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Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 27 (2007) 200211 www.elsevier.com/locate/soildyn

Stress analysis of buried steel pipelines at strike-slip fault crossings

Dimitrios K. Karamitros, George D. Bouckovalas, George P. Kouretzis
Department of Geotechnical Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 9, Iroon Polytehniou Street, 15780 Athens, Greece Received 4 April 2006; received in revised form 27 July 2006; accepted 10 August 2006

Abstract Existing analytical methods for the stress analysis of buried steel pipelines at crossings with active strike-slip faults depend on a number of simplications, which limit their applicability and may even lead to non-conservative results. The analytical methodology presented herein maintains the well-established assumptions of existing methodologies, but also introduces a number of renements in order to achieve a more wide range of application without any major simplicity sacrice. More specically, it employs equations of equilibrium and compatibility of displacements to derive the axial force applied on the pipeline and adopts a combination of beam-on-elasticfoundation and elastic-beam theory to calculate the developing bending moment. Although indirectly, material and large-displacement non-linearities are also taken into account, while the actual distribution of stresses on the pipeline cross-section is considered for the calculation of the maximum design strain. The proposed methodology is evaluated against the results of a series of benchmark 3D nonlinear analyses with the nite element method. It is shown that fairly accurate predictions of pipeline strains may be obtained for a wide range of crossing angles and fault movement magnitudes encountered in practice. r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Buried steel pipelines; Strike-slip faults; Stress analysis; Design

1. Introduction Evaluation of the response of buried steel pipelines at active fault crossings is among their top seismic design priorities. This is because the axial and bending strains induced to the pipeline by step-like permanent ground deformation may become fairly large and lead to rupture, either due to tension or due to buckling. Apart from the detrimental effects that such a rupture can have to the operation of critical lifeline systems [1,2], an irrecoverable ecological disaster may also result from the leakage of environmentally hazardous materials such as natural gas, fuel or liquid waste. The currently available techniques of numerical analysis (e.g. large scale Finite Element models) allow a rigorous solution of this problem, minimizing the number of necessary approximations [3]. Nevertheless, the non-linear behavior of the pipeline steel, the soil-pipeline interaction and the second order effects, induced by large displacements, make such analyses rather demanding, and
Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 2107723870; fax: +30 2108068393.

provide ground for the use of simplied analytical methodologies, at least for preliminary design and verication purposes. A simplied methodology which is widely used today for strike-slip and normal faults, is the one originally proposed by Kennedy et al. [4], and consequently adopted by the ASCE guidelines for the seismic design of pipelines [5]. Kennedy et al. extended the pioneering work of Newmark and Hall [6], by taking into account soil-pipeline interaction in the transverse, as well as in the longitudinal directions. Focusing upon cases where the fault rupture provokes severe elongation of the pipeline, so as tension is the prevailing mode of deformation, Kennedy et al. analyzed the relationship between the axial tensile force, the bending moment and the corresponding axial and bending strains and concluded that:


E-mail address: dimkaram@central.ntua.gr (D.K. Karamitros). 0267-7261/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.soildyn.2006.08.001

the axial tensile force does not depend on the pipeline curvature, as long as bending strains do not exceed 80% of the corresponding axial strains, and that

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Nomenclature a As C Cr D E E1 E2 Ei Esec F Fa I k L Lanch Lc M Mmax qu r R Rm t parameter of the RambergOsgood stress strain curve area of the pipeline cross-section constant, used in Eq. (1b) constant of rotational springs on point A and C pipeline diameter Youngs modulus of the pipeline steel elastic Youngs modulus of the pipeline steel plastic Youngs modulus of the pipeline steel initial Youngs modulus in the RambergOsgood stressstrain curve secant Youngs modulus of the pipeline steel axial force axial force at the intersection of the pipeline with the fault trace moment of inertia of the pipeline cross section elastic constant of the transverse horizontal soil springs distance from the fault trace pipeline unanchored length pipeline curved length bending moment maximum bending moment limit stress for transverse soil springs, per pipeline length parameter of the RambergOsgood stress strain curve radius of curvature mean pipeline radius pipeline thickness

tu V w x b d Df DLav DLreq Dx Dy e1 ea eb emax emin y l s1 sy sa j j1 j2

limit soil-pipeline friction force, per pipeline length shear force transverse horizontal displacement of the pipeline position along the pipeline longitudinal axis angle formed by the fault trace and the pipeline axis transverse displacement of point B total fault displacement available elongation required elongation fault displacement, parallel to the pipeline longitudinal axis fault displacement, perpendicular to the pipeline longitudinal axis yield strain of the pipeline steel pipeline axial strain pipeline bending strain maximum strain on the pipeline cross-section minimum strain on the pipeline cross-section polar angle of the pipeline cross-section coefcient dened in Eq. (1c) yield stress of the pipeline steel yield stress in the RambergOsgood stress strain curve axial stress at the intersection of the pipeline with the fault trace angle of rotation polar angle dening the part of the crosssection that is under yield due to tension polar angle dening the part of the crosssection that is under yield due to compression

bending moments become negligible and the pipe behaves essentially as a cable, when the whole pipeline cross-section is under yield.

On these grounds, they consequently ignored the pipeline bending stiffness, claiming that even when the above criteria are not met, their analysis would overestimate the pipeline curvature and the associated bending strains. It becomes evident that the Kennedy et al. criteria are met only when the pipeline is subjected to large fault movements and is able to undergo large tensile strains without rupture. However, in practice, special construction measures (e.g. stringent welding procedures, special inspection and conrmation through laboratory tests) are required in order to satisfy this condition. In common cases, where such measures have not been approved, the maximum allowable strain is seriously reduced compared to that of the pipeline steel, in order to account for thermal effects and metallurgical alterations induced by welding. For such strain levels (e.g. 0.5%), which are well out of the range specied by the Kennedy et al. criteria, analytically

predicted strains may become even one order of magnitude larger than the actual ones. Wang and Yeh [7] tried to overcome this shortcoming by taking the pipeline bending stiffness into account. Their methodology refers only to strike-slip faults and relies on partitioning of the pipeline into four (4) distinct segments (Fig. 1): two (2) in the high curvature zone on both sides of the fault trace, and another two (2) outside this zone. The latter segments are treated as beams-on-elasticfoundation, while the former ones are assumed to deform as circular arcs, with a radius of curvature calculated from the equations of equilibrium and the demand for continuity between adjacent segments. In this way, the bending moment at the conjunction of each arc with its neighboring elastic beam can be readily calculated and consequently compared to the pipelines ultimate moment capacity, in order to estimate a factor of safety against failure. In addition, a second factor of safety is calculated at the point of intersection with the fault trace, as the ratio of the pipeline ultimate strain over the corresponding axial strain.

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Beam on Elastic Foundation q B q fs

Transition Zone

Beam on Elastic Foundation Initial Pipe Position

A' fp pp A f

x y

fs q D q Displaced Pipe E

Pipe VA

FA

Fault

Anti-symmetrical Configuration
Fig. 1. Pipeline analysis model proposed by Wang and Yeh [7].

Although clearly advanced, compared to the methodology of Kennedy et al. [4], the methodology of Wang and Yeh also features some pitfalls. Namely:

The axial force is merely taken into account for reducing the pipelines ultimate moment capacity, while its unfavorable contribution to bending stiffness is overlooked. The most unfavorable combination of axial and bending strains does not necessarily develop at the end of the high-curvature zone (points B and D in Fig. 1) as the method assumes, but within this zone, closer to the intersection with the fault trace (point A in Fig. 1). The calculation of a safety factor in terms of bending moments may be misleading for displacement-controlled problems, such as the one at hand, where strain or deformation acceptance criteria are more appropriate [3].

relationship for the pipeline steel, combined with an iterative linear elastic solution scheme which uses the secant Youngs modulus of the pipeline steel in order to ensure compatibility between computed non-linear stresses and strains. The strike-slip fault is taken as an inclined plane, i.e. with null thickness of rupture zone, so that the intersection of the pipeline axis with the fault trace on the ground surface is reduced to a single point. The fault movement is dened in a Cartesian coordinate system, where the x-axis is collinear with the undeformed longitudinal axis of the pipeline, while the y-axis is perpendicular to x in the horizontal plane (Fig. 2). Subsequently, the fault movement is analyzed into two Cartesian components, Dx and Dy, interrelated through the angle formed by the x-axis and the fault trace (angle b in Fig. 2). In its present form, the proposed method applies to crossing angles bp901, resulting in pipeline elongation. Following the general concept originally introduced by Wang and Yeh [7], the pipeline is partitioned into four (4) segments, dened by the characteristic points A, B and C in Fig. 3: Point B is the intersection of the pipeline axis with the fault trace, while points A and C are the closest points of the pipeline axis with zero y displacement. Then, the computation of combined axial and bending pipeline strains proceeds in six (6) steps: 1. Segments AA0 and CC0 are analyzed as beams-onelastic-foundation in order to obtain the relation between shear force, bending moment and rotation angle at points A and C. 2. Considering the boundary conditions determined in step 1, segments AB and BC are analyzed according to the elastic-beam theory in order to derive the maximum bending moment. 3. The axial force on the pipeline, at the intersection with the fault trace (point B), is obtained by equalizing the required and the available pipeline elongation. 4. Bending strains are calculated, accounting for geometric second-order effects. 5. The maximum pipeline strain is computed from the demand for equilibrium between the externally applied axial force and the internal stresses developing on the pipeline cross-section.

Based on the well established concepts inherited by existing methodologies, such as the equations used by Kennedy et al. [4] to quantify the effect of axial tension on the pipeline curvature and the partitioning of the pipeline into four (4) segments rst introduced by Wang and Yeh [7], the proposed methodology attempts to eliminate the abovementioned setbacks by introducing a number of critical renements. Its validity and its range of application are evaluated through comparison with typical analytical predictions obtained with the methodologies of Kennedy et al. [4] and Wang and Yeh [7], as well as with more accurate numerical predictions, based on the 3D non-linear Finite Element Method. 2. Methodology outline In more detail, the proposed methodology computes axial and bending strains along the pipeline with the aid of beam-on-elastic-foundation and elastic-beam theories, taking into account the bending stiffness of the pipeline crosssection, as well as the soil-pipeline interaction effects in both the axial and the transverse directions. Material nonlinearity is considered by assuming a bilinear stressstrain

faul t

pipeline y y x x
Fig. 2. Denition of axes x and y and fault displacements Dx and Dy.

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Lc A' A

Lc

C pipeline q(x)= - k w(x) A' x w Lc Cr =y/2 A fault qu

C'

=y/2

w Cr Lc x C C' q(x) = - k w(x)

qu

Fig. 3. Partitioning of the pipeline into four segments.

6. Finally, given the stress and strain distribution within the cross-section, an updated secant Youngs modulus is computed and steps 26 are repeated until convergence is accomplished. As in all similar design methodologies [4,6,7], the above solution algorithm overlooks initial pipeline stresses due to soil overburden, as they are fairly small compared to the ones developing due to fault movement. Furthermore, pipeline and soil inertia effects are not taken into account as the velocity of the sliding part of the fault is considered to be sufciently small, while concurrent spatially variable transient motion is neglected in the computations. Finally, it should be stressed that the proposed methodology overlooks local buckling and section deformation effects [8], two phenomena which dominate pipeline behavior at large fault displacements. As a result, its application range is limited within the allowable strains which are explicitely dened by design codes [3,9] in order to avoid such detrimental effects. For larger strain levels, rigorous numerical methods, or large displacement approximate methods [10] should be used.

where s k 4 , l 4E 1 I

(1c)

where x is the distance from point A along the pipeline axis, w is the transverse horizontal displacement, E1 is the elastic Youngs modulus of the pipeline steel, I is the moment of inertia of the pipeline cross-section, and k is the constant of the transverse horizontal soil springs (Fig. 4a). According to the ALA-ASCE [3] guidelines, computation of k can be based on Hansen [11] and Trautmann and ORourke [12]. Differentiation of Eq. (1a) yields the following relations between the shear force V A E 1 Iw000 A , the bending moment M A E 1 Iw00 and the rotation fA w0A at A point A: M A 2lE 1 I fA , V A lM A . (2) (3)

Due to symmetry, similar relations apply for point C. 3.2. Step 2 Due to symmetry, the analysis can be focused on segment AB. This segment is modeled as an elastic beam, supported at point A by a rotational spring, whose constant is calculated from Eq. (2) as C r 2lE 1 I , and at point B by a joint, which is displaced by half the transverse component of the strike-slip fault movement, i.e. d Dy=2. As a result, a uniformly distributed load qu is applied to the beam, equal to the limit value of soil reaction for transverse horizontal movement of the pipeline relatively to the surrounding soil (Fig. 4b). According to the ALAASCE [3] guidelines, the value of qu can be calculated from the properties of the backll of the pipeline trench, based on the relations proposed by Hansen [11] and Trautmann and ORourke [12].

3. Solution algorithm 3.1. Step 1 The differential equilibrium equation for the elastic line of segment AA0 (Fig. 3) is: E 1 Iw0000 kw 0. (1a)

Imposing w 0 for x 0 and w ! 0 for x ! 1, Eq. (1) yields: w C elx sin lx, (1b)

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q(x) = - k w(x)

VA
x A' A MA A

(a)
Lc Cr MA A VA B A = y/2 VB xmax Mmax MA

qu

VA

(b)
Fig. 4. Analysis model for pipeline segments 1 (a) and 2 (b).

Application of the elastic-beam theory yields the following bending moment and shear force reactions on the supports A and B: 24EI dC r qu C r L4 c MA , 24EILc 8C r L2 c
4 24EI dC r 12EIqu L3 c 5qu C r Lc , 3 24EIL2 c 8C r Lc

VB

4 24EI dC r 12EIqu L3 c 3qu C r Lc . 2 3 24EILc 8C r Lc

(6)

(4)

Eqs. (4)(6) express the reaction forces of segments AB and BC in terms of the curved length Lc of the beam, which is not a priori known. However, substituting Eqs. (4) and (5) into Eq. (3) yields:
4 3 a5 L5 c a4 Lc a3 Lc a1 Lc a0 0,

VA

(5)

(7a)

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where a0a5 are known constants, equal to: a0 24EI dC r , a1 24EI dC r l, a3 12EIqu , a4 5qu C r , a5 qu C r l. 7b

where xmax VB . qu (8b)

3.3. Step 3 Similar to all existing methodologies [4,6,7], the axial force at the intersection of the pipeline with the fault trace is calculated from the requirement for compatibility between the geometrically required and the stress-induced (available) pipeline elongation. The required elongation DLreq is dened as the elongation imposed to the pipeline due to the fault movement. For the sake of simplicity, the elongation provoked by the Dy fault displacement component may be neglected, as it is minimal compared to the elongation due to the Dx component. Therefore: DLreq % Dx. (9)

The above polynomial equation can be solved iteratively, using the NewtonRaphson method, with a large initial value for Lc (e.g. 500 m). In this way, the values of MA, VA, and VB can be directly estimated, and the maximum bending moment developing on the pipeline can be consequently calculated from the elastic-beam theory, as: M max V B xmax qu x2 max , 2 (8a)

1 E2 1

On the other hand, the available elongation DLav is dened as the elongation resulting from the integration of axial strains along the unanchored length, i.e. the length over which slippage occurs between the pipeline and the surrounding soil: Z Lanch DLav 2 L dL, (10)
0

E1

1 1

Fig. 5. Assumed bilinear stress-strain relationship for the pipeline steel.

where L is the distance from the fault trace, while the factor 2, by which the integral in Eq. (10) is multiplied, accounts for the elongation on both sides of the fault trace. The unanchored length Lanch may be calculated from the equilibrium along the pipeline axis, assuming that axial pipeline stresses essentially become zero at the far end of the unanchored length. In this way, Lanch is expressed as:
(L) 1 1
Lanch - L1

a(point B) <1

(L)

a(pointB) >1

L (L)

L
(L) L1 tu B Fa

L
Lanch

Lanch

(a)

tu

Fa

(b)

Fig. 6. Linear (a) and non-linear (b) stress and strain variation along the pipelines unanchored length.

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Fa

then plastic strains develop in the pipeline (Fig. 6b) and Eq. (10) becomes: !  Z L1  Z Lanch sL s1 sL 1 dL , dL DLav 2 E1 E2 L1 0 (16) where
qu

/2 d

L1
R

sa s1 As . tu

(17)

Fa

Combining Eq. (11), (12), (16) and (17), the maximum developing tensile stress becomes: r tu 2 2 s 1 E 1 E 2 s2 1 E 2 E 1 E 2 E 1 E 2 DLreq As sa . E1 (18) Regardless of the axial stress level, the corresponding axial force is equal to:

d /2

Fig. 7. Effect of the applied axial force on the pipeline curvature.

F a sa A s .

(19)

Lanch

F a sa As , tu tu

3.4. Step 4 (11) According to the elastic beam theory, bending strains on the pipeline can be calculated as: I b M max D , (20) 2EI where D is the external pipeline diameter. The above equation is accurate for small fault displacements, while for larger fault displacements, geometrical second-order effects must be also taken into account. To simplify this relatively complex problem, the bending stiffness of the pipeline may be approximately neglected [4], so that bending strains can be computed geometrically as: II b D =2 . (21) R The radius of curvature R results from the equilibrium of the forces acting on an innitesimal part of the pipelines curved length (Fig. 7): R Fa qu qu D . 2F a (22)

where Fa and sa are the axial force and stress developing in the intersection of the pipeline axis with the fault trace, As is the area of the pipeline cross-section and tu is the limit friction due to the slippage of the pipeline relatively to the surrounding soil [3]. The distribution of strains along the unanchored length can be consequently derived from the corresponding stresses, assuming a bilinear stressstrain relationship for the pipeline steel (Fig. 5). Assuming further that axial stresses attenuate linearly with the distance from the fault trace, due to the constant value of the limit friction force, tensile stresses along the pipeline axis can be expressed as: sL sa tu L. As (12)

For the case where the axial tensile stress sa is below the yield limit s1 (Fig. 6a), Eq. (10) can be re-written as: Z Lanch sL s2 As DLav 2 dL a . (13) E1 E 1 tu 0 Therefore, for DLav DLreq , the maximum tensile stress becomes: s E 1 tu DLreq sa . (14) As If the required elongation is larger than the one corresponding to sa s1 , i.e. when: DLreq 4 s2 1 As E 1 tu (15)

and nally: II b (23)

Eq. (23) indicates that bending strains induced by second-order effects are inversely proportional to the axial force applied on the pipeline. In other words, for small fault displacements, bending strains computed by Eq. (23) tend to become innite. This is due to the fact that Eq. (22) has been derived assuming that the pipeline bending

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max = a+b

max

1 a

1 a

-2 -1 min = a-b min -1

Fig. 8. Non-linear stress and strain distribution on the pipeline cross-section.

stiffness is equal to zero, which is approximately true only when the whole pipeline cross-section is under yield. According to the above, the actual bending strain eb lays II I between I b and b , asymptotically approaching b as fault II displacements tend to zero and b in the opposite case. Here, it is approximately assumed that: 1 1 1 II . b I  b b (24)

Bearing in mind the above, the strain distribution on the cross-section is given by Eq. (25):  a b cos y, (25) where the angle y is the polar angle of the cross-section, dened in Fig. 8. The corresponding distribution of stresses on the pipeline cross-section is given by Eq. (26): 8 s E 2  1 ; 0pyof1 ; > < 1 f1 pypp f2 ; (26) s E 1 ; > : s E   ; p f oypp; 1 2 1 2 where the angles j1,2 dene the portion of the cross-section that is under yield (Fig. 8), and are calculated as: 8 1 a > o 1; p; > > b > >   > < 1 a 1 a p 1; ; 1p (27) f1;2 arccos  b > b > > > 1 a > > 1o : : 0; b The total axial force is calculated by integrating the stresses over the cross-section, as: Z p F 2 sRm t dy 0 ) F 2Rm t E 1 pa E 1 E 2 f1 f2 a E 1 E 2 sin f1 sin f2 b , where Rm Dt . (29) 2 The axial strain of the pipeline can be derived from the demand for equilibrium, by equating the axial force computed using Eq. (28), to the one calculated using Eq. (19). Note that Eq. (19) applies strictly at the pipelines intersection with the fault trace, but it is approximately extended to the neighboring position of the maximum bending moment. The solution of the system of Eqs. (27) and (28) results in a complex formula for ea, which can be E 1 E 2 f1 f2 1 28

3.5. Step 5 Existing methodologies [4,6,7] calculate the axial strain directly from the axial stress, using the adopted stressstrain relation for the pipeline steel. When strains in the pipeline cross-section remain in the elastic range, this assumption is valid for every point along the pipeline axis. However, when yielding occurs, it is accurate only at the intersection of the pipeline with the fault trace, where the bending strain is zero. In the vicinity of the cross-section where the maximum bending strain occurs, axial strain increases locally, so that the integral of stresses on the pipeline cross-section remains equal to the applied axial force. This effect of curvature on the relation between the applied axial force and the corresponding axial strain was in fact acknowledged by Kennedy et al. [4], but the RambergOsgood stressstrain curve, which they adopted to approximate steel behavior, inhibited the derivation of a simple relation to quantify this effect. Therefore, Kennedy et al. were limited to performing a numerical investigation of the strain range for which this interaction could be ignored. In the present work, the interaction between axial and bending strains is quantied by determining the exact distribution of strains and stresses on the pipeline crosssection. For this purpose, the beam-theory assumption of plane cross-sections is embraced, while the stressstrain curve of the pipeline steel is considered to be bilinear (Fig. 5).

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208 D.K. Karamitros et al. / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 27 (2007) 200211 Table 1 API5L-X65 steel properties considered in the numerical analyses Yield stress (s1) Failure stress (s2) Failure strain (e2) Elastic Youngs modulus (E1) Yield strain (1 s1 =E 1 ) Plastic Youngs modulus (E 2 s2 s1 =2 1 ) 490 MPa 531 MPa 4.0% 210 GPa 0.233% 1.088 GPa

Shell elements Rigid element Beam elements

Table 2 Parameters of the RambergOsgood stressstrain curve for steel type API5L-X65 Initial Youngs modulus (E1) Yield stress (sy) a r 210 GPa 490 MPa 38.32 31.50

Axial soil springs Horizontal soil springs Vertical soil springs

Fig. 9. 3D model used for analyses with the Finite Element Method: the junction between shell and beam part. Table 3 Soil spring properties considered in the numerical analyses Yield force (kN/m) Axial (friction) springs Transverse horizontal springs Vertical springs (upward movement) Vertical springs (downward movement) 40.5 318.6 52.0 1360.0 Yield displacement (mm) 3.0 11.4 2.2 100.0

solved iteratively, using the NewtonRaphson method. Namely, using an initial value of 0 a 0, the axial strain on each iteration can be calculated as:
1 k k a a

F k F a  a ,  dF =da a k
a

(30)

3.6. Step 6 The analysis of segments AB and BC, from which the maximum bending moment emerges, is based on the elastic beam theory and is not taking into account the non-linear behavior of the pipeline steel. Since the steel stressstrain relationship is considered to be bilinear (Fig. 5), a series of equivalent linear calculation loops is performed, employing a procedure for readjusting the secant Youngs modulus of the pipeline steel on each loop. More specically, using the already dened stress distribution on the pipeline cross-section, the corresponding bending moment can be calculated using Eq. (33): Z p sRm tRm cos y dy M2
0

where dF 2Rm t E 1 p E 1 E 2 f1 f2 E 1 E 2 da     df1 df2 df1 df2 a E 1 E 2 1 da da da da   ! df1 df E 1 E 2 cos f1 2 cos f2 b da da and 8 1 > > >  sin f ; > > b 1;2 > > > < 100; b sin f1;2 p 0:01; 0:01ob sin f1;2 p0; 0ob sin f1;2 p0:01; 0:01ob sin f1;2 : (32)

31

df1;2 100; > da > > > > 1 > > > :  sin f ; b 1;2

) M 2R 2 mt

The limits of df1;2 =da proposed in Eq. (32) are more or less arbitrary, but signicantly accelerate the iterative process. Having calculated the axial strain at the position of maximum bending strain, the minimum and maximum longitudinal strains can be subsequently computed as their algebraic sum (i.e. max;min a b ).

E 1 pb E 1 E 2 sin f1 sin f2 a 2 E 1 E 2 f1 f2 b E 1 E 2 sin f1 sin f2 1 2 ! E 1 E 2 sin 2f1 sin 2f2 b . 33 4

Therefore, the secant modulus for the next iteration can be calculated as:   M a ; b D M a ; b D 1 1 0 (34) E sec 2I b II 2I  I b b

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=30 3

=45

=60 Kennedy et al. [4]

a,fault (%)

Wang & Yeh [7] Proposed Method Numerical

0 3

a,max (%) b (%) max (%)

0 3

0 3

0 0 0.5 1 f / D 1.5

0.5

1 f / D

1.5

0.5

1 f / D

1.5

Fig. 10. Comparison of the results of the proposed analytical methodology with the results of the numerical analyses and the predictions of the Kennedy et al. [4] and Wang and Yeh [7] methods.

and steps 26 are repeated, until convergence is accomplished. 4. Validation of the proposed methodology To validate the results of the proposed methodology, analytical predictions are compared to the results from a series of 3D non-linear numerical analyses with the Finite Element Method, performed with the commercial code MSC/NASTRAN [13]. For this purpose, a typical highpressure natural gas pipeline was considered, featuring an external diameter of 0.9144 m (36 in), a wall thickness of 0.0119 m (0.469 in), and a total length of 1000 m. A hybrid model was used for the simulation of the pipeline, with a part of 50 m along both sides of the fault

trace (i.e. a total length of 100 m) modeled as a cylindrical shell, and the remaining 450 m part (i.e. a total length of 900 m) modeled as a beam (Fig. 9). The shell perimeter was discretized into 16 equal sized quadrilateral shell elements, each of 0.20 m length. CQUAD4 type elements were used, namely isoparametric quadrilateral shell elements, with both bending and membrane stiffness [13]. The beam part was discretized with 0.50 m long CBEAM type beam elements, with extension, bending and shearing stiffness [13]. To simulate soil-pipeline interaction effects, each node of the model was connected to axial, transverse horizontal and vertical soil springs, modeled as elastic-perfectly plastic CROD type rod elements [13]. Thus, the Finite Element Model used herein consisted of a total number of 32,252

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nodes and 32,236 elements and had 58,710 degrees of freedom. The pipeline steel was of the API5L-X65 type, with a bilinear elasto-plastic stressstrain curve (Fig. 5) and the properties listed in Table 1. Note that the numerical analyses were also performed using an equivalent RambergOsgood stressstrain curve, i.e.:   r ! s a jsj  1 (35) Ei r1 sy and the properties listed in Table 2. However, they showed negligible divergence from the bi-linear elasto-plastic analyses and are not presented herein. The properties of the soil-springs (Table 3) were calculated according to the ALAASCE [3] guidelines, assuming that the pipeline top is buried under 1.30 m of medium-density sand with friction angle j 361 and unit weight g 18 kN=m2 . The fault movement was applied statically at the sliding part of the fault, as a permanent displacement of the free end of the corresponding soilsprings. The results of the numerical analyses are presented in Fig. 10 in comparison with analytical predictions of the proposed methodology, as well as the analytical methodologies of Kennedy et al. [4] and Wang and Yeh [7]. The comparison is shown in terms of:

   

the the the the the

axial strain at the intersection of the pipeline with fault trace, maximum axial strain, bending strain and maximum total strain.

displacements, after the yield strain of the pipeline steel has been exceeded, while they grossly under-predict a;max at smaller displacements. Note that observed differences are larger at intermediate displacement levels, of the order of Df % 1D, which are commonly encountered in practice. Focusing next on bending strains eb, a good overall agreement is observed again between the proposed analytical method and the numerical analyses. The Kennedy et al. [4] method proves accurate in the region of large displacements (Df =D41:5), i.e. when the criteria for the applicability of the method are met, but seriously over-predicts eb for smaller fault displacements. The Wang and Yeh [7] method underpredicts eb for the entire range of fault displacements analyzed herein, mainly because it neglects the effect of axial tension on the pipeline bending stiffness. The maximum longitudinal strains max a;max b are probably the best criterion for the evaluation of the proposed methodology, as they form the basis of pipeline design. From the last row of Fig. 10, it may be observed that the good overall performance of the proposed method, acknowledged in the previous comparisons, applies here as well. As expected, the Kennedy et al. [4] method overpredicts maximum strains for small fault displacements. This trend is reversed at intermediate levels of fault displacement, and the divergence is gradually reduced as displacements increase. Finally, the methodology of Wang and Yeh [7] provides accurate results only in the region of large displacements, where axial tension is the prevailing mode of deformation. For small and intermediate fault displacements emax is consistently under-estimated. 5. Conclusion An improved analytical methodology has been developed for the stress analysis of buried steel pipelines crossing active strike-slip faults. It is based on rm assumptions adopted in the existing analytical methodologies of Kennedy et al. [4] and Wang and Yeh [7], but proceeds further:

Three (3) different fault cases are examined, with intersection angles of b 301, 451 and 601. In each case, the analysis proceeded incrementally to a nal fault displacement Df 2D, with D being the pipelines external diameter. Note that bending strains corresponding to the Wang and Yeh [7] method were derived from Eq. (21), consistently with the assumption that pipeline segments AB and BC deform as circular arcs (Fig. 1). The top row of Fig. 10 shows the comparison between analytical and numerical predictions of axial strain a;fault at the pipeline-fault trace intersection. The agreement appears fairly good, for all analytical methods. As the main assumption for computing a;fault is the compatibility between the geometrically required and the stress induced (available) elongation of the pipeline, the observed agreement is essentially considered as a solid verication of this assumption. The second row of Fig. 10 refers to the overall maximum axial strain a;max , which does not necessarily develop at the pipeline-fault trace intersection, as the existing analytical methods imply. In this case, a good overall agreement is observed only between numerical results and analytical predictions with the proposed methodology. The existing analytical methods approach the numerical solution at large

to analyze the curved part of the pipeline with the aid of elastic-beam theory, in order to locate the most unfavorable combination of axial and bending strains, and to consider the actual stress distribution on the pipeline cross-section, in order to account for the effect of curvature on axial strains and calculate the design maximum strain.

Comparison with the results of benchmark numerical analyses, performed over a wide range of fault displacements (Df =D 0C2) and three different intersection angles (b 301, 451 and 601), showed a remarkable overall agreement, with minor deviations which did not exceed about 10%. Acknowledging that there is no end to the renements that can be applied to simplied analytical methodologies, it needs

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to be stressed out that the above modications considerably improve the accuracy of analytical predictions, especially for small and medium fault displacements, while they still permit a simple analytical solution algorithm to be developed. In fact, although more complicated than the most commonly used today method of Kennedy et al. [4], the computational algorithm of the proposed methodology remains relatively simple and stable, and can be easily programmed for quick application. For instance, such a computer code may be downloaded from http://users.civil.ntua.gr/gbouck/en/publications. htm. Note that, in its present form, the proposed method applies to intersection angles bp901 resulting in elongation of the pipeline. Furthermore, it does not account for the effects of local buckling and section deformation. Therefore, its application should not be extended beyond the strain limits explicitely dened by design codes in order to mitigate such phenomena. Acknowledgements This research is supported by the EPEAEK II Pythagoras Grant, co-funded by the European Social Fund and the Hellenic Ministry of Education. References
[1] EERI. The Izmit (Kocaeli), Turkey Earthquake of August 17, 1999. EERI Special Earthquake Report, 1999.

[2] Uzarski J, Arnold C. Chi-Chi, Taiwan, Earthquake of September 21, 1999, Reconnaissance Report. Earthquake Spectra, Professional J EERI 2001;17(Suppl. A). [3] American Lifelines AllianceASCE. Guidelines for the Design of Buried Steel Pipe, July 2001 (with addenda through February 2005). [4] Kennedy RP, Chow AW, Williamson RA. Fault movement effects on buried oil pipeline. Transport Eng J ASCE 1977;103:61733. [5] ASCE Technical Council on Lifeline Earthquake Engineering. Differential Ground Movement Effects on Buried Pipelines. Guidelines Seismic Des Oil Gas Pipeline Syst 1984:150228. [6] Newmark NM, Hall WJ. Pipeline design to resist large fault displacement. In: Proceedings of the US National Conference on Earthquake Engineering. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan; 1975. p. 41625. [7] Wang LRL, Yeh Y. A rened seismic analysis and design of buried pipeline for fault movement. Earthquake Eng Struct Dyn 1985;13:7596. [8] Calladine CR. Theory of shell structures. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1983. [9] CEN European Committee for Standardisation, Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance, Part 4: Silos, tanks and pipelines, Draft No 2, Ref. No. EN1998-4: 2003 (E), December 2003. [10] Takada S, Hassani N, Fukuda K. A new proposal for simplied design of buried steel pipes crossing active faults. Earthquake Eng Struct Dyn 2001;30:124357. [11] Hansen JB. The ultimate resistance of rigid piles against transversal forces. Bulletin 12. Copenhagen, Denmark: Danish Geotechnical Institute; 1961. [12] Trautmann CH, ORourke TD. Behavior of pipe in dry sand under lateral and uplift loading. Geotechnical Engineering Report 83-6. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 1983. [13] The MacNealSchwendler Corporation. MSC/NASTRAN for Windows: Reference Manual, 1994.