines). Here thickness is important, with changing in thickness tolerance zone also changed. STRAIGHTNESS VERIFICATION

Straightness also can be measured by Auto-collimator.

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CIRCULARITY (ROUNDNESS)Tolerance Zone = two concentric circles (2D). Circularity is a condition of surface where: For a feature other than a sphere, all points of the surface intersected by any plane perpendicular to an axis are equidistant to that axis. For a sphere, all points of the surface intersected by any plane passing through a common center are equidistant from that center.

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The features are permitted to be waisted, barreled or tapered within the size tolerance. Circularity controls only the circular elements, not the longitudinal elements. Circularity is a form tolerance, datums are not allowed. Circularity is the surface control, thus the modifiers MMC, LMC, RFS are not applicable. Examples are Ball bearings Tubes, pipes Circular elements of tapered, barreled, or waisted parts such as nose or tail cones, seals, valves etc. VERIFICATION

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BY USE OF V-BLOCK This is an approximate method for measuring circularity. The part is rotated & dial indicator is in stationary position.

CYLINDRICITY 3D phenomenon. Tolerance zone = two concentric cylinders. Cylindricity is a condition of a surface of revolution in which all points of surface are equidistance from a common axis.

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Cylindricity controls the roundness of a feature over its entire surface. All points on the surface must lie within the tolerance zone, thus cylindricity controls deviations such as concavity & convexity. Cylindricity controls circularity, straightness & tapers. Cylindricity is a form tolerance, so datums are not applicable. So LMC, MMC, RFS are not allowed. EXAMPLES Bearings, bearing journals. Cylinders. VERIFICATION OF CIRCULARITY & CYLINDRICITY

For circularity at its c/s. (series of checks) for cylindricity at entire surface. The roundness or cylindricity tolerance is a radial distance between concentric boundaries, a radial method of checking the surface is necessary. However, a rotating part between centers is not a acceptable method since it relates the part surface to an axis, which technically is a check of another geometric tolerance called runout.

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The truly check of roundness or cylindricity of a surface without regard to the axis of the part, the part must be rotated about the ultra precision spindle of a specialized roundness measuring m/c. A probe contact the surface and transcribes an enlarged profile of the surface on to a polar graph. The profile is then checked against a clear overlay of concentric circles to determine if it falls within the allowable tolerance zone. ORIENTATION TOLERANCE

Orientation tolerances control the orientation of individual features. Datums are require. Default orientation tolerances are 3D. They can be made 2D by writing line elements under the feature control frame. The orientation control of a surface will also control the form of that surface, if no form tolerance is specified. [Note; there are some cases where profile specified with datums can be considered on orientation tolerance.] The orientation tolerance controls the features without size (plane surfaces) as well as features with sizes (holes, slots, tubs, pins etc.)

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If the orientation tolerances are applied to plane surfaces or a tangent plane, then feature modifiers (MMC, LMC) are not allowed. If the orientation tolerances are applied to the axis or median plane of feature, then feature modifiers are required. Orientation tolerance will not locate features. In order to locate features, a profile or position tolerance is used. Generally a profile is used to locate features and position is used to locate features of size. PERPENDICULARITY Perpendicularity is the condition that results when a surface, axis, or center plane is exactly 90 deg to a datum. A perpendicularity control is a geometric tolerance that limits the amount a surface, axis, or center plane is permitted to vary from being perpendicular to the datum.

The surface must lie between two parallel planes 0.5 apart. In addition, the feature must be within the limits of size or location.

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VERIFICATION

PERPENDICULARITY WITH MULTIPLE DATUMS

Perpendicularity is an orientation tolerance and can be applied two or


more datum features. The example below illustrates perpendicularity to two datum features.

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SPECIFYING PERPENDICULARITY FOR A CENTER PLANE (FEATURE RES)

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SPECIFYING PERPENDICULARITY OF AN AXIS (BOTH FEATURE & DATUM FEATURE AT RFS)

SPECIFYING PERPENDICULARITY FOR AXIS (AT MMC)

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PARALLELISM Parallelism is a condition of a surface or center plane, equidistant at all points from a datum plane or an axis. Equidistant along its length from one or more datum planes or a datum axis.

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SPECIFYING PARALLELISM OF AN AXIS (BOTH FEATURE & DATUM FEATURE AT RFS)

SPECIFYING PARALLELISM OF AN AXIS (FEATURE AT MMC & DATUM FEATURE AT RFS)

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ANGULARITY Angularity is the condition of a surface, center plane or axis at a specified angle (other than 90 or 180) from datum plane or axis. SPECIFY ANGULARITY FOR A SURFACE

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To verify the angularity requirements, the part is mounted on datum feature A and inclined 30 on a sine bar. The entire controlled surface must indicate within tolerance.

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SPECIFY ANGULARITY OF AXIS (FEATURE RFS, TOLERANCE ZONETWO PARALLEL PLANES)

SPECIFY ANGULARITY OF AXIS (FEATURE RFS, TOLERANCE ZONECYLINDRICAL)

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LOCATION-TOLERANCE

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POSITION TOLERANCEPosition tolerance controls the location of an axis, median plane or surface of a feature. Datums usually required. Location tolerances control the position as well as orientation & form. e.g. thus for a hole, location tolerance will control the position of the hole axis relative to specified datums, tilt of the axis of the hole, and form deviations such as convexity or concavity of the axis. A position tolerance controls the position of a feature relative to one or more datums. The example shows how the axis of a hole is controlled. 3-2-1 datum system has been used with A being the primary datum, B the secondary and C the tertiary.

EXAMPLE

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CONCENTRICITY AND SYMMETRY TOLERANCES Concentricity and symmetry tolerances control the location of opposing median points of a feature datum axis or median plane required. Concentricity and symmetry are 3D tolerances. The concept of Concentricity and symmetry are identical except that concentricity is used for controlling opposing median points on cylindrical features, and symmetry is used for controlling opposing median points on the non-cylindrical features. Datums are always required with both Concentricity and symmetry.

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Datums must always be an axis or median plane & are always applied on an RFS basis. The feature tolerance is also always applied on RFS basis. CONCENTRICITY-

Concentricity (co-axiality) tolerance controls the axis of one feature relative to the axis of another feature. In this case axis of larger cylinder must lie within a cylindrical tolerance zone of 0.5 of the axis of the small cylinder. (Defined as datum A). Within the limits of size and RFS, all median points of diametrically opposed elements of the feature must lie within 0.5 cylindrical

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tolerance zone. The axis of tolerance zone coincides with the axis of datum feature A. the specified tolerance and the datum references apply only on RFS basis.

VERIFICATION

0.5 CONCENTRICITY TOLERANCE ZONE

At all opposing median points put dial indicator and take readings. Application of concentricity is very rare and is very expensive and time consuming to measure. Recommended that you try position or runout as an alternative tolerance.

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SYMMETRY Symmetry is a condition where the median points of all opposed elements of a feature are congruent with the axis or center plane of a datum feature.

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PROFILE TOLERANCES Profile tolerances control the location and/or orientation, and/or form, and/or size of a feature. May or may not have datums.

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Profile of a surface is probably most powerful control in the entire geometric tolerance system. In past position symbol seemed to be the most important. But, as we begin to understand the geometric system and work with CAD data bases, solid models, CMMS and CNC, we find that profile of a surface probably the most powerful tool. Profile tolerance is often compared to position tolerance in that position is used to locate features of size (holes, slots, tabs, pins etc.) and profile tolerance is used to locate features that have no sizes. (surfaces ) In some industries, especially automotive sheet metal, profile tolerance is used exclusively.

The use of profile tolerance does not require any exotic verification procedures. Depending on the situation, profile may be verify with a CMM, micrometer, calipers, gages, optical comparator, indicators or visually.

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PROFILE OF A LINE

Each line segment of a surface must lie between two profile boundries 0.5 apart in relation to datum reference frame. For verification no. of cross-sections to be checked.

PROFILE OF A SURFACE APPLICATION OF A PROFILE OF SURFACE TO BASIC COUNTER

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PROFILE OF A SURFACE BETWEEN POINTS

The tolerance zone established by the profile of a surface control is 3D, extending along the full length and width of the considered feature.

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PROFILE OF SURFACE ALL ROUND

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COMPOSITE PROFILE TOLERANCE

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RUNOUT-TOLERANCE Runout tolerance control the form, orientation and position of individual features. Datum axis required. Runout tolerances will control surfaces constructed around a datum axis and those constructed at right angles to a datum axis. On a surface of revolution, total runout will control taper of the feature, but circular runout will not control taper. The two runout tolerances are both surface controls. Therefore the feature modifiers MMC, LMC, RFS are not applicable. In the past, runout tolerances were often used on all rotating components. This is not necessarily true and can unnecessarily tighten manufacturing tolerances and increase cost. Both circular and total runout specifications are axis to surface controls and are often used when a component rides on the surface, such as wheel or idler pulley.

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Total runout is control cumulative variations of perpendicularity, concavity, convexity, flatness and wobble of that surface. If circular runout is applied, it will control only the circular elements of that surface. It will not control perpendicularity, concavity, convexity or flatness but will control wobble.

CIRCULAR RUNOUT Circular runout is 2D, surface to axis control. The tolerance is applied independently at each circular c/s. unlike total runout, it does not control taper.

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TOTAL RUNOUT Total runout is 3D, surface to axis control. Total runout provides a composite control of all surface elements. When applied to a surface constructed around a datum axis, total runout will control cumulative variations of circularity, straightness, co-axiality, angularity, taper and variations in the surface.

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A circular/total runout specification may be verified with a dial indicator, CMM or by other methods.

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