4.

1) What is the central nervous system and what are its main roles in mental processes and behaviour? The CNS comprises the brain and the spinal cord. The CNS transmits and receives messages to and from the PNS. 2) What are the main functions of the cerebral cortex? It is involved with informationprocessing activities such as perception, language, learning, memory, thinking and problemsolving, as well as the planning and control of voluntary bodily movements. 3) Where is the cerebral cortex located? The cerebral cortex is located throughout the brain and bend and folds upon itself to fit within the limited space of the skull. 4) Of what does the cerebral cortex mainly consist? It contains about three quarters of the entire brains neurons. 5) Name the three different categories of cortical areas and briefly describe the functions performed by each of these areas 6) Describe the relationship between the size of the cerebral cortex and the mental capabilities of an organism: The so-called higher mammals have a greater amount of cerebral cortex (particularly the association cortex) than do the so-called simpler mammals (rats and cats). 4.2

1) A) What is a cerebral hemisphere? One half of the cerebrum the cerebellum is split into two halves, each of which controls one side of the body respectively B) Briefly describe three characteristics that the cerebral hemispheres have in common. They are alike in overall size, shape and structure. Furthermore each has motor and sensory areas that perform the same functions, each for a different side of the body. Each hemisphere also has specialised functions. 2) A) what is the corpus callosum? The corpus callosum is a band of nerve tissue that connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres and serves as the main communication pathway between them. B) Where is the corpus callosum located? The corpus callosum is located underneath the cerebrum at the centre of the brain. C) What key function is performed by the corpus callosum? The Corpus Callosum allows for the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex to communicate and coordinate their activities. 3) Suggest the possible impact on mental processes and behaviour if the corpus callosum were to be cut in two and it was no longer an intact bridge. Explain your answer. In a normal brain, both hemispheres use memory on a shared basis. When the CC is cut each hemispheres memory operates independently. For example, in a pt with a split brain, cover the left eye and ask the pt to remember what object was seen with the rt eye.Now cover the left eye and ask the pt to recall what was remembered by the rt. The pt cannot recall memory from the left side because it wasn't processed at the same time. The CC is the unifying connection between both spheres which allows the brain to process visual memory recall. http://uk.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20110409044737AAM108o

4.7 1) Construct a table that summarises the major functions of each lobe. Ensure that you name the main structures and areas, and include key functions of relevant sensory, motor association and language areas. The cortical lobes are areas of the brain associated with different structures and functions. The four lobes are: The frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe and the temporal lobe. The lobes contain areas of cortex that have specialised sensory or motor functions, as well as areas of cortex generally referred to as association cortex. Within the association cortex are different areas commonly called association areas. Each has one or more functions that involve integrating information from sensory, motor and other brain areas or structures to enable us to think, feel and behave as we do. The sensory areas of the lobes receive and process information from sensory receptors in the body. Sensory receptors are specialised neurons that detect and respond to a specific type of sensory information. The sensory area that receives and processes visual information is called the primary visual cortex (this is located in the occipital lobe). Auditory information is processed in the primary auditory cortex, which is located in the temporal lobe. Sensory information from the skin (about pressure and temperature) and from skeletal muscles (about movement) is processed in the primary somatosensory cortex, located in the parietal lobe. The motor areas receive and process information about voluntary bodily movements; that is, intentional movements such as when you scratch your nose or pick-up a pen and write. There is only one primary motor cortex and it is located in the frontal lobe. The association areas of each lobe integrate information from different brain areas and are mainly involved in complex cognitive (mental) processes such as perceiving, thinking, learning, remembering, and reasoning and so on. Frontal Lobe The frontal lobe is the largest of the four lobes and occupies the upper forward half of each cerebral hemisphere, right behind your forehead. The primary motor cortex is located at the rear of the frontal lobe. The primary motor cortex is specifically involved in controlling voluntary bodily movements through its control of skeletal muscles. The primary motor cortex in the left frontal lobe controls voluntary movements on the right side of the body. Likewise, the primary motor cortex in the right frontal lobe controls voluntary movements on the left side of the body. The amount of cortex devoted to a particular body part corresponds to the complexity, or fineness, of its movements. In the forward section of each frontal lobe are association areas that receive information from other lobes to enable us to perform complex mental functions. The frontal lobe is the end point for a lot of sensory information received and processed in the other lobes.

Furthermore, the frontal lobe coordinates many of the functions of the other lobes, and determines many behavioural responses. The primary motor cortex sends information to control voluntary movements of skeletal muscles. The primary somatosensory cortex receives and processes information from the body senses. Both cortices have areas associated with specific body parts and proportionally more cortical area is devoted to the more finely tuned and sensitive body parts than to other parts. The lowermost parts of the body are located on the uppermost areas of each cortex, and vice versa. Brocas area Brocas area has a crucial role in the production of articulate speech; that is, speech that is clear and fluent. Brocas area is involved with coordinating movements of the muscles required for speech and supplying this information to the appropriate motor cortex areas. Brocas area is also linked to and interacts with areas of the cerebral cortex that are involved with the meaning of words and the structure of sentences, as well as the specific parts of speech such as adjectives, prepositions and conjunctions.

Parietal lobe The parietal lobe is located behind the frontal lobe and occupies the upper back half of the brain, but not the rearmost area. The parietal lobe in each hemisphere receives and processes sensory information from the body and skin senses (called somatosensory information) and other sensory areas in the brain. It also sends information to other areas of the brain. Located at the front of each parietal lobe, just behind and parallel to the primary motor cortex in the frontal lobe (but separated by a fissure, or groove) is a strip of cortex called the primary somatosensory cortex. The primary somatosensory cortex (also called the primary sensory area and primary sensory cortex) receives and processes sensory information from the skin and body, enabling us to perceive bodily sensations. This sensory information includes touch, pressure and temperature from sensory receptors in the skin, and information about muscle movement and the position of limbs from sensory receptors in the muscles, tendons and joints. The primary somatosensory cortex in the left parietal lobe receives and processes sensory information from the right side of the body. Likewise, the primary somatosensory cortex in the right parietal lobe receives and processes sensory information from the left side of the body.

Temporal lobe

The Temporal lobe is located in the lower, central area of the brain, above and around the top of each ear. The temporal lobe in each hemisphere is primarily involved with auditory perception, but also plays an important role in memory (each lobe contains a hippocampus), in aspects of visual perception such as our ability to identify objects and recognise faces, and in our emotional responses to sensory information and memories. The primary auditory cortex in each temporal lobe receives and processes sounds from both ears. The two main features of sound are frequency (which we perceive as pitch) and amplitude or intensity (which we perceive as loudness). Verbal sounds (such as words) are mainly processed in the primary auditory cortex of the left hemisphere and non-verbal sounds (such as music) are mainly processed in the primary auditory cortex of the right hemisphere. Areas of the temporal lobe appear to be responsible for receiving, processing and storing memories of facts (sematic memories), how to do things (procedural memories) and personal experiences such as birthdays and holidays (episodic memories).

Wenickes area A specific cortical area towards the rear of the temporal lobe of the left hemisphere only, next to the primary auditory cortex and connected to Brocas area by a bundle of nerves, is called Wenickes area. This area is also involved in speech production but has a crucial role in the comprehension of speech; more specifically, with interpreting the sounds of human speech. When a word is heard, the auditory sensation is processed by the primary auditory cortex of the left temporal lobe, but the word cannot be understood until the information has been processed by Wernickes area. Wernickes area is vital not just for understanding words, but also for locating appropriate words from memory to express intended meanings when we speak or write.

Occipital lobe The occipital lobe is located at the rearmost area of each cerebral hemisphere; that is, at the back of your head. The occipital lobe is almost exclusively devoted to the sense of vision. It is divided into a multitude of different visual areas of which by far the largest is the primary visual cortex. The primary visual cortex is located at the base of each occipital lobe and this is the major destination of visual information from the two eyes. The information that comes to this cortex comes from visual sensory receptors (called photoreceptors) located on the retina at back of each eye. Each hemisphere receives and processes half of the visual information. Association areas in the occipital lobes also have important roles in vision. These association areas interact with the primary visual cortex in each occipital lobe to select, organise and integrate visual information with other information such as memory, language and sounds.

2)

Frontal: Contains the primary motor cortex which is specifically involved in controlling voluntary bodily movements through its control of skeletal muscles. Contains association areas that receive information from other lobes to enable us to perform complex mental functions Contains Brocas area Brocas area has a crucial role in the production of articulate speech; that is, speech that is clear and fluent. Associated with reasoning, motor skills, higher level cognition, and expressive language. The frontal lobe is located at the front of the brain and is associated with reasoning, motor skills, higher level cognition, and expressive language. At the back of the frontal lobe, near the central sulcus, lies the motor cortex. This area of the brain receives information from various lobes of the brain and utilizes this information to carry out body movements. Damage to the frontal lobe can lead to changes in sexual habits, socialization, and attention as well as increased risk-taking.

The parietal lobe is located in the middle section of the brain and is associated with processing tactile sensory information such as pressure, touch, and pain. A portion of the brain known as the somatosensory cortex is located in this lobe and is essential to the processing of the body's senses. Damage to the parietal lobe can result in problems with verbal memory, an impaired ability to control eye gaze and problems with language.

The temporal lobe is located on the bottom section of the brain. This lobe is also the location of the primary auditory cortex, which is important for interpreting sounds and the language we hear. The hippocampus is also located in the temporal lobe, which is why this portion of the brain is also heavily associated with the formation of memories. Damage to the temporal lobe can lead to problems with memory, speech perception, and language skills.

The occipital lobe is located at the back portion of the brain and is associated with interpreting visual stimuli and information. The primary visual cortex, which receives and interprets information from the retinas of the eyes, is located in the occipital lobe. Damage to this lobe can cause visual problems such as difficulty recognizing objects, an inability to identify colours, and trouble recognizing words.

4.9 1) Hemispheric specialisation is the term used to describe the idea that one hemisphere has specialised functions, or exerts greater control over a particular function.

2) Left Hemisphere: The left hemisphere specialises in verbal and analytical functions. Cognitive functions: Behavioural functions: exclusive functions that involve sensory information and bodily movements. The left hemisphere generally receives and processes sensory information from the right side of the body and controls voluntary bodily movements on the right side of the body. Non-verbal functions: Verbal functions: Use or recognition of words. Analytical functions: the ability to break a task down into parts. Logical reasoning included.

Right hemisphere: The right hemisphere specialises in non-verbal functions that do not depend on language skills. Cognitive functions: Behavioural functions: involved in recognising emotions and facial cues. Like the left hemisphere it also has exclusive functions that involve sensory information and bodily functions. Non-verbal functions: spatial and visual thinking, creative thinking and daydreaming. Involved in recognising emotions and facial cues Verbal functions: Analytical functions:

3) A) Right B) Right C) Right D) Left E) Left F) Left G) Right H) Left I) Left J) Left and Right K) Right L) Right M) Left N) Right O) Left 4) Creativity occurs in the right hemisphere, appreciation of music which could also help the learning of music occurs in the right hemisphere and spatial activities also occur in the right hemisphere

4.10) The cartoon is accurate in its depiction of hemispheric specialisation -

4.13)

1) Describe the two main functions of the spinal cord in terms of the types of messages that travel up and down its length, and the branch of the nervous system to which it connects

The spinal cord has three major functions: as a conduit for motor information, which travels down the spinal cord, as a conduit for sensory information in the reverse direction, and finally as a centre for coordinating certain reflexes. The spinal cord connects to the central nervous system. 2) Explain how sensory information is transmitted from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system using an example different from that provided in the text. Sensory information is transmitted from sensory receptor cells in the peripheral nervous system via sensory neurons to the central nervous system. Imagine a ball flying towards you, initially the millions of sensory receptor cells in your eyes fire off neural impulses in response to being stimulated by the object (the flying projectile). These nerve impulses will travel from the sensory receptors along the dendrites to which they connect. The dendrites connect to axons that take the nerve impulse towards the spinal cord. The axons connect with interneurons near the base of the spinal cord, which take the nerve impulses to the brain. An interneuron is a nerve cell that relays messages from sensory neurons to other interneurons or to motor neurons within the central nervous system.

3) Explain how motor information is transmitted from the central nervous system to the peripheral nervous system using an example different from that provided in the text. Once information about sensory stimuli reaches the brain, there is often a response that requires movement. The launching pad for most bodily movements, whether voluntary or involuntary, is the motor cortex. The sensory information that lets you know that a bowl of soup is too hot will probably result in you putting the bowl down or getting something to cover your hands when picking the bowl up. The messages required to physically turn the taps in the shower are transmitted from the motor cortex, down through the spinal cord and out to the effector cells located in the muscles in your arms, hands and fingers. There is ongoing interaction in the cerebral cortex between sensory information coming to the brain and motor information going from the brain because much of the sensory information requires action to be taken in the form of movement. 4) Explain what sensory neurons, motor neurons and interneurons are in terms of their respective functions. Sensory neurons: Sensory neurons are neurons responsible for converting various external stimuli that come from the environment into corresponding internal stimuli. They are activated by sensory input (vision, touch, hearing, etc.), and send projections to other elements of nervous system, ultimately conveying sensory information to the brain or spinal cord. Unlike neurons of the central

nervous system, whose inputs come from other neurons, sensory neurons are activated by physical modalities such as light, sound, and temperature. wiki Motor neurons: the term motor neuron (or motoneuron) classically applies to neurons located in the central nervous system (or CNS) that project their axons outside the CNS and directly or indirectly control muscles. The motor neuron is often associated with efferent neuron, primary neuron, oralpha motor neurons. Motor neurones are neurones that carry signals from the spinal cord to the muscles to produce movement. wiki

Interneurons: a neuron that forms a connection between other neurons. Interneurons are neither motor nor sensory. The term is also applied to brain and spinal cord neurons whose axons connect only with nearby neurons, to distinguish them from "projection" neurons, whose axons (projection fibres) project to more distant regions of the brain or spinal cord. wiki

5) Explain why damage to the spinal cord results in loss of brain-body control.

4.14

1) Aphasia refers to a language disorder apparent in speech (comprehension or production), writing or reading produced by injury to brain areas specialised for these functions. Loss of ability to understand or express speech, caused by brain damage. 2) Fluent aphasia, in which there is fluent speech but there are difficulties in either auditory verbal comprehension (understanding spoken words) or in the repetition of words, phrases or sentences spoken by others; non-fluent aphasia, in which there are difficulties in articulating (speaking clearly) but auditory verbal comprehension is relatively good. A person with fluent aphasia may say something like One their small tile into her time here. She's working another time because she's getting, too. Whereas a person with non-fluent may say something like Yes ... ah ... Monday ... er Dad and Peter. 3) .

4.15

1) Explain what spatial neglect is with reference to examples of mental processes and behaviour associated with the disorder. Spatial neglect is an attentional disorder in which individuals fail to notice anything either on their left or right side. They tend to behave as if one side of their world does not exist. The side of the world opposite to the damaged hemisphere tends to be neglected, rather than the same side. When a person with spatial neglect is given an auditory stimulation test on their neglected left side, they will claim the sound came from their right side. 2) A) parietal lobe B)

4.17)

1) Split brain surgery involves surgically cutting the corpus callosum (and sometimes also other nerves connecting the two hemispheres), thereby disconnecting one hemisphere of the brain from the other. It is conducted in an attempt to cure epilepsy. 2) What is the difference between these two questions?

5.1)

1) A) Sensory and motor B) The ability to feel heat and the ability to catch a ball

5.3)

1) The ANS is called autonomous because many of the organs, gland and processes under its control are self-regulating and not usually under voluntary control. B) Yes, they operate without our control and without any interference from ourselves, see heart beating, breathing, digestion, etc 2) Unlike the somatic nervous system, which is responsible for initiating skeletal muscle movement, the ANS regulates the activity of the visceral muscles, organs and glands.