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GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
A
fter learning about how the earth was forces continuously elevate or build up parts
born, how it evolved its crust and other of the earth’s surface and hence the exogenic
inner layers, how its crustal plates processes fail to even out the relief variations
moved and are moving, and other information of the surface of the earth. So, variations remain
on earthquakes, the forms of volcanism and as long as the opposing actions of exogenic and
about the rocks and minerals the crust is endogenic forces continue. In general terms,
composed of, it is time to know in detail about the endogenic forces are mainly land building
the surface of the earth on which we live. Let forces and the exogenic processes are mainly
us start with this question. land wearing forces. The surface of the earth is
sensitive. Humans depend on it for their
Why is the surface of the earth uneven? sustenance and have been using it extensively
and intensively. So, it is essential to understand
First of all, the earth’s crust is dynamic. You its nature in order to use it effectively without
are well aware that it has moved and moves disturbing its balance and diminishing its
vertically and horizontally. Of course, it moved potential for the future. Almost all organisms
a bit faster in the past than the rate at which it contribute to sustain the earth’s environment.
is moving now. The differences in the internal However, humans have caused over use of
forces operating from within the earth which
resources. Use we must, but must also leave it
built up the crust have been responsible for
potential enough to sustain life through the
the variations in the outer surface of the crust.
future. Most of the surface of the earth had and
The earth’s surface is being continuously
has been shaped over very long periods of time
subjected to external forces induced basically
(hundreds and thousands of years) and
by energy (sunlight). Of course, the internal
because of its use and misuse by humans its
forces are still active though with different
potential is being diminished at a fast rate. If
intensities. That means, the earth’s surface is
the processes which shaped and are shaping
being continuously subjected to by external
the surface of the earth into varieties of forms
forces originating within the earth’s atmosphere
(shapes) and the nature of materials of which
and by internal forces from within the earth.
it is composed of, are understood, precautions
The external forces are known as exogenic
can be taken to minimise the detrimental effects
forces and the internal forces are known as
of human use and to preserve it for posterity.
endogenic forces. The actions of exogenic
forces result in wearing down (degradation) of
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
relief/elevations and filling up (aggradation) of
basins/depressions, on the earth’s surface. The You would like to know the meaning of
phenomenon of wearing down of relief geomorphic processes. The endogenic and
variations of the surface of the earth through exogenic forces causing physical stresses and
erosion is known as gradation. The endogenic chemical actions on earth materials and
46 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
under volcanoes in the Unit II and under processes and their respective driving forces.
igneous rocks in the preceding chapter in this It should become clear from this chart that for
unit. each process there exists a distinct driving force
or energy.
What do the words volcanism and As there are different climatic regions on
volcanoes indicate? the earth’s surface owing to thermal gradients
created by latitudinal, seasonal and land and
water spread variations, the exogenic
EXOGENIC PROCESSES
geomorphic processes vary from region to
The exogenic processes derive their energy region. The density, type and distribution of
from atmosphere determined by the ultimate vegetation which largely depend upon
energy from the sun and also the gradients
created by tectonic factors.
called solution. This process involves removal Many clay minerals swell and contract during
of solids in solution and depends upon wetting and drying and a repetition of this
solubility of a mineral in water or weak acids. process results in cracking of overlying
On coming in contact with water many solids materials. Salts in pore spaces undergo rapid
disintegrate and mix up as suspension in and repeated hydration and help in rock
water. Soluble rock forming minerals like fracturing. The volume changes in minerals
nitrates, sulphates, and potassium etc. are due to hydration will also help in physical
affected by this process. So, these minerals are weathering through exfoliation and granular
easily leached out without leaving any residue disintegration.
in rainy climates and accumulate in dry
regions. Minerals like calcium carbonate and Oxidation and Reduction
calcium magnesium bicarbonate present in In weathering, oxidation means a combination
limestones are soluble in water containing of a mineral with oxygen to form oxides or
carbonic acid (formed with the addition of hydroxides. Oxidation occurs where there is
carbon dioxide in water), and are carried away ready access to the atmosphere and
in water as solution. Carbon dioxide produced oxygenated waters. The minerals most
by decaying organic matter along with soil commonly involved in this process are iron,
water greatly aids in this reaction. Common manganese, sulphur etc. In the process of
salt (sodium chloride) is also a rock forming oxidation rock breakdown occurs due to the
mineral and is susceptible to this process of disturbance caused by addition of oxygen. Red
solution. colour of iron upon oxidation turns to brown
or yellow. When oxidised minerals are placed
Carbonation in an environment where oxygen is absent,
reduction takes place. Such conditions exist
Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and
usually below the water table, in areas of
bicarbonate with minerals and is a common
stagnant water and waterlogged ground. Red
process helping the breaking down of
colour of iron upon reduction turns to greenish
feldspars and carbonate minerals. Carbon or bluish grey.
dioxide from the atmosphere and soil air is These weathering processes are inter-
absorbed by water, to form carbonic acid that related. Hydration, carbonation and oxidation
acts as a weak acid. Calcium carbonates and go hand in hand and hasten the weathering
magnesium carbonates are dissolved in process.
carbonic acid and are removed in a solution
without leaving any residue resulting in cave
formation. Can we give iron rusting as an example
of oxidation? How essential is water in
Why are clay minerals easily erodible? chemical weathering processes? Can
chemical weathering processes dominate
in water scarce hot deserts?
Hydration
Hydration is the chemical addition of water.
Physical Weathering Processes
Minerals take up water and expand; this
expansion causes an increase in the volume of Physical or mechanical weathering processes
the material itself or rock. Calcium sulphate depend on some applied forces. The applied
takes in water and turns to gypsum, which is forces could be: (i) gravitational forces such as
more unstable than calcium sulphate. This overburden pressure, load and shearing stress;
process is reversible and long, continued (ii) expansion forces due to temperature
repetition of this process causes fatigue in the changes, crystal growth or animal activity;
rocks and may lead to their disintegration. (iii) water pressures controlled by wetting and
50 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
drying cycles. Many of these forces are applied temperatures, this internal movement among
both at the surface and within different earth the mineral grains of the superficial layers of
materials leading to rock fracture. Most of the rocks takes place regularly. This process is
physical weathering processes are caused by most effective in dry climates and high
thermal expansion and pressure release. These elevations where diurnal temperature changes
processes are small and slow but can cause are drastic. As has been mentioned earlier
great damage to the rocks because of though these movements are very small they
continued fatigue the rocks suffer due to make the rocks weak due to continued fatigue.
repetition of contraction and expansion. The surface layers of the rocks tend to expand
more than the rock at depth and this leads to
Unloading and Expansion the formation of stress within the rock resulting
in heaving and fracturing parallel to the
Removal of overlying rock load because of
surface. Due to differential heating and
continued erosion causes vertical pressure
resulting expansion and contraction of surface
release with the result that the upper layers of
layers and their subsequent exfoliation from
the rock expand producing disintegration of
the surface results in smooth rounded surfaces
rock masses. Fractures will develop roughly
in rocks. In rocks like granites, smooth
parallel to the ground surface. In areas of
surfaced and rounded small to big boulders
curved ground surface, arched fractures tend
called tors form due to such exfoliation.
to produce massive sheets or exfoliation slabs
of rock. Exfoliation sheets resulting from
What is the difference between exfoliation
expansion due to unloading and pressure domes and exfoliated tors?
release may measure hundreds or even
thousands of metres in horizontal extent. Large,
smooth rounded domes called exfoliation Freezing, Thawing and Frost Wedging
domes (Figure 6.3) result due to this process. Frost weathering occurs due to growth of ice
within pores and cracks of rocks during
repeated cycles of freezing and melting. This
process is most effective at high elevations in
mid-latitudes where freezing and melting is
often repeated. Glacial areas are subject to frost
wedging daily. In this process, the rate of
freezing is important. Rapid freezing of water
causes its sudden expansion and high pressure.
The resulting expansion affects joints, cracks
and small inter granular fractures to become
wider and wider till the rock breaks apart.
Landslides
These are known as relatively rapid and
perceptible movements. The materials involved
are relatively dry. The size and shape of the Figure 6.7 : Landslide scars in Shiwalik Himalayan ranges
detached mass depends on the nature of near river Sarada at India-Nepal border, Uttar Pradesh
54 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
face, an occurrence that distinguishes it from erosion it is not a pre-condition for erosion to
rockslide which affects materials up to a take place. Weathering, mass-wasting and
substantial depth. erosion are degradational processes. It is
erosion that is largely responsible for
Between mass wasting and mass continuous changes that the earth’s surface is
movements, which term do you feel is undergoing. As indicated in Figure 6.1,
most appropriate? Why? Can solifluction denudational processes like erosion and
be included under rapid flow movements? transportation are controlled by kinetic energy.
Why it can be and can’t be? The erosion and transportation of earth
materials is brought about by wind, running
water, glaciers, waves and ground water. Of
In our country, debris avalanche and
these the first three agents are controlled by
landslides occur very frequently in the
climatic conditions.
Himalayas. There are many reasons for
this. One, the Himalayas are tectonically
Can you compare the three climatically
active. They are mostly made up of
controlled agents?
sedimentary rocks and unconsolidated
and semi-consolidated deposits. The
slopes are very steep. Compared to the They represent three states of matter —
Himalayas, the Nilgiris bordering gaseous (wind), liquid (running water) and
Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Kerala and the solid (glacier) respectively. The erosion can be
Western Ghats along the west coast are defined as “application of the kinetic energy
relatively tectonically stable and are associated with the agent to the surface of the
mostly made up of very hard rocks; but, land along which it moves”. Kinetic energy is
still, debris avalanches and landslides computed as KE = 1/2 mv2 where ‘m’ is the mass
occur though not as frequently as in the and ‘v’ is the velocity. Hence the energy
Himalayas, in these hills. Why? Many available to perform work will depend on the
slopes are steeper with almost vertical mass of the material and the velocity with
cliffs and escarpments in the Western
which it is moving. Obviously then you will find
Ghats and Nilgiris. Mechanical weathering
that though the glaciers move at very low
due to temperature changes and ranges
is pronounced. They receive heavy velocities due to tremendous mass are more
amounts of rainfall over short periods. effective as the agents of erosion and wind,
So, there is almost direct rock fall quite being in gaseous state, are less effective.
frequently in these places along with The work of the other two agents of erosion-
landslides and debris avalanches. waves and ground water is not controlled by
climate. In case of waves it is the location along
the interface of litho and hydro sphere —
EROSION AND DEPOSITION coastal region — that will determine the work
of waves, whereas the work of ground water is
Erosion involves acquisition and transportation determined more by the lithological character
of rock debris. When massive rocks break into of the region. If the rocks are permeable and
smaller fragments through weathering and soluble and water is available only then karst
any other process, erosional geomorphic topography develops. In the next chapter we
agents like running water, groundwater, shall be dealing with the landforms produced
glaciers, wind and waves remove and by each of the agents of erosion.
transport it to other places depending upon Deposition is a consequence of erosion. The
the dynamics of each of these agents. Abrasion erosional agents loose their velocity and hence
by rock debris carried by these geomorphic energy on gentler slopes and the materials
agents also aids greatly in erosion. By erosion, carried by them start to settle themselves. In
relief degrades, i.e., the landscape is worn other words, deposition is not actually the work
down. That means, though weathering aids of any agent. The coarser materials get
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES 55
deposited first and finer ones later. By of the weathered material) which is the basic
deposition depressions get filled up. The same input for soil to form. First, the weathered
erosional agents viz., running water, glaciers, material or transported deposits are colonised
wind, waves and groundwater act as by bacteria and other inferior plant bodies like
aggradational or depositional agents also. mosses and lichens. Also, several minor
What happens to the surface of the earth organisms may take shelter within the mantle
due to erosion and deposition is elaborated in and deposits. The dead remains of organisms
the next chapter on landforms and their and plants help in humus accumulation. Minor
evolution. grasses and ferns may grow; later, bushes and
trees will start growing through seeds brought
There is a shift of materials in mass in by birds and wind. Plant roots penetrate
movements as well as in erosion from one down, burrowing animals bring up particles,
place to the other. So, why can’t both be mass of material becomes porous and sponge-
treated as one and the same? Can there
like with a capacity to retain water and to permit
be appreciable erosion without rocks
the passage of air and finally a mature soil, a
undergoing weathering?
complex mixture of mineral and organic
products forms.
SOIL FORMATION
Is weathering solely responsible for soil
Soil and Soil Contents formation? If not, why?
with the type of parent rock. Also, in case of climates and in areas with intermediate
some limestone areas, where the weathering precipitation conditions, calcium carbonate
processes are specific and peculiar, soils will nodules (kanker) are formed.
show clear relation with the parent rock. Temperature acts in two ways — increasing
or reducing chemical and biological activity.
Topography Chemical activity is increased in higher
Topography like parent materials is another temperatures, reduced in cooler temperatures
passive control factor. The influence of (with an exception of carbonation) and stops
topography is felt through the amount of in freezing conditions. That is why, tropical soils
exposure of a surface covered by parent with higher temperatures show deeper profiles
materials to sunlight and the amount of and in the frozen tundra regions soils contain
surface and sub-surface drainage over and largely mechanically broken materials.
through the parent materials. Soils will be thin Biological Activity
on steep slopes and thick over flat upland
areas. Over gentle slopes where erosion is slow The vegetative cover and organisms that occupy
and percolation of water is good, soil formation the parent materials from the beginning and also
is very favourable. Soils over flat areas may at later stages help in adding organic matter,
develop a thick layer of clay with good moisture retention, nitrogen etc. Dead plants
accumulation of organic matter giving the soil provide humus, the finely divided organic matter
dark colour. In middle latitudes, the south of the soil. Some organic acids which form
facing slopes exposed to sunlight have different during humification aid in decomposing the
conditions of vegetation and soils and the north minerals of the soil parent materials.
facing slopes with cool, moist conditions have Intensity of bacterial activity shows up
some other soils and vegetation. differences between soils of cold and warm
climates. Humus accumulates in cold climates
Climate as bacterial growth is slow. With undecomposed
Climate is an important active factor in soil organic matter because of low bacterial activity,
formation. The climatic elements involved in soil layers of peat develop in sub-arctic and tundra
development are : (i) moisture in terms of its climates. In humid tropical and equatorial
intensity, frequency and duration of climates, bacterial growth and action is intense
precipitation - evaporation and humidity; and dead vegetation is rapidly oxidised leaving
(ii) temperature in terms of seasonal and very low humus content in the soil. Further,
diurnal variations. bacteria and other soil organisms take gaseous
Precipitation gives soil its moisture content nitrogen from the air and convert it into a
which makes the chemical and biological chemical form that can be used by plants. This
activities possible. Excess of water helps in the process is known as nitrogen fixation.
downward transportation of soil components Rhizobium, a type of bacteria, lives in the root
through the soil (eluviation) and deposits the nodules of leguminous plants and fixes nitrogen
same down below (illuviation). In climates like beneficial to the host plant. The influence of large
wet equatorial rainy areas with high rainfall, animals like ants, termites, earthworms, rodents
not only calcium, sodium, magnesium, etc., is mechanical, but, it is nevertheless
potassium etc. but also a major part of silica is important in soil formation as they rework the
removed from the soil. Removal of silica from soil up and down. In case of earthworms, as
the soil is known as desilication. In dry climates, they feed on soil, the texture and chemistry of
because of high temperature, evaporation the soil that comes out of their body changes.
exceeds precipitation and hence ground water
is brought up to the surface by capillary action Time
and in the process the water evaporates leaving Time is the third important controlling factor
behind salts in the soil. Such salts form into a in soil formation. The length of time the soil
crust in the soil known as hardpans. In tropical forming processes operate, determines
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES 57
EXERCISES
Project Work
Depending upon the topography and materials around you, observe and record
climate, possible weathering process and soil contents and characteristics.