ABSTRACT

The widely used cage induction motor is one of the most robust motor. There are many
techniques to control the speed of the induction motor such as stator voltage control and
frequency control etc. For achieving variable speed operation, the frequency control method
of the cage motor is the best method among all the methods of the speed control. Vector
control of the cage motor is considered fast response and high performance method to
achieve variable speeds using variable frequency source.
In the vector control method the induction motor can be operated like a separately excited DC
motor for high performance applications. In the last decade many closed loop speed control
techniques have been developed to provide good performance. However, the desired drive
specification still cannot be perfectly satisfied and/ or their algorithms are too complex.
Recently the fuzzy logic approach has been objected of an increasing interest and has found
application in many domains of control problem. The main advantage of fuzzy logic control
method as compared to conventional control techniques resides in fact that no mathematical
modeling is required for controller design and also it does not suffer from the stability
problem. In motion control, fuzzy logic can be considered as an alternative approach to
conventional feedback control. It has been recently demonstrated that dynamic performance
of electric drives as well as robustness with regards to parameter variations can be improved
by adapting the non-linear speed control techniques. Fuzzy logic is a non-linear control and it
allows the design of optimized non-linear controllers to improve the dynamic performance of
the conventional regulators.
In the project, the configuration and design of the fuzzy logic controller for indirect vector
based control of induction motor has been investigated. The fuzzy logic controller (FLC) has
been successfully simulated on a simulink model with the help of fuzzy logic toolbox. It
presents a hybrid system controller, incorporating fuzzy controller with vector-control
method for induction motors. The vector-control method has been optimized by using fuzzy
controller instead of a simple P-I controller.
1
The presented hybrid controller combines the benefits of fuzzy logic controller and vector-
control in a single system controller. High quality of the regulation process is achieved
through utilization of the fuzzy logic controller, while stability of the system during transient
processes and a wide range of operation are assured through application of the vector-control.
2
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter gives an idea of General introductory idea of induction motor, conventional
controller with their problems, technology review, and problem identification with the aim of
this project.
1.1 GENERAL
Ac motor drives are used in a multitude of industrial and process applications requiring high
performances. In high-performance drive systems, the motor speed should closely follow a
specified reference trajectory regardless of any load disturbances, parameter variations, and
model uncertainties. In order to achieve high performance, field-oriented control of induction
motor (IM) drive is employed. With the field orientation control (FOC) method, induction
machine drives are becoming a major candidate in high-performance motion control
applications, where servo quality operation is required. Fast transient response is made
possible by decoupled torque and flux control. However, the controller design of such a
system plays a crucial role in system performance. Conventional proportional integral
derivative (PID) control has difficulty in dealing with dynamic speed tracking, parameter
variations, and load disturbances. As a result, the motion control system must tolerate a certain
level of performance degradation. Generally, variable speed drives for Induction motor require
both wide operating range of speed and fast torque response, regardless of load variations.
This leads to more advanced control methods to meet the real demand. Usually classical
control is used in motors drive. Design and implementation of conventional controls have the
following difficulties:
a) It depends on the accuracy of the mathematical model of the system that usually not known.
b) Drives are nonlinear systems and classical control performance with this system decrease.
c) Variation of machine parameters (especially in vector control) by load disturbance, motor
saturation or thermal variations do not cause expectation performance.
d) Classical linear control shows high performance only at one operating point.
e) With choose improperly coefficient, classical control cannot receive acceptable result and
suitable choose for constant coefficient in especial application condition with set point
varying, necessarily is not optimum.
3
To implement conventional control, the model of the controlled system must be known. The
usual method of computation of mathematical model of a system is difficult. When there are
system parameter variations or environmental disturbance, the behavior of the system is not
satisfactory. Classical controller designed for high performance increases the complexity of
the design and hence the cost.
Advanced control based on artificial intelligence technique is called intelligent control [1].
Every system with artificial intelligence is called self-organizing system. On the 80th decade
the production of electronic circuits and microprocessors with high computation ability and
operating speed has grown very fast. The high power, high speed and low cost modern
processes like DSP, FPGA and ASIC ICs along with power technique switches like IGBT
made the intelligent control to be used widely in electrical drives. Intelligent control, act well
than conventional adaptive controls. Artificial intelligent techniques divide two groups: hard
computation and soft computation. Expert system belongs to hard computation, which has
been the first artificial intelligent technique. In recent two decades, soft computation is used
widely in electrical drives. They are,
1. Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
2. Fuzzy Logic Set (FLS)
3. Fuzzy-Neural Network (FNN)
4. Genetic Algorithm Based system (GAB)
5. Genetic Algorithm Assisted system (GAA)
Neural networks and fuzzy logic technique are quite different, and yet with unique
capabilities useful in information processing by specifying mathematical relationships among
numerous variables in a complex system, performing mappings with degree of imprecision,
control of nonlinear system to a degree not possible with conventional linear systems.
Fuzzy logic is a technique to embody human-like thinking into a control system. A fuzzy
controller can be designed to emulate human deductive thinking, that is, the process people
use to infer conclusions from what they know. Fuzzy control has been primarily applied to the
control of processes through fuzzy linguistic descriptions.
Recently the fuzzy logic approach has been objected of an increasing interest and has found
application in many domains of control problem [24]. The main advantage of fuzzy logic
4
control method as compared to conventional control techniques resides in fact that no
mathematical modeling is required for controller design and also it does not suffer from the
stability problem. In motion control, fuzzy logic can be considered as an alternative approach
to conventional feedback control. It has been recently demonstrated that dynamic
performance of electric drives as well as robustness with regards to parameter variations can
be improved by adapting the non-linear speed control techniques. Fuzzy logic is a non-linear
control and it allows the design of optimized non-linear controllers to improve the dynamic
performance of the conventional regulators. In this thesis, the application of fuzzy logic
control to VCIMD is investigated. Fuzzy logic speed control is considered for the design of
the speed controller with the help of Simulink. The control performance of this controller is
evaluated by simulation.
1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW
G The history of electrical motors goes back as far as 1820, when Hans Christian Orested
discovered the magnetic effect of an Electric current. One year later, Michael Faraday
discovered the electromagnetic rotation and built the first primitive D.C. motor. Faraday went
on to discover electromagnetic induction in 1831, but it was not until 1883 that Tesla
invented the A.C asynchronous motor.
Currently, the main types of electric motors are still the same, DC, AC asynchronous and
synchronous, all based on Orested, Faraday and Teslas theories developed and discovered
more than a hundred years ago.
Since its invention, the AC asynchronous motor, also named induction motor, has become the
most widespread electrical motor in use today. Induction motors have a simple and rugged
structure; moreover, they are economical and immune to heavy overloads. At present 80% of
all the electrical energy generated in India is converted to mechanical energy for utilization.
These facts are due to the induction motor advantage over the rest of motors. The main
advantage is that induction motor does not require the electrical connection between
stationary and rotating parts of the motor. Therefore, they do not need any mechanical
commutator(brushes), lading to the fact that they are maintenance free motors. Induction
motors also have low weight and inertia, high efficiency and a high overload capability.
Therefore, they are cheaper and more robust and less proves to any failure at high speed.
Furthermore, the motor can work in explosive environments because no sparks are produced.
5
The only effective way of producing an infinitely variable induction motor speed drive is to
supply the induction motor with three phase voltages of variable frequency and variable
amplitude. A variable frequency is required because the rotor sped depends on the speed of
the rotating magnetic field by the stator. A variable voltage is required because the motor
impedance reduces at low frequency and consequently the current has to be limited by means
of reducing the supply voltages.
Before the days of power electronics, a limited speed control of induction motor was
achieved by switching the three-stator windings from delta connection to star connection,
allowing the voltage at the motor windings to be reduced. Induction motors are also available
with more than three stator winding to allow a change of the number of pole pairs. However,
a motor with several winding is more expensive because more then three connections to the
motor are needed and only certain discrete speed is available. Another alternative of method
of speed controlled can be realized by means of wound rotor induction motor, where the rotor
winding ends are brought out to slip rings. However, this method obviously removes most of
the advantage of the induction motor and it also introduces additional losses. Connecting
resistors or reactance in series with the stator winding of the induction motor achieves poor
performance.
At the time the above described methods were the only once available to control the speed of
induction motors, whereas infinitely variable speed drives with good performance for DC
motors already exited. These drives not only permitted the operation in four-quadrants but
also covered a wide power range. Moreover, they had a good efficiency, and with a suitable
control even a good dynamic response. However, its main drawback was the compulsory
requirement of brushes.
With the enormous advances made in semiconductor technology during the last 20 years, the
required conditions for developing a proper induction motor drive are present. These
conditions can be divided in two groups:
The decreasing cost and improved performance in power electronic switching devices.
The possibility of implementing complex algorithms in the new microprocessors.
However, one precondition had to make, which was the development of suitable methods to
control the speed of induction motors, because in contrast to its mechanical simplicity their
complexity regarding their mathematical structure (multivariable and non-linear) is not a
6
trivial matter. It is in this field, that considerable research effort is devoted. The aim being to
find even simpler methods of speed control for induction machines so that high performance,
better transient response can be obtained.
High performance control and estimation technology for ac drives has gone through rapid
evolution in the recent years. They are now finding increasing acceptance in industrial drives
for applications, such as steel mills, paper mills, servos, machine tools, robotics, elevators,
and transportation systems. Traditionally, ac machines were looked upon as ideal for
constant speed applications. The introduction of solid-state variable frequency inverters in the
1960s ushered the modern age of ac drives. Open loop volts/Hz speed control was
introduced in the beginning. Gradually, other scalar control techniques were introduced to
improve the performance. Unfortunately, ac machines are nonlinear, parameter varying,
multi-variable with coupling effect, and have complex dynamics of higher order.
Incorporating machine in a feedback loop creates complex stability problem, and processing
of feedback signals becomes difficult. The invention of vector or field oriented controls in
Germany and the demonstration that induction motor can be controlled like a separately
excited dc motor brought renaissance in the high performance control of ac drives.
Unfortunately, for a number of years, the power electronics community did not take much
notice of it because the control and feedback signal processing were too complex to
implement, and engineers were generally unfamiliar with the dynamic machine model. The
advent of microprocessors made the vector control increasingly acceptable from the 1980's.
In fact, with vector control, ac drives not only became "brushless dc drives", but outperform
the dc drives because of higher transient current, increased speed range and lower rotor
inertia. It is interesting to note that high performance adaptive and optimal control techniques
which were previously studied (mainly analysis and simulation) with dc drives could now be
easily extended to vector controlled ac drives because of dc machine-like transient model.
The advent of modern digital signal processors, ASIC chips, personal computers, user-
friendly simulation tools, artificial intelligence (AI) techniques, and advancement of control
and estimation theories has continuously extended the frontier of control and estimation
technology. Fuzzy control (FC) provides a systematic way to incorporate human experience
in the controller. Recent literature has paid much attention to the potential of fuzzy control in
machine drive application. Many authors present a unique real time adaptive fuzzy controller
combined with the principles of fuzzy logic. Even two fuzzy logic controls are using for
coarse and fine control. Hence a properly designed fuzzy controller can outperform
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traditional PID controllers, both when machine is properly field oriented and when it
becomes detuned. Fuzzy logic provides a means for synthesizing a controller from
engineering experience that can be more robust, have better performance, and reduce cycle
times.
1.3 TECHNOLOGY REVIEW
Electrical machine is the workhorse in a drive system. Its evolution over the past century has
been slow and much less dramatic than that of power semiconductor devices and converter
circuits. Electrically, mechanically and thermally, a machine is a very complex system. The
advent of modern digital computers, improved modeling, simulation and programs, and
availability of new materials have contributed to higher power density, higher efficiency, and
improved reliability, reduced cost, and improved mechanical and thermal design in the recent
years. Both induction and synchronous machines have been widely used in variable speed
drives. Although the cage type induction motor is most commonly used in wide power range,
wound-rotor machines with slip power recovery control have been generally used in limited
speed range multi-megawatt drive applications. Control and estimation of high performance
ac drive have been a very fascinating and challenging area of research. The advent of
powerful microcomputers, digital signal processors, CAD and simulation tools, AI techniques
and advancement of control and estimation theories has continuously extended the frontier of
control and estimation techniques. Here I am reviewing control and estimation related to
induction motor drive.
The control and feedback signal processing of ac drives is considerably more complex than
the traditional dc drives [2], and this complexity is compounded if higher performance is
demanded. One reason for the complexity of the control and stability problem is that the
machine dynamics (d-q model) can be described by a higher-order nonlinear multivariable
state space equation. At a particular operating point, the system can be linearized on the basis
of small signal perturbation, and then, the conventional linear feedback analytical methods,
such as the Nyquist and Bode techniques, can be applied. If the operating point changes, the
poles, zeros, and gain of the linearized system will also change, mandating a new set of
control parameters for the system. Of course, a fixed control structure with a fixed set of
control parameters can be defined so that the worst-case system performance is acceptable.
With the user-friendly simulation programs (such as SIMNON, ACSL, etc.) available today,
8
the system can be conveniently studied with computer simulation avoiding the laborious
analytical techniques.
A simple, economical, but low-performance control method of the induction motor that is
extremely popular in industry is the open-loop V/Hz control. A small drift in speed and air-
gap flux due to a fluctuation in load torque and supply voltage, respectively, as well as
sluggish transient response, are of no consequence in the majority of applications. Scalar
speed and position feedback systems with inner flux, torque, and current control loops have
been used with increased control complexity where improved performance is necessary.
The vector or field-oriented control technique brought on a renaissance in modem high-
performance control of ac drives. This control method has found wide acceptance in
applications such as paper mills, textile mills, steel rolling mills, machine tools, servos, and
robotics. With vector or decoupling control, the dynamics of ac drives is similar to that of dc
drives, and with current control, the conventional stability limit of ac machine does not arise.
This is indeed a remarkable accomplishment. The direct or feedback method, which was
developed by Blaschke, depends on unit vector generation from the machine terminal
voltages. As usual, harmonic noise becomes a problem in feedback signal processing, and the
method is difficult to use near zero speed because of the dominance of stator drop. Of course,
for servo-type applications, the unit vectors can be computed from stator currents and speed
signals. In the indirect or feed-forward method, which was developed by Hasse, the above
problems do not exist, but the controller is highly dependent on machine parameters. This
method has gained popularity in industrial applications. At present, significant R&D efforts
have been focused on parameter identification techniques. The so-called slip gain tuning in
order to have decoupling between the rotor flux and torque component of current has been
attempted by reactive power balancing, injecting a pseudo-random binary sequence, Kalman
filter estimation, and MRAC balancing of reactive power, torque, and voltages. While on-line
controller tuning with initial parameters is not difficult, tracking of controller parameters with
machine parameters during system operation is always a challenge. Recently, hybrid or
universal vector control has been suggested, where the indirect vector control operates in the
lower speed range but is switched to parameter-independent direct vector control in the
higher speed range. It should be mentioned here that the vector control can be applied to both
induction and synchronous machines and, in fact can be applied to the general ac system for
independent active and reactive power control. For self-control of the synchronous machine
9
from zero speed, absolute shaft position sensor is mandatory, whereas for induction motor
control, the incremental encoder is satisfactory.
It is now evident that between the scalar and vector control methods, only two control types
are finding general acceptance. These are the open-loop V/Hz control for low performance
cost-effective applications and the indirect vector control for high-performance applications.
Again, the voltage fed PWM inverter is finding universal acceptance, as mentioned
previously.
A machine operating with rated flux gives optimum transient response, but at light-load
operation, the efficiency is non-optimum because of excessive core loss. The flux can be
weakened at light load using a function generator or on the basis of real time loss calculation,
but efficiency optimization control on the basis of search and real-time input power
measurement is gaining momentum. The control can search the flux for optimum efficiency
at a steady-state light-load condition, but it switches to rated flux at the transient condition,
thus combining both the efficiency optimization and transient optimization features in a drive
system. Sensorless drive control is one recent trend because sensors add cost and reliability
problems to the drives. The most primary sensors of a drive are the stator current sensors.
With the added stator voltage sensors, practically any other type of signal, such as flux,
torque, speed, power, power factor, and displacement factor can be estimated with a
microprocessor. Attempts are being made to enhance the drive performance by intelligent,
self-learning, or self-organizing control using expert systems, fuzzy logic, and neural network
techniques. The expert system is based on hard or precise computation, whereas fuzzy logic,
neural network and genetic algorithm are based on soft or approximate computation. With a
control based on AI, a system is often said to be intelligent, autonomous, adaptive,
self-organizing or learning [1]. A machine model is often unknown or ill defined or the
system may be nonlinear, complex, and multivariable with parameter variation problem. An
intelligent control can identify the model, if necessary, and give predicted performance even
with wide range of parameter variation.
1.4 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
The control and feedback signal processing of induction motors is considerably more
complex than the traditional dc drives, and this complexity is compounded if higher
performance is demanded. Though induction motors have advantageous characteristics, they
also possess nonlinear and time varying dynamic interactions. One reason for the complexity
10
of the control and stability is that the machine dynamics (d-q model) can be described by a
higher order nonlinear multivariable equation. Using conventional PI controller, it is very
difficult and complex to design a high performance induction motor drive system, besides;
these controllers show either steady state error or sluggish response to the perturbation in
reference setting or during load perturbation. We want such control techniques, which can
improve the system response, and performance or self-organizing control system, which can
identify the system/model, if necessary, and give, predicted performance even with parameter
variation.
1.5 OBJECTIVE
From the above discussion we can conclude that conventional controllers for induction motor
drive suffer from the problem as mentioned above. The objective of this project is to analysis
on such control, which can give better transient response, high performance without so much
detail about the system. This can be possible by using intelligent control such as fuzzy
controller instead of conventional controller. Recently the fuzzy logic approach has been
objected of an increasing interest and has found application in many domains of control
problem. The main advantage of fuzzy logic control method as compared to conventional
control techniques resides in fact that no mathematical modeling is required for controller
design and also it does not suffer from the stability problem. In motion control, fuzzy logic
can be considered as an alternative approach to the conventional feedback control. It has been
recently demonstrated that dynamic performance of electric drives as well as robustness with
regards to parameter variations can be improved by adapting the non-linear speed control
techniques. Fuzzy logic is a non-linear control and it allows the design of optimized non
linear controllers to improve the dynamic performance of the conventional regulators.
In the project, the application of fuzzy logic control to vector controller induction motor drive
is investigated. Fuzzy logic speed control is considered for the design of the speed controller.
The control performance of this controller is evaluated by simulation and implementation at
different operating conditions.
1.6 LAYOUT OF PROJECT REPORT
The present report is organized in the following way.
Chapter 1 describes introductory part with problem identification and objective.
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Chapter 2 describes the mathematical modeling of induction motor, transformation between
reference frames. It also describes various control strategies such as scalar, vector etc. Here
the main orientation is on Vector control methods for its various advantages. Indirect vector
control implementation is used in this project. It also deals with the need of intelligent control
instead of conventional control methods. The objective of the design of an intelligent control
system is similar to that for the adaptive control system. However, there is a difference, for an
intelligent control system, the range of uncertainty may be substantially greater than can be
tolerated by algorithms for adaptive systems. The object with intelligent control is to design a
system with acceptable performance characteristics over a very wide range of uncertainty
Chapter 3 describes the steady state performance of the induction motor drive in detail. It
also includes Parks transformation, its field oriented control in constant torque range below
base speeds. The detailed model of fuzzy logic based speed controller used for vector
controlled induction motor drive. The model of the vector controlled induction motor drive is
developed in MATLAB. Simulated results are present to demonstrate the dynamic and steady
state performance of the vector controlled induction motor drive.
Chapter 4 covers the theoretical development and practical implementation of induction
motor with fuzzy logic controller and describes MATLAB which is a computer simulation
program developed by Math Works Inc. Embedded within MATLAB version 7 is
SIMULINK. This is a program that allows the user to create mathematical blocks with inputs
and outputs; highly suited to designing a control system of this nature. Here indirect vector
control is implemented by using simulink. Fuzzy block is implemented in FIS editor. It also
deals with simulation of transient performance of the fuzzy logic based speed controller for
induction motor drive in vector controlled mode using the developed model in MATLAB.
Here simulated results for the starting, load application and load removal, and change in
reference speed are present to demonstrate the dynamic and steady state performance of the
vector controlled induction motor drive. Finally,
Chapter 5 includes the overall conclusion of this project work and highlights the direction of
further research.
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CHAPTER 2
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF INDUCTION MOTOR
This chapter deals with operating principle, dynamic model, synchronous rotating frame,
various control strategies with their merits and demerits, Indirect Vector control, and about
intelligent control
2.1 THE FUNDAMENTAL OPERATING PRINCIPLE FOR AN INDUCTION
MOTOR [1][14]:
The AC induction motor is a rotating electric machine designed to operate from a 3 phase
source of alternating voltage. When a set of three phase currents displaced in time from each
other by angular intervals of 120 is injected into a stator having a set of three phase windings
displaced in space by 120 electrical, a rotating magnetic field is produced. This rotating
magnetic field has a uniform strength and travels at an angular speed equal to its stator
frequency. It is assumed that rotor is standstill. The rotating magnetic field in the stator
induces electromagnetic forces in the rotor windings. As the rotor windings are short
circuited, current start circulating in them, producing a reaction. As know from Lenzs law,
the reaction is to counter the source of the rotor currents, i.e., the induced emf in the rotor
and, in turn, the rotating magnetic field itself. The induced emf will be countered if the
difference in speed of the rotating magnetic field and the rotor becomes zero. The only way
to achieve this it is for the rotor to run in the same direction as that of the stator magnetic
field and catch up with it eventually. When the differential speed between the rotor and
magnetic filed in the stator becomes zero, there is no emf, and hence zero rotor currents
resulting in zero torque production in the motor. Depending upon the shaft load, the rotor will
settle down to a speed, r , always less then the speed of the rotating magnetic field, called
the Synchronous speed of the machine, s. The speed differential is known as the slip speed,
sl. The elementary relationship between slip speed, rotor speed and stator frequency are
given below.
Synchronous speed is given as
s = 2fs , rad/sec
13
Where fs is the supply frequency.
If m is the mechanical rotor speed, slip speed is
sl = s - r = s P/2 m , rad/sec (2)
where P is the number of poles.
The differential speed between the stator magnetic filed and rotor windings is slip speed, and
that is responsible for the frequency of the induced emf in the rotor and hence their currents.
Therefore, the rotor currents are at slip frequency, which can be obtained from the angular
slip speed by dividing it by 2. The slip is defined as
s
sl

s
Combing equations (2) and (3), the rotor electrical speed is given as
s) (1
s r

From this, the rotor speed in rpm, denoted by nr , is expressed as
s) (1 n n
s r

Where ns is the synchronous speed or the speed of the stator magnetic filed in rpm, given by
P
f 120
n
s
s

Figure 2.1 shows an idealized three-phase, two pole induction motor where each phase
winding in the stator and rotor is represented by a concentrated coil. The three-phase
windings, either in wye or delta form, are distributed sinusoidally or embedded in slots. In a
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wound rotor machine, the rotor winding is similar to that of stator, but in a cage machine, the
rotor has a squirrel cage like structure with shorted end rings.
Fig 2.1: Idealized three-phase, two-pole induction motor
One of the most fundamental principles of induction machines is the creation of a rotating
and sinusoidal distributed magnetic field in the air gap. Neglecting the effect of slots and
space harmonics due to nonideal winding distribution, it can be shown that a sinusoidal three
phase balanced power supply in the three phase winding creates a synchronously rotating
magnetic field. Rotor voltage is induced at slip frequency, which corresponding produces slip
frequency current in the rotor. The sinusoidal air gap flux density wave moving at speed we
induce voltage in the rotor conductors. The resulting rotor current wave lags the voltage wave
by the rotor power factor angle r. The stepped rotor mmf wave can be constructed from the
current wave, which can be approximated by dashed curve. Since the rotor is moving at speed
wr and its current wave is moving at speed wsl relative to the rotor, the rotor mmf can wave
moves at the same speed as that of the air gap flux wave. The torque expression can be
written as:
sin F lrB
2
P
T
p p e

,
_

15
Where P=number of poles, l= axial length of the machine, r= machine radius, Bp=peak value
of air gap flux density, Fp=peak value of rotor mmf, and =/2 + r is defined as the torque
angle.
2.2 DYNAMIC D-Q MODEL
As the per phase equivalent circuit of the machine, which is only valid in steady-state
condition. In an adjustable-speed drive, the machine normally constitutes an element within a
feedback loop, and therefore its transient behavior has to be taken into consideration. Besides,
high-performance drive control, such as vector- or field-oriented control, is based on the
dynamic d-q model of the machine.
The dynamic performance of ac machine is somewhat complex because the three-phase rotor
windings move with respect to the three-phase stator windings as shown in Fig 2.2 (a)
Basically, it can be looked on as a transformer with a moving secondary, where the coupling
coefficients between the stator and rotor phases change continuously with the change of rotor
position r. The machine model can be described by differential equations with time-varying
mutual inductances, but such a model tends to be very complex. A three-phase machine can
be represented by an equivalent two phase machine as shown in Figure 2.2 (b), where d
s
-q
s
correspond to stator direct and quadrature axes, and dr-qr correspond to rotor direct and
quadrature axes. Although it is somewhat simple, the problem of time-varying parameters
still remains. R. H. Park, in the 1920s, proposed a new theory of electric machine analysis to
solve this problem. He formulated a change of variables, which, in effect, replaced the vari-
ables (voltages, currents, and flux linkages) associated with the stator windings of a
synchronous machine with variables associated with fictitious windings rotating with the
rotor at synchronous speed. Essentially, he transformed, or referred, the stator variables to a
synchronously rotating reference frame fixed in the rotor. With such a transformation (called
Park's transformation), he showed that all the time-varying inductances that occur due to an
electric circuit in relative motion and electric circuits with varying magnetic reluctances can
be eliminated. Later, in the 1930s, H. C. Stanley showed that time-varying inductances in the
voltage equations of an induction machine due to electric circuits in relative motion can be
eliminated by transforming the rotor variables to variables associated with fictitious
stationary windings. In this case, the rotor variables are transformed to a stationary reference
frame fixed on the stator. Later, G. Kron proposed a transformation of both stator and rotor
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variables to a synchronously rotating reference frame that moves with the rotating magnetic
field.
Fig 2.2 (a) Coupling effect in three-phase stator and rotor winding of motor,
(b) Equivalent two-phase machine
2.2.1 Transformation between References Frames
As for analysis point of view transformation between axes is important for a three-phase
induction motor, whose as-bs-cs axes at 2/3 angle apart. Here transform is done first three
phase stationary reference frame (as-bs-cs) variables into two phase stationary frame (ds qs)
variables and then transform these to synchronously rotating frame (de-qe), and vice-versa.
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Fig-2.3 Stationary Frame a-b-c to ds-qs axes transformation
Assume that (ds qs) axes are oriented at angle. The voltage Vdss and Vqss can be
resolved into as-bs-cs components and can be represented in the matrix form as:
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
]
1

+ +

1
1
1
]
1

s
os
s
ds
s
qs
cs
bs
as
v
v
v
1 ) 120 sin( ) 120 cos(
1 ) 120 sin( ) 120 cos(
1 sin cos
v
v
v


The corresponding inverse relation is
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
]
1

+
+

1
1
1
]
1

cs
bs
as
s
os
s
ds
s
qs
v
v
v
0.5 5 . 0 0.5
) 120 sin( ) 120 sin( sin
) 120 cos( ) 120 cos( cos
v
v
v

Where Vsos is added as the zero sequence component, which may or may not present. Here
instead of voltage, current and flux linkage can be transformed by the above equations.
For =0, the qs axis is aligned with the as-axis. Ignoring the zero sequence component, the
transformation relation can be simplified as
18
s
ds
s
qs cs
s
ds
s
qs bs
s
qs as
v
2
3
v
2
1
v
v
2
3
v
2
1
v
v v
+

and inversely
cs bs
s
ds
as cs bs as
s
qs
v
3
1
v
3
1
v
v v
3
1
v
3
1
v
3
2
v
+

General equations are (15) & (16).
Figure 2.4 shows the synchronously rotating de qe axes, which rotate at synchronous speed
we with respect to the ds qs axes and the angle e=we t. The two-phase ds qs windings
are transformed into the hypothetical winding mounted on the de qe axes.
Fig-2.4: Stationary frame ds qs to synchronously rotating frame de qe transformation
The voltage on the d
s
q
s
axes can be converted into the d
e
q
e
frame as follows:
19
e
s
ds e
s
qs ds
e
s
ds e
s
qs qs
cos v sin v v
sin v cos v v
+

Similarly, resolving the rotating frame parameters into a stationary frame, the relations are
e ds e qs
s
ds
e ds e qs
s
qs
cos v sin v v
sin v cos v v
+
+
Assume that the three phase stator voltages are sinusoidal and balanced, and are given by

)
3
2
t
e
cos(
m
v
cs
v
)
3
2
t
e
cos(
m
v
bs
v
) t
e
cos(
m
v
as
v
+ +
+
+
Substituting equations (19) - (20) in (13) (14) yields
) t sin( V v
) t cos( V v
e m
s
ds
e m
s
qs

+
+
Again, substituting equations (15)-(16) in (22)-(23), we get
) sin( V v
) cos( V v
m ds
m qs

Equations (22)-(23) shows that V

qs
s
and V
ds
s
are balanced, two-phase voltages of equal paek
values and the latter is at /2 angle phase lead with respect to the other component. Equations
(24) & (25) verify that sinusoidal variables in a stationary frame appear as dc quantities in a
synchronously rotating frame. This fundamental is used in the Vector control.
The variables in a reference frame can be combined and represented by a complex space
vector (or phasor):
s
ds
s
qs
s
qds
jv v v V
The q
e
- d
e
components can also be combined into a vector form:
e e
j j s
ds
s
qs
e
s
ds e
s
qs e
s
ds e
s
qs ds qs
e
qds
e V )e jv (v
) cos v sin j(v ) sin v cos (v jv v v


+
or inversely
20
e
j
ds qs
s
ds
s
qs
)e jv (v v v V
+

The vector e
j
may be interpreted as a vector rotational operator (defined as a vector rotator-
VR-or unit vector) that converts rotating frame variables into stationary frame variables.
Cos
e
and Sin
e
are the Cartesian components of the unit vector. In eq(27) e
-j
is defined as
the inverse vector rotator (VR
-1
) that converts d
s
q
s
variables into d
e
q
e
variables.
2.2.2 Synchronously Rotating Reference Frame Dynamic Model (Kron Equation) [1] [2] [14]:
For the two-phase machine as in fig 2.2 (b), we need to represent both d
s
q
s
and d
r
q
r
circuits and their variables in a synchronously rotating d
e
q
e
frame. The stator circuit
equation can be represented as:
s
ds
s
ds s
s
ds
s
qs
s
qs s
s
qs

dt
d
i R v

dt
d
i R v
+
+
Where
qs
s
&
ds
s
are the q-axis and d-axis stator flux linkages, respectively. When these
equations are converted to d
e
q
e
frame, the following equations can be written as:
qs e ds ds s ds
ds e qs qs s qs

dt
d
i R v

dt
d
i R v
+
+ +
Where all the variables are in rotating form. The last term in eq (31) & (32) can be defined as
speed emf due to rotation of the axes, that is, when
e
=0, the equations revert to stationary
form. Since rotor actually moves at speed
r
, the d-q axes fixed on the rotor move at a speed
(
e -

r )
relative to the synchronously rotating frame. Therefore, in d
e
q
e
frame, the rotor
equations should be modified as
qr r e dr dr r dr
dr r e qr qr r qr
) - (
dt
d
i R v
) - (
dt
d
i R v
+
+ +
Figure 2.5 shows the d
e
q
e
dynamic model equivalent circuits that satisfy equations (31) to
(34). This is the special advantage of the d
e
q
e
dynamic model of the machine is the all the
sinusoidal variables in stationary frame appear as dc quantities in synchronous frame.
21
Fig-2.5: Dynamic d
e
q
e
equivalent circuits of machine
(a) q
e
axis circuit,
(b) d
e
axisCircuit
The flux linkage expression in terms of the currents can be written from fig-2.5 as follows:
) i (i L
) i (i L i L
) i (i L i L
) i (i L
) i (i L i L
) i (i L i L
dr ds m dm
dr ds m dr lr dr
dr ds m ds ls ds
qr qs m qm
qr qs m qr lr qr
qr qs m qs ls qs
+
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
Combining the above expression with equations (31) to (34), the electrical transient model in
terms of voltage and currents can be given in matrix form as [14]:
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
]
1

+
+
+
+

1
1
1
1
]
1

dr
qr
ds
qs
r r m r e m m r e
r r e r r m r e m
m m e s s s e
m e m s e s s
dr
qr
ds
qs
i
i
i
i
SL R )L ( SL )L (
)L ( SL R )L ( SL
SL L SL R L
L SL L SL R
v
v
v
v
Where S is the Laplace operator. For a singly fed machine, such as a cage ,motor, V
qr
=V
dr
=0
22
Fig-2.6 shows the block diagram of the machine model along with input voltage and output current
transformations.
Fig-2.6: Synchronously rotating frame machine model with input voltage and output current transformation
2.3 CONTROL PRINCIPLE OF INDUCTION MOTOR
The control of induction motor drives constitutes a wide area, and the technology has further
advanced in recent years. Induction motor drives with cage-type machines have been the
workhorses in industry for variable-sped applications in a wide power range that covers from
fractional horsepower to multi-megawatts. These applications include pumps and fans, paper
and textile mills, subway and locomotive propulsions, electric and hybrid vehicles, machine
tools and robotics, home appliance, heat pumps and air conditioners, rolling mills, wind
generation system, etc. In addition to process control, the energy saving aspect of variable
frequency drives is also important.
The control and estimation of Ac drives are considerably more complex than those of dc
drives and this complexity increase substantially if high performance is demanded. The main
reason for this complexity are the need of variable-frequency, harmonically optimum
converter power supplies, the complex dynamics of the ac machine, machine parameter
variations, and the difficulties of processing feedback signals in the presence of harmonics.
Complexity of the control and stability problem is that the machine dynamics (d-q model) can
be described by a higher-order nonlinear multivariable state-space equation. At a particular
operating point, the system can be linearized on the basis of small signal perturbation, and
23
then, the conventional linear feedback analytical methods, such as the Nyquist and Bode
techniques, can be applied. If the operating point changes, the poles, zeros, and gain of the
linearized system will also change, mandating a new set of control parameters for the system.
Of course, a fixed control structure with a fixed set of control parameters can be defined so
that the worst-case system performance is acceptable. Such understanding is crucial to
developing appropriate control techniques and their implementations.
As there are different control techniques of induction motor drives including:-
Scalar Control,
Vector or Field-oriented Control,
Direct Torque and flux Control,
Intelligent Control
Scalar Control:-
As the name indicates, is due to magnitude variation of the control a variable only, and
disregards the coupling effect in the machine [11]. For example, the voltage of a machine can
be controlled by control the flux, and frequency or slip can be controlled to control the
torque. However, the flux and torque are also functions of frequency and voltage,
respectively. Scalar control is in contrast to vector or field-oriented control, where both the
magnitude and phase alignment of vector variables are controlled. Scalar-controlled drives
give somewhat inferior performance, but they are easy to implement. Despite the fact that
Voltage-Frequency (V/f) is the simplest controller, it is the most widespread, being in the
majority of the industrial applications. It is known as a scalar control and acts by imposing a
constant relation between voltage and frequency. The structure is very simple and it is
normally used without speed feedback. However, this controller doesnt achieve a good
accuracy in both speed and torque response, mainly due to the fact that the stator flux and the
torque are not directly controlled. However, the open loop control is normally used in those
applications where steady state and transient response of ac drives is not an important issue
only the satisfactory performance is sufficient. The parameters of induction motors are
coupled to each other and the Scalar control lack in producing fast dynamic response. The
following features can be state for scalar control:
24
Controlling variables are Voltage and Frequency
Simulation of variable AC sine wave using modulator
Flux provided with constant V/f ratio
Open-loop drive
Load dictates torque level
Scalar control technique has the following advantage:
Low cost
No feedback device required simple
Because there is no feedback device, the controlling principle offers a low cost and simple
solution to controlling economical AC induction motors. This type of drive is suitable for
applications, which do not require high levels of accuracy or precision, such as pumps and
fans.
However, Scalar control technique suffers from the following disadvantage:
Field orientation not used
Motor status ignored
Torque is not controlled
Delaying modulator used
With this technique, field orientation of the motor is not used. Instead, frequency and voltage
are the main control variables and are applied to the stator windings. The status of the rotor is
ignored, meaning that no speed or position signal is fed back. Therefore, torque cannot be
controlled with any degree of accuracy. Furthermore, the technique uses a modulator, which
basically slows down communication between the incoming voltage and frequency signals
and the need for the motor to respond to this changing signal.
Vector or Field-Oriented Control [5]:-
As scalar control is somewhat simple to implement, but the inherent coupling effect (i.e., both
torque and flux are functions of voltage or current and frequency) gives sluggish response
25
and the system is easily prone to instability because of a high-order (fifth-order) system
effect. For example, the torque is increased by incrementing the slip (i.e., the frequency), the
flux tends to decrease. Here the flux variation is always sluggish. The flux decrease is then
compensated by the sluggish flux control loop feeding in additional voltage. This temporary
dipping of flux reduces the torque sensitivity with slip and lengthens the response time.
The foregoing problems can be solved by vector or field-oriented control. An induction motor
exhibits nonlinear multivariable and highly coupled characteristics. The vector control
technique, which is also known as Field-oriented control (FOC), allows a squirrel-cage
induction motor to be driven with high dynamic performance that is comparable to the
characteristic of a dc motor. The FOC technique decouples the two components of stator
current: one providing the air gap flux and the other producing the torque. It provides
independent control of flux and torque, and the control characteristic is linearized. The stator
current are converted to a fictitious synchronously rotating reference frame aligned with the
flux vector and are transformed back to the stator frame before feeding back to the machine.
A vector control technique has the following features:
Field-oriented control - simulates DC drive
Motor electrical characteristics are simulated- Motor Model
Closed-loop drive
Torque controlled indirectly
To emulate the magnetic operating conditions of a DC motor, i.e. to perform the field
orientation process, the flux-vector drive needs to know the spatial angular position of the
rotor flux inside the AC induction motor. With flux vector PWM drives, field orientation is
achieved by electronic means rather than the mechanical commentator brush assembly of the
DC motor. Firstly, information about the rotor status is obtained by feeding back rotor speed
and angular position relative to the stator field by means of a pulse encoder. A drive that uses
speed encoders is referred to as a closed-loop drive. Also the motors electrical
characteristics are mathematically modeled with microprocessors used to process the data.
The electronic controller of a flux-vector drive creates electrical quantities such as voltage,
current and frequency, which are the controlling variables, and feeds these through a
modulator to the AC induction motor. Torque, therefore, is controlled INDIRECTLY.
26
Vector control technique has the following unique advantages:
Good torque response
Accurate speed control
Full torque at zero speed
Performance approaching DC drive
Flux vector control achieves full torque at zero speed, giving it a performance very close to
that of a DC drive. However, this technique suffers from some disadvantage, but these can be
neglected in front of the advantages of these techniques:
Costly
Huge computational capability
Good identification of the motor parameters
To achieve a high level of torque response and speed accuracy, a feedback device is required.
This can be costly and also adds complexity to the traditional simple AC induction motor.
Direct Torque Control
Direct Torque Control - or DTC as it is called - is the very latest AC drive technology
developed by ABB and is set to replace traditional PWM drives of the open- and closed-loop
type in the near future. Direct Torque Control describes the way in which the control of
torque and speed are directly based on the electromagnetic state of the motor, similar to a DC
motor, but contrary to the way in which traditional PWM drives use input frequency and
voltage. DTC is the first technology to control the real motor control variables of torque
and flux. With the revolutionary DTC technology field orientation is achieved without
feedback using advanced motor theory to calculate the motor torque directly and without
using modulation. The controlling variables are motor magnetizing flux and motor torque.
This method still requires further research in order to improve the motors performance, as
well as achieve a better behavior regarding environmental compatibility, that is desired
nowadays for all industrial applications. Direct Torque Control techniques have the following
features:
27
Direct control of flux and torque
Indirect control of stator currents and voltages
Approximately sinusoidal stator fluxes and stator currents
High dynamic performance even at stand still
The following advantages are associated with DTC:
Absence of co-ordinate transform,
Absence of voltage modulator block, as well as other controllers such as PID motor flux
and torque
Minimal torque response time, even better than the vector controllers.
However, DTC techniques are associated with following disadvantage:
Possible problems during staring,
Requirement of torque and flux estimators, implying the consequent parameters
identification,
Inherent torque and stator flux ripple.
2.4 VECTOR CONTROL [1][5]
As scalar control provide satisfactory steady-state performance, but their dynamic response is
poor. An induction motor exhibits nonlinear multivariable and highly coupled characteristics.
The vector control technique, which is also known as Field-oriented control (FOC), allows a
squirrel cage induction motor to be driven with high dynamic performance that is comparable
to the characteristic of a DC motor. The FOC techniques decouple the two components of
stator current: one providing the air gap flux and other producing the torque. It provides
independent control of flux and torque, and the control characteristic is linearized. The stator
currents are converted to a fictitious synchronously rotating reference frame aligned with the
flux vector and are transformed back to the stator frame before feeding back to the machine.
The two components are d-axis ids analogous to armature current, and q-axis iqs analogous to
the filed current of a separately excited dc motor.
Principle of Vector Control
28
Ac induction motor drives require a coordinates control of stator current magnitudes,
frequencies, and their phases, making it a complex control. As with the dc-drives,
independent control of the flux and torque is possible in ac drives. The stator current phasor
can be resolved, say, along the rotor flux linkages, and the component along the rotor flux
linkages is the field-producing current, but this requires the position of the rotor flux linkages
at every instant; that this is dynamic, unlike in the dc machine. If this is available, then the
control of ac machines is very similar to that of separately excited dc machines. The
requirement of phase, frequency, and magnitude control of the currents and hence of the
flux phasor is made possible by inverter control. The control is achieved in field coordinates
(hence the name of this control strategy, field-oriented control); sometimes it is known as
vector control, because it relates to the phasor control of the rotor flux linkages. The
implementation of the vector control is in fig-2.7, where machine model is represented in a
synchronously rotating reference frame. The inverter generate currents ia , ib , and ic in
response to the corresponding command currents ia* , ib* , and ic* from the controller. The
machine terminal currents ia , ib , and ic are converted to isds and isqs components by three
phase to two phase transformation. These are then converted to synchronously rotating frame
(into ids and iqs components) by the unit vector components cose and sine before
applying to the machine. The machine is represented by internal conversions into the (de qe
) model.
The controller makes two stages of inverse transformation so that the line control ids* and
iqs* currents correspond to the machine currents ids and iqs respectively. In addition, the
unit vector (cose and sine) ensures correct alignment of ids current with the flux vector r
and ids current is perpendicular to it.
There are essentially two methods of vector control. One, called direct or feedback method
and the other known as indirect or feed forward method. The methods are different
essentially by how the unit vector (cose sine ) is generated for the control.
29
Fig:-2.7 Vector control implementation principle with machine d
e
q
e
model
2.4.1 Direct or Feedback Vector Control [15]
The basic block diagram of the direct vector control method for a PWM voltage-fed inverter
drive is in figure-2.8. The principal vector control parameters, i
ds
*
and i
qs
*
, which are dc values
in synchronously rotating frame, are converted to stationary frame (defined as vector rotation
(VR)) with the help of a unit vector (cos
e
and sin
e
) generated from flux vector signals
dr
s
and
dr
s
. The resulting stationary frame signals are then converted to phase current
commands for the inverter. The flux signals
dr
s
and
dr
s
are generated from the machine
terminal voltages and currents with the help of the voltage model estimator, (fig-2.10). A flux
control loop has been added for precision control of flux. The torque component of current
i
qs
*
is generated from the speed control loop through a bipolar limiter. The torque,
proportional to i
qs
(with constant flux), can be bipolar. It is negative with negative i
qs
, and
correspondingly, the phase position of i
qs
becomes negative. An additional torque control
loop can be added within the speed loop, if desired. Figure 2.8 can be extended to field-
weakening mode by programming the flux command as a function of speed so that the
inverter remains in PWM mode. Vector control by current regulation is lost if the inverter
attains the square-wave mode of operation. In vector control, the correct alignment of current
i
ds
in the direction of flux
r

30
Fig-2.8 Direct vector control block diagram with rotor flux orientation
The correct alignment of current i
ds
in the direction of flux
r

and the current i

qs
perpendicular to it are important parameter in vector control.
Let d
e
q
e
frame is rotating at synchronous speed
e
with respect to stationary frame d
s
q
s
,
and at any instant, the angular position of the d
e
-axis is
e
, where
e
=
e
t . From the fig-2.9,
we can say:
Fig-2.9 d
s
q
s
and d
e
q
e
phasors showing correct rotor flux
31
2 2
s
qr
s
dr r
r
s
qr
e
r
s
dr
e
e r
s
qr
e r
s
dr

sin

cos
words, other In
sin
cos
+

Where vector
r

is represented by magnitude r

.
These unit vector signals ( cose and sine), when used for vector rotation, give a ride of
current ids on the de-axis (direction of
r

) and current iqs on the qe-axis. At this condition,

qr=0 and dr =
r

. When the iqs polarity is reversed by the speed loop, the iqs position in
Figure 2.9 also reverses, giving negative torque [15]. The generation of a unit vector signal
from feedback flux vectors gives the name
Direct Vector Control
In the direct vector control method, it is necessary to estimate the rotor flux components
dr
s
and
qr
s
so that unit vector and rotor flux can be calculated by equations (47) (49). Two
commonly used methods of flux estimation are Voltage Model and Current Model. In
Voltage model method, the machine terminal voltages and currents are sensed and the fluxes
are computed from the stationary frame ( d
s
q
s
) equivalent circuit. The block diagram is as
follows:
32
Fig-2.10 Voltage model feedback signal estimation block diagram
Problem with Direct Vector Control
Any error in the unit vector or distortion associated with the feedback signals will
affect the performance of the drive.
At low frequency, voltage signals V
ds
s
and V
qs
s
are very low. In addition, ideal integration
becomes difficult because dc offset tends to build up at the integrator output.
The parameter variation effect of resistance R
s
and inductance L
ls
, L
lr
, and L
m
tend to
reduce accuracy of the estimated signals. Particularly, temperature variation of R
s
becomes
more dominant.
33
In the low-speed region, the rotor flux components can be synthesized more easily
with the help of speed and current signals.
2.4.2 Indirect or Feed forward Vector Control
The problems such as inherent coupling effect, parameter variations give sluggish response
and the system is easily prone to instability. This can be solved by vector or field oriented
control. By implementing FOC, dc machine like performance can be obtained by an
induction motor as the machine control is considered in a synchronously rotating reference
frame where the sinusoidal variables appear as dc quantities in steady state. The indirect
vector control method is essentially the same as direct vector control, except the unit vector
signals (cos
e
and sin
e
) are generated in feed forward manner. Indirect vector control is very
popular in industrial applications [22]. Let d
s
q
s
axes are fixed on the stator, but the d
r
q
r
axes, which are fixed on the rotor, are moving at speed
r
. Synchronously rotating axes d
e

q
e
are rotating ahead of the d
r
q
r
axes by the positive slip angle
sl
corresponding to slip
frequency
sl
. Since the rotor pole is directed on the d
e
axis and
e
=
r
+
sl
, we can write:
Fig: 2.11 Phasor diagram explaining Indirect Vector Control
So, we can write
sl r sl r e e
)dt ( dt + +

Here rotor position is not absolute, but is slipping with respect to the rotor at frequency
sl
.
From the above figure, we can conclude that for decoupling control, the stator flux
component of current i
ds
should be aligned on the d
e
axis, and the torque component of
34
current i
qs
should be on the q
e
axis. For decupling control, we can write the control equations
of indirect vector control with the help of d
e
q
e
equivalent circuits Fig (2.5). The rotor
equations can be written as
0 ) ( i R
dt
d
0 ) ( i R
dt
d
dr r e qr r
qr
qr r e dr r
dr
+ +
+
The rotor flux linkage expression can be given as
qs m qr r qr
ds m dr r dr
i L i L
i L i L
+
+
From the above equations, we can write
qs
r
m
qr
r
qr
ds
r
m
dr
r
dr
i
L
L

L
1
i
i
L
L

L
1
i


The rotor currents in eq (51) and (52), which are inaccessible, can be eliminated with the
help of equations (55) & (56) as
r e sl
dr sl qs r
r
m
qr
r
r
qr
qr sl ds r
r
m
dr
r
r dr
where
0 i R
L
L

L
R
dt
d
0 i R
L
L

L
R
dt
d

+ +
+
Where
sl
=
e

r
has been substituted.
For decoupling control, it is desirable that
qr
= 0 that is 0
dt
d
qr
, so that the total rotor
flux
r

is directed on the d
e
axis.
Substituting the above conditions in eq (57) & (58), we get
35
qs
r r
r m
sl
ds m r
r
r
r
i
L
R L

i L
dt
d
R
L

+
Where
r

=
dr
has been substituted.
If rotor flux
r

= constant, which is usually the case, then from eq (59),

ds m r
i L

The motor developed torque is directly related to i

*
qs
as follows:
*
r
e
r
m *
qs
*
qs
*
t e
*
qs
*
dr
r
m
e

T
L
L
3P
4
i
i K T then i
L
L
dt
d
4
3
T

,
_

,
_

2.4.3 Field oriented control block for Induction motor Drive
This figure 2.12 illustrates a variable-speed induction motor drive using field-oriented control
[2].
36
Fig 2.12 Field Oriented Control Scheme for Induction Motor Drive
In this control scheme, a dq coordinates reference frame locked to the rotor flux space vector
is used to achieve decoupling between the motor flux and torque. They can thus be controlled
separately by stator direct-axis current and quadrature-axis current respectively, as in a DC
motor. This figure shows a block diagram of a field-oriented induction motor drive.
The induction motor is fed by a current-controlled PWM inverter, which operates as a three-
phase sinusoidal current source. The motor speed is compared to the reference speed *
and the error is processed by the speed controller to produce a torque command Te*. As
shown in figure 2.11 the rotor flux and torque can be separately controlled by the stator
direct-axis current ids and quadrature axis current i
qs
, respectively.
2.5 CONTROLLER
37
The most important aspect of the indirect vector control of induction motor is the
transformation of currents into a torque producing component and a flux-producing
component. For this, accurate estimation of the parameter (unit vector) is required because
this depends on the effectiveness in producing the appropriate torque command.
Conventional vector control uses the Proportional-Integral controller to generate the torque
command. A conventional PI controller requires accurate sensor input and appropriate values
of the PI constants to produce high performance drive. In contrast, Fuzzy logic controllers use
heuristic input-output relations to deal with vague and complex situations. Hence fuzzy logic
controller offers the benefits of low cost and higher reliability.
2.6 NEED OF INTELLIGENT CONTROL
One of the primary purposes of classical feedback control is to increase robustness for a
control system, i.e., increase the degree to which the system performs when there is
uncertainty. Classical linear control provides robustness over a relatively small range of
uncertainty [31]. Adaptive control techniques have been developed for systems that must
perform over large ranges of uncertainties due to large variations in parameter values,
environmental conditions, and signal inputs. These adaptive techniques generally incorporate
a second feedback loop, which is outside the first feedback loop. This second feedback loop
may have the capability to track system parameters, environmental conditions, and input
characteristics; feedback control then may vary parameters in compensation elements of the
inner loop to maintain acceptable performance characteristics.
The objective of the design of an intelligent control system is similar to that for the adaptive
control system. However, there is a difference. For an intelligent control system, the range of
uncertainty may be substantially greater than can be tolerated by algorithms for adaptive
systems. The object with intelligent control is to design a system with acceptable
performance characteristics over a very wide range of uncertainty [18]. For example, the
range of uncertainty for available data may be different than expected because it may be
necessary to deal with unquantified data, highly complex data structures, or extremely large
amounts of data. Traditional control systems, which operate with large uncertainty, typically
depend on human intervention to function properly. However, human intervention is
unacceptable in many real-time applications and automatic techniques for handling
uncertainty must be developed. In a typical drive control application, a number of problems
38
must be faced that are also generic to design of controllers for large dynamic systems. Some
examples of these problems are presented here [18] [31]:
Mathematical model of the system;
Sensor data overload, which may arise from data redundancy or from specialized
data rarely needed by the system;
Sensor data fusion and mapping into the proper control feedback law; Systems not
robust enough to handle large parameter excursions;
Machine parameter variation problem
Systems that cannot be used for high-speed real-time control because they require
time-consuming artificial intelligence calculations;
Systems where sensor choice and placement are still unsolved.
These examples provide motivation for the concept of intelligent control and illustrate the
need for real-time intelligent components. Three approaches that have the potential for
intelligent control are:
1. EXPERT SYSTEMS
2. FUZZY LOGIC
3. NEURAL NETWORKS
Artificial Intelligence is machine emulation of the human thinking processes. The term began
to be systematically used since the Dartmouth College conference in 1956 when artificial
intelligence was defined as computer processes that attempt to emulate the human thought
processes that are associated with activities that require the use of intelligence. Human brain
is the most complex machine on earth. For a long time, the neuro-biologists have been taking
the bottom-up approach to understand the brain structure and its functioning, and the
behavioral scientists, such as psychologists and psychiatrists, the top down approach to
understand the human thinking process. However, our knowledge about the brain is so
inadequate at present that it is expected to take another 50 to 100 years to understand the
39
human brain and its thinking process. Since human brain is the ultimate intelligent machine,
the question is: Is it possible to generate such intelligence or at least a part of it, artificially
with the help of a computer so that it can solve our complex problems which are difficult to
solve in traditional way? In early age, it was perceived that human brain takes decision on the
basis of yes-no or true-false reasoning. In 1854, George Boole first published his article
Investigations on the laws of thought, and Boolean algebra and set theory were born as a
result. Gradually, the advent of electronic logic and solid state ICs ushered the modem era of
Von Neumann type digital computation. Digital computers were defined as intelligent
machines because of their capability to process human thought-like yes ( 1 ) or no ( 0 ) logic.
Of course, using the same binary logic, computers can solve complex scientific, engineering,
and other data processing problems. Since the 1960s and in the early 1970s, it was felt that
computers have severe limitations being able to handle only algorithmic-type problems. An
entirely new way of structuring software that closely matches the human thinking process,
called Expert System was born.
The new branch of software engineering is called Knowledge Engineering. This new breed
of Knowledge Engineers was responsible for the acquisition of knowledge from the human
experts in a particular domain and translating it into software. In the 1980s, expert system
applications proliferated in industrial process control, medicine, geology, agriculture,
information management, military science, and space technology, just to name a few.
Since the mid 1960s, a new theory called Fuzzy Logic or fuzzy set theory was propounded
which gradually helped to supplement the expert system as an AI tool. L. A. Zadeh, the
originator of this theory, argued that most of human thinking is fuzzy or imprecise in nature,
and therefore, Boolean logic (which is represented by crisp 0 and 1) cannot adequately
emulate the thinking process. However, the general methodology of reasoning remaining the
same, it was defined as fuzzy expert system. In recent years, fuzzy logic has emerged as an
important AI tool to characterize and control a system whose model is not known, or ill-
defined. It has been widely applied in process control, estimation, identification, diagnostics,
stock market prediction, agriculture, military science, etc. While the traditional digital
computer is very efficient in solving expert system problems and somewhat less efficient in
solving fuzzy logic problems, its inability to solve pattern recognition and image processing
type problems was seriously felt since the beginning of the 1990s. In fact, expert system
techniques which held so much promise in the 1980s could not fulfill the expected
40
computational needs. Therefore, peoples attention was recently focused on a new branch of
AI, called artificial neural network (ANN) or neural network.
Fundamentally, the human brain is constituted of billions of nerve cells, called neurons, and
these neurons are interconnected to constitute the biological neural network. Our thinking
process is generated by the action of this neural network. The ANN tends to simulate the
neural network by electronic computational circuits. The ANN technology is the most generic
for emulation of human thinking. It has been applied to process control, diagnostics,
identification, character recognition, robot vision, flight scheduling, financial prediction, etc.
The history of ANN technology is not new. It was gradually evolving since the 1950s, but
the glamour of modem digital computer and expert system techniques practically
camouflaged the neural network evolution in the 1960s and 1970s. Since the beginning of
the 1990s, neural network as AI tool has captivated the attention of practically the whole
scientific community. This new form of machine intelligence has suddenly been elevated to
transcendental heights. Often, it is held as the greatest technological advance since the
invention of the transistor. It is predicted to touch almost every scientific and engineering
application by the early 21st century. Of course, we need to wait and see to what extent this is
true.
This Project is concerned with the fuzzy logic controller for induction motor drive. With
these tools, a system is said to be intelligent, learning, or have self-organizing
capability. Traditionally, the design of a control system is dependent on the explicit
description of its mathematical model and parameters. Often, the model and the parameters
are unknown, or ill-defined. The system, again, may be complex with nonlinearity and
parameter variation problems. An intelligent or self-organizing control system can identify
the model, if necessary, and give predicted performance even with wide range of parameter
variation.
2.6.1 Necessity of Fuzzy Logic
The control algorithm of a process that is based on Fuzzy Logic or a fuzzy inference system
is defined as a fuzzy control. In general, a control system based on Artificial Intelligent is
41
defined as intelligent control. A fuzzy control system essentially embeds the experience and
intuition of a human plant operator, and sometimes those of a designer and / or researcher of
a plant. The design of a conventional control system is normally based on the mathematical
model of a plant. If an accurate mathematical model is available with known parameters, it
can be analyzed, for example, by a Bode or Nyquist plot, and a controller can be designed for
the specified performance. Such a procedure is tedious and time-consuming, although CAD
programs are available for such design. Unfortunately, for complex processes, such as cement
plants, nuclear reactors, and the like, a reasonably good mathematical model is difficult to
find. On the other hand, the plant operator may have good experience for controlling the
process.
Power electronics system models are often ill-defined. Even if a plant model is well-known,
there may be parameter variation problems. Sometimes, the model is multivariable, complex,
and nonlinear, such as the dynamic d-q model of an ac machine. Vector or field-oriented
control of a drive can overcome this problem, but accurate vector control is nearly
impossible, and there may be a wide parameter variation problem in the system. To combat
such problems, various adaptive control techniques are their. Fuzzy control, on the other
hand, does not strictly need any mathematical model of the plant. It is based on plant operator
experience and heuristics, as mentioned previously, and it is very easy to apply. Fuzzy
control is basically an adaptive and nonline ar control, which gives robust performance for a
linear or nonlinear plant with parameter variation. In fact, fuzzy control is possibly the best
adaptive control among the techniques discussed so far.
2.6.2 Fuzzy Set Theory & Membership Functions:
Fuzzy logic starts with the concept of a fuzzy set. A fuzzy set is a set without a crisp, clearly
defined boundary. It can contain elements with only a partial degree of membership.
To understand what a fuzzy set is, first consider what is meant by what we might call a
classical set. A classical set is a container that wholly includes or wholly excludes any given
element. In fuzzy logic, the truth of any statement becomes a matter of degree. Any statement
can be fuzzy. The tool that fuzzy reasoning gives is the ability to reply to a yes-no question
with a not-quite-yes-or-no answer. This is the kind of thing that humans do all the time but it
is a rather new trick for computers.
Membership Functions
42
A membership function (MF) is a curve that defines how each point in the input space is
mapped to a membership value (or degree of membership) between 0 and 1. The input space
is sometimes referred to as the universe of discourse, a fuzzy set is an extension of a classical
set. If X is the universe of discourse and its elements are denoted by x, then a fuzzy set A in
X is defined as a set of ordered pairs.
A = {x, A(x) | x X}
where A(x) is called the membership function (or MF) of x in A.
The membership function maps each element of X to a membership value between 0 and 1.
The simplest membership functions are formed using straight lines.
Of these, the simplest is the triangular membership function, as shown in figure 2.13(a) and it
has the function name trimf. It is nothing more than a collection of three points forming a
triangle.
Fig 2.13(a) Triangular MF Fig 2.13(b) Trapezoidal MF
The trapezoidal membership function, as shown in figure 2.13(b) has function name trapmf
and has a flat top and really is just a truncated triangle curve. These straight line membership
functions have the advantage of simplicity.
If-Then Rules
43
Fuzzy sets and fuzzy operators are the subjects and verbs of fuzzy logic. These if-then rule
statements are used to formulate the conditional statements that comprise fuzzy logic. A
single fuzzy if-then rule assumes the form
If x is A then y is B
where A and B are linguistic values defined by fuzzy sets on the ranges (universes of
discourse) X and Y, respectively. The if-part of the rule "x is A" is called the antecedent or
premise, while the then-part of the rule "y is B" is called the consequent or conclusion. The
antecedent is an interpretation that returns a single number between 0 and 1. On the other
hand, the consequent is an assignment that assigns the entire fuzzy set B to the output
variable y. In the if-then rule, the word "is" gets used in two entirely different ways
depending on whether it appears in the antecedent or the consequent. Interpreting an if-then
rule involves distinct parts: first evaluating the antecedent (which involves fuzzifying the
input and applying any necessary fuzzy operators) and second applying that result to the
consequent (known as implication). In the case of two-valued or binary logic, if-then rules
don't present much difficulty. If the premise is true, then the conclusion is true. If the
restrictions of two-valued logic is relaxed and let the antecedent be a fuzzy statement, then if
the antecedent is true to some degree of membership, then the consequent is also true to that
same degree.
In other words in binary logic:
In fuzzy logic:
0.5 p 0.5 q (Partial antecedents provide partial implication.)
The antecedent of a rule can have multiple parts in which case all parts of the antecedent are
calculated simultaneously and resolved to a single number using the logical operators. The
consequent of a rule can also have multiple parts, in which case all consequents are affected
equally by the result of the antecedent.
The consequent specifies a fuzzy set be assigned to the output. The implication function then
modifies that fuzzy set to the degree specified by the antecedent. The most common ways to
modify the output fuzzy set are truncation using the min function (where the fuzzy set is
chopped off) or scaling using the prod functions (where the output fuzzy set is squashed).
Defuzzification
44
Conversion of fuzzy output to a crisp output is defined as defuzzification, the number
obtained thus as the output of defuzzification should be such that it can be sent to the process
as a control signal.
Various methods of defuzzification are as listed below:
centroid: centroid of area method
bisector: bisector of area method
mom: mean of maximum method
som: smallest of maximum method
lom: largest of maximum method
Summary of Fuzzy System
A fuzzy system basically consists of formulation of the mapping from a given input set to an
output set using fuzzy logic. This mapping process provides the basis from which the
inference or conclusion can be made.
A fuzzy inference system process can be summarized in following steps:
Fuzzification of input variable
Application of fuzzy operator (AND, OR, NOT) in the IF part of the rule
Implication from the antecedent to the consequent (THEN part of the rule)
Aggregation of the consequents across the rule
Defuzzification
2.7 FUZZY LOGIC SPEED CONTROLLER PRINCIPLE AND DESIGN
The fuzzy logic speed controller block in a vector-controlled drive system used, shown in fig:
2.14. The controller observes the pattern of the speed loop error signal and correspondingly
updates the output DU so that the actual speed
r
matches the command speed
r
*
[28].
45
Fig 2.14 Fuzzy speed controller in vector-controlled drive system
There are two input signals to the fuzzy controller, the error E=
r
*
-
r
and the change in
error, CE, which is related to the derivative dE/dt of error. In a discrete system,
dE / dt = E / t = CE / T
s
,
where CE = E in the sampling time T
s
. With constant Ts, CE is proportional to dEldt. The
controller output DU in a vector-controlled drive is i
qs
*
current. This signal is summed or
integrated to generate the actual control signal U or current i
qs
*
. From the physical operation
principle of the system, we can write a simple control rule in FL as
IF E is near zero (ZE) AND CE is slightly positive (PS)
THEN the controller output DU is small negative
where E and CE are the input fuzzy variables, DU is the output fuzzy variable, and ZE, PS,
and NS are the corresponding fuzzy set Membership Functions. The implementation of this
fuzzy control is illustrated in Figure 2.15(a) with the help of triangular MFs. With the values
of E =-1 and CE = 1.8, as shown, the Mamdani method will give the output DU or , i
qs
*
= -2
amps. As discussed in the previous section, generally more than one fuzzy rule is fired and
the contribution of the individual rules is combined at the output. Figure 2.15(b) illustrates
the principle of two-rule control with the Mamdani method where the rules are
Rule 1: IF E = ZE AND CE = NS THEN DU = NS
Rule 2: IF E = PS AND CE = NS THEN DU = ZE
where DU represents the output. For the given rule base of the control system, the fuzzy
controller computes a meaningful control action for a specific input condition of the
46
variables. The term "composition" is often used for the inference to generate the output fuzzy
control signal. There are a number of composition rules in the literature, but the most
common one is the MAX-MIN (or SUP-MIN) composition, which is illustrated in Figure
2.15(b) for the two stated rules. Note that the output MF of each rule is given by a MIN
(minimum) operator, whereas the combined fuzzy output is given by a MAX (maximum)
operator [1].
Fig: 2.15 (a) Single rule fuzzy speed control principle
47
Fig 2.15(b) Two rule fuzzy speed control principle
The general structure of a fuzzy feedback control system is shown in Figure 2.16. The
controller consists of four blocks as shown, Fuzzification, Fuzzy inference engine, Rule base
and a Defuzzification block The loop error E and change in error CE signals are converted to
the respective per unit signals e and ce by dividing by the respective scale factors, that is, e =
E / GE and ce = CE / GC. Similarly, the output plant control signal U is derived by
multiplying the per unit output by the scale factor GU, that is, DU= du.GU, and then summed
to generate the U signal.
48
Fig: 2.16 Structure of fuzzy control in feedback system
2.7.1 Fuzzification
The success of this work, and the like, depends on how good this stage is conducted. In this
stage the crisp variables of the inputs e(ts) and ce(ts) are converted into fuzzy variables that
can be identified by the levels of membership in the fuzzy set. Each fuzzy variable is a
member of the subsets with a degree of membership varying between 0 (nonmember) to 1
(full member). The fuzzy sets are defined as follows:
Z=Zero, PS=Positive Small, PM=Positive Medium, PB=Positive Big, NS=Negative Small,
NM=Negative Medium, NB=Negative Big PVS=Positive Very Small, NVS=Negative V.
Small, NVB= Negative very Big, and PVB= Positive very Big.
The universe of discourse of all the variables, covering the whole region, is expressed in per
unit values. All the MFs have asymmetrical shape with more crowding near the origin (steady
state
2.7.2 Knowledge base and inferencing stage
The fuzzy controllers strongest asset is the Knowledge base. By carefully designing the
knowledge base that is possible by Expert experience, and by Simulation process. Each time
variable is inputted with unique name and we get the result the experts experience is
incorporated into the fuzzy controller. This experience is synthesized by the choice of the
input-output (I/O) membership functions and the rule base. Typically, uniform distributed
triangular membership functions are used in order to simplify the implementation. The
knowledge base involves defining the rules represented as IF-THEN rules statements
governing the relationship between inputs and output variables in terms of membership
functions. In this stage the input variables e(ts) and ce(ts) are processed by the inference
49
engine that executes 7x7 rules represented in rule table. This can be also verified by
Literature. Inferencing stage includes also, application of fuzzy operator (AND,OR),
implication and aggregation. An example of rule statements describing the expert system is:
IF e(pu) (speed error in per unit) = Z (zero) AND
ce(pu) = PS (Positive Small) THEN du(pu) = PS (positive)
E
CE
NB NM NS Z PS PM PB
NB NVB NVB NVB NB NM NS Z
NM NVB NVB NB NM NS Z PS
NS NVB NB NM NS Z PS PM
Z NB NM NS Z PS PM PB
PS NM NS Z PS PM PB PVB
PM NS Z PS PM PB PVB PVB
Table 1 shows the corresponding rule table for the speed controller. The top row and left column of the matrix
indicate the fuzzy sets of the variables e and ce [1] [26] [30]
2.7.3 Defuzzification Stage
This stage introduces different inference methods that can be used to produce the fuzzy set
value for the output fuzzy variable T. In this paper, the center of gravity (COA) or centroids
method is used to calculate the final fuzzy value T*(ts). Defuzzification using COA method
means that the crisp output of T*(ts) is obtained by using the center of gravity, in which the
crisp du(pu) or T(ts) variable is taken to be the geometric center of the output fuzzy variable
value
out
(T) area, where
out
(T) is formed by taking the union of all the contributions of
rules with the degree of fulfillment greater than 0. Then the COA expression with a
discretized universe of discourse can be written as follows:

n
1 i
i out
n
1 i
i out i
*
) (
) ( T
T
T
T
Then by integration T
e
*
is obtained as shown by equation
50
*
s
*
s
*
T 1) (t T ) (t T +
This torque value is used to calculate i
qs
*
, which in turn used to command the induction motor
via 2 - 3 block. The two-axis stator voltages and currents are related to the three-phase
representations by the following equation:
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1

cs
bs
as
e e
e e
e
ds
e
qs
x
x
x
t w t w
t w t w
x
x
3
1
3
1
0
3
1
3
1
3
2
sin cos
cos sin
where x may represent the current or voltage.
Fig. 2.17 Membership functions of inputs and output
(a), (b) and (c) show the membership functions of e(pu), ce(pu) and du(pu) respectively.
51
The graphical presentation of the rules is shown in figure 2.18 using a 3-d plot.
Fig 2.18 Graphical presentation of rules using surface rule viewer
52
CHAPTER 3
STEADY-STATE PERFORMANCE OF INDUCTION MOTOR
This Chapter present Steady State behavior of Three-phase induction motor using Fuzzy
Logic Control.
3.1 Introduction
The steady-state performance characteristics of the drive are of great help in identifying the
application areas of the drive, improvement in its performance, or in optimization of the
system design for meeting the desired specifications [2]. As the motor operates at variable
speed, it is necessary that the motor input parameters be adjusted suitably to get the required
speed and torque. After knowing the steady state responses we can use it in suitable
application.
3.2 Explanation for Steady State Analysis
The key variables in the machine are the air gap power, mechanical and shaft output power,
and electromagnetic torque. These are derived from the equivalent circuit of the induction
machine. The real power transmitted from the stator, P
i
to the air gap, P
a
is the difference
between total input power to the stator windings and copper losses in the stator and is given
as
s
2
s i a
R 3I P P
Neglecting the core losses, the air gap power is equal to the total power dissipated in R
r
/s in
the three phases of the machine; there is no other element to consume power in the rotor
equivalent circuit. It is given by
s
R
3I P
r 2
r a

Which could be written alternatively as
s
s) (1
R 3I R 3I P
r
2
r r
2
r a

+
53
The I
2
r
R
r
term is recognized as the rotor copper loss, and hence the remainder, gives the
power converted into mechanical form. The rotor copper losses are equal to the product of the
slip and air gap power and this is referred to as slip power. The mechanical power output, P
m
is obtained as
s
s) (1
R 3I P
r
2
r m

Alternately, in terms of the electromagnetic torque and rotor speed, the mechanical power
output is equal to their product:
m
r r
e
s
s R I
T

) 1 ( 3
2

Substituting for the rotor speed in terms of the slip and stator frequency, given by
P/2
s) (1
P/2

s r
m


and the electromagnetic or air gap torque is obtained as
s
r
2
r
e
s
R 3I
2
P
3 T

,
_

To obtain the shaft output power of the machine, P

s
the windage and friction losses of the
rotor, denoted as P
fw
have to be subtracted from the mechanical output power of the machine,
given by
fw m s
P P P
Rotor Frequency and its Effects
When a rotor is at standstill, it behaves as a three-phase transformer with a short circuit in the
secondary. The Electro Magnetic Flux (EMF) induced in the rotor bears a direct relationship
to the supply EMF, numbers of turns, flux as well as frequency. Hence, at a given speed, the
rotor EMF at speed is equal to rotor EMF at stand still multiply by slips. This on the other
hand leads to other changes such that rotor leakage reactance at speed will differ from the
leakage at standstill in the rotor.
Slip, S is given by:
54
S = (
s
)/
s
= N
s
N / N
s
Where:
N
s
= synchronous speed (r/min)
N = rotor speed (r/min) Rotor leakage reactance at standstill:
X
R
= 2 f
s
L in ohms (), in addition,
The reactance at speed: X
R
= SX
R
55
STEADY STATE PERFORMANCE AND ITS RESULTS:
A flowchart for the evaluation of the steady state performance [2] of the motor is in fig
Fig 3.1 Flowchart for the computation of steady-state performance of the Induction Motor
The relevant equations for use are from (66) to (72). A set of sample torque, shaft power,
power factor, stator current, input power and efficiency is plotted v/s slip and time.
The torque v/s slip characteristics are shown from 0 to 1. The slip is chosen in place of rotor
speed because it is non dimensional and so is applicable to any motor frequency. Near the
56
synchronous speed i.e., at low slips, the torque is linear and is proportional to the slip; beyond
the maximum torque (also known as breakdown torque), the torque is approximately
inversely proportional to slip. At standstill, the slip equals unity, and, at this operating point,
the torque produced is known as standstill torque. To accelerate a load, this standstill torque
has to be greater than the load torque. It is preferable to operate near low slips to have higher
efficiency. This is due to the fact that the rotor copper looses are directly proportional to slip
and are equal to the slip power, and, hence, at low slips, the rotor copper losses are small.
The positive slope region of the torque-slip characteristics provides stable operation. In
starting efficiency is low but as motor runs near about synchronous speed the efficiency
become maximum in the range of 70% to 80%.
57

Fig3.2 (a)-(b) Theoretical Performance Characteristics of Induction Motor w.r.t Slip and Time
From the above graph we can conclude that maximum torque is coming in nearly 0.2 sec and
steady state condition coming in 2 to 2.5 sec.
58
Fig: 3.3 Theoretical result for Induction Motor Used (a) Torque v/s Slip (b) Stator current v/s Slip (c) Air gap
Power v/s Slip (d) Efficiency v/s Slip.
Above plot showing Torque, Stator current, Air gap Power, Efficiency with respect to the
slip. From the plot we can say that Maximum torque will come at 0.2 sec, and steady state
condition will achieve by machine after 1 sec. Similarly in starting efficiency is poor but in
running condition it achieve good value that we can see in graph. Starting current is very high
(s=1), as soon as motor picks its rated speed, the value of motor current also become equal to
its rated value.
59
Fig: 3.4 Theoretical result for Induction Motor Used (a) Torque v/s Time (b) Stator current v/s Time (c) Air gap
Power v/s Time (d) Efficiency v/s Time.
All the above plot showing Torque, Stator current, Air gap Power, Efficiency with respect to
Time. From the above graph we can say that machine will get steady state condition or
equilibrium condition after 3 sec. Starting current is very high but as soon as machine runs
near to synchronous speed then stator current comes under limit.
60
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
S
p
e
e
d
-
>
----- Time ------>
Speed Time Charecteristic
Fig 3.5 Plot between Machine Speed and Time
From the above graph we can conclude that machine will get constant steady speed after 1
sec time. Here speed is in rad/sec.
3.3 Induction Motor with Fuzzy Logic Control
The purpose of this project is to synthesis a controller without the exact knowledge of a
model, numerically simple and simulated to Matlab/ Simulink allowing good performance in
terms of overshoot and fast accuracy under the speed variations. For the proposed FLC, the
speed error and rate of change of the speed error are considered as the input linguistic
variables and the torque-producing current component is considered as the output linguistic
variable. Thus, the functional relation of the FLC can be expressed as:
1) e(t ) e(t ) ce(t
) (t ) (t ) e(t
s s s
s r s
*
r s


where
r
*
(t
s
) is the reference speed and e(t
s
1) is the value of error at a previous time. The
main goal of the control system is to track the command speed by providing the appropriate
torque-producing current component i
q
depending upon the operating conditions. In real time,
the motor position information and output of the FLC, which is considered as the command
q-axis current i
q
*
, as well as the command d-axis current i
d
*
, are used to get the command
61
phase currents i
a
*
, i
b
*
, i
c
*
using eq (8-9). The electrical position of the motor can be expressed
as
e
=
r
+
sl
, where
e
is the rotating filed position,
r
is the rotor position due to slip speed,
and
sl
is the slip position due to slip speed. In the next step, the scaling factors K
g
, K
g1
, K
g2
are chosen for fuzzification, as well as for obtaining the actual output of the command
current. These scaling factors play a vital role for the FLC. The factors K
g
and K
g1
are chosen
to normalize the speed error and the change of speed error e
r
, respectively, so that these
remain within the limit of 1. Factor K
g2
is so chosen that one can get the rated current for
rated conditions. Here, the constants are taken as K
g
=
r
*
(command speed), K
g1
=10 and K
g2
= 10 in order to get the optimum drive performances.
After selecting the scaling factors, the next step is to choose the membership function of
r
,
e , and i
q
*
, which perform the important task of the FLC.
The Fuzzy logic Toolbox based architecture is in fig: 3.6.
Fig 3.6: Fuzzy Controller Architecture
The design and synthesis of a fuzzy controller is presented using fuzzy logic toolbox with
Matlab/Simulink. Here, fuzzy logic controller employs speed error and change of speed error
as inputs, the change in torque component of current that drives the induction motor is output.
More clearly the fuzzy logic speed controller block in a vector-controlled drive system used,
shown in fig: 3.7. The controller observes the pattern of the speed loop error signal and
correspondingly updates the output DU so that the actual speed
r
matches the command
speed
r
*
.
62
Fig 3.7 Fuzzy speed controller in vector-controlled drive system
There are two input signals to the fuzzy controller, the error E=
r
*
-
r
and the change in
error, CE, which is related to the derivative dE/dt of error. In a discrete system,
The fuzzy controllers strongest asset is the Knowledge base. By carefully designing the
knowledge base, the experts experience is incorporated into the fuzzy controller. This
experience is synthesized by the choice of the input-output (I/O) membership functions and
the rule base. Typically, uniform distributed triangular membership functions are used in
order to simplify the implementation. The knowledge base involves defining the rules
represented as IF-THEN rules statements governing the relationship between inputs and
output variables in terms of membership functions. In this stage the input variables e(ts) and
ce(ts) are processed by the inference engine that executes 7x7 rules represented in rule table.
Inferencing stage includes also, application of fuzzy operator (AND, OR), implication and
aggregation. An example of rule statements describing the expert system is:
if e(pu) (speed error in per unit) = Z (zero) AND
ce(pu) = PS (positive small) THEN du(pu) = PS (positive)
Table 1 shows the corresponding rule table for the speed controller. The top row and left
column of the matrix indicate the fuzzy sets of the variables e and ce.
The induction motor is fed by a current-controlled PWM inverter. The speed control loop
uses a fuzzy logic controller instead of a simple proportional-integral controller to produce
the quadrature axis current reference iq* which controls the motor torque. The motor flux is
controlled by the direct-axis current reference id*. Block DQ-ABC is used to convert id* and
iq* into current references ia*, ib*, and ic* for the current regulator. Current and Voltage
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Measurement blocks provide signals for visualization purpose. Motor current, speed, and
torque signals are available at the output.
The overall system is shown in Figure 3.8 and the constructed Fuzzy Logic Controller in
MATLAB/SIMULINK environment taking gain value Ki=10 and Kp=10. The block diagram
of the drive representing the IVCIM with Fuzzy Logic Control is shown in Figure 3.9 [26]
Vector Control of a Variable-Frequency Induction Motor Drive
Discrete,
Ts= 0.0002 s.
speed pulses
Vector Control
v
+
-
Vab
VDC
z
1
z
1
Scope
?
More Info
Tm
m
A
B
C
Induction Motor
50 HP / 460 V
g
A
B
C
+
-
IGBT Inverter
Iabc
Speed
0
Display
0
Constant
torque
120
Constant
speed
<Rotor speed (wm)>
<Rotor speed (wm)> <Rotor speed (wm)>
Vab (V)Vab (V)
<Electromagnetic torque Te (N*m)>
<Electromagnetic torque Te (N*m)>
<Electromagnetic torque Te (N*m)>
Fig-3.8 Indirect Vector Control Based Induction Motor Block Diagram with Fuzzy Logic Control
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Fig-3.9 Indirect Vector Control Based Induction Motor Block Diagram with Fuzzy Logic Control
3.4 Results & Discussion
Several tests were performed to evaluate the performance of the proposed FLC-based vector
control of the IM drive system in MATLAB / SIMULINK. The speed-control loop of the
drive was also designed, simulated with the PI controller in order to compare the
performances to those obtained from the respective FLC-based drive system. The speed
responses are observed under different operating conditions. Some simulated results are
presented in following sections.
3.4.1 Comparison of Fuzzy and PI controller during starting conditions:
The PI controller is tuned at rated conditions in order to make a fair comparison. Figure
(3.11) and (3.12) show the simulated starting performance of the drive with PI- and FLC-
based drive systems, respectively. Although the PI controller is tuned to give an optimum
response at this rated condition, the fuzzy controller yielded better performances in terms
of faster response time and lower starting current [32].
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Note: It is worth mentioning here that the performance obtained by the proposed model is 4
times faster than the P-I controller, i.e. it achieves the steady state 4 times faster than the P-I
controller. Also it is 2.1 times faster than that obtained earlier by using fuzzy controller.
Fig-3.10(a) Speed Response v/s Time (No-Load)
Fig-3.10(b) Enlarged Res
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Fig [3.11(a)] Speed time characteristics
Fig [3.11(b)] Torque characteristics
From figure 3.11 we can say that at 0.8 sec motor comes in steady state condition and speed
will become constant (120 rad/sec). As here initially we are running our motor at no-load, so
from graph we can see that after 0.8 sec time output torque is becoming zero.
Fig [3.11(c)] Iabc characteristics
The above figures showing the steady state behavior of the induction motor for the
conventional PI controller. Now instead of PI controller we are using Fuzzy logic controller,
so that we can obtain better steady response in less time as compared to PI control. By
observing fig (3.11) and fig (3.12) we can say that Fuzzy logic controller performed better in
reference with rise time and steady state errors. Here if we compare speed time characteristics
for PI and FLC then at 0.2 sec steady state condition is achieving as compare to PI where
steady state condition is coming after 0.8 sec.
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Fig [3.12(a)] Speed time characteristics
Fig [3.12(b)] Current characteristics
Fig[3.12(c)] Torque characteristics
From figure 3.12(a)-(c) we can say that at 0.2 sec motor comes in steady state condition and
speed will become constant (120 rad/sec) in other words we can say that now with fuzzy
logic controller we are getting better and fast response. As here initially we are running our
motor at no-load, so from graph we can see that after 0.2 sec time output torque is becoming
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zero, whereas value of torque is coming its given value after 1 sec using PI. It means we can
say that we are getting fast system response using Fuzzy logic controller.
Fig [3.12(d)] Error characteristics
Fig [3.12(e)] CE characteristics
Fig [3.12(f)] Vab characteristics
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Fig [3.12(g)] Iq characteristics
Conclusion:
Fig (3.11) and (3.12) are showing the performance behavior under steady state condition of
the induction motor using PI and Fuzzy Logic Controller respectively. By observing time
response and steady state error from fig (3.11) and fig (3.12), we can say that steady state
condition is coming after 0.8 sec using PI whereas steady state condition is coming at 0.2 sec
by Fuzzy logic controller, and by this we can say that time response is less in Fuzzy logic
control over PI control. From the graph we can also state that Steady state error is more in
case of PI control. So Fuzzy Logic Controller performed better for rise time and steady state
errors, means in less time system become stable or achieving its stability.
Note: It is worth mentioning here that the performance obtained by the proposed model is 4
times faster than the P-I controller, i.e. it achieves the steady state 4 times faster than the P-I
controller. Also it is 2.1 times faster than that obtained earlier by using fuzzy controller [18].
CHAPTER 4
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TRANSIENT PERFORMANCE OF INDUCTION MOTOR
This Chapter presents Transient response of a Fuzzy logic based control of induction motor.
4.1 Introduction
Transient response analysis is necessary for obtaining high performance and robust drive.
With the field orientation control (FOC) method, induction machine drives are becoming a
major candidate in high-performance motion control applications, where servo quality
operation is required. Fast transient response is made possible by decoupled torque and flux
control. However, conventional proportional integral derivative (PID) control has difficulty in
dealing with dynamic speed tracking, parameter variations, and load disturbances. In order to
overcome the above problems, the fuzzy logic controller (FLC) is used for motor control
purpose. The implemented fuzzy logic controller presents a superior dynamic performance
when compared with a conventional scheme.
4.2 Fuzzy logic controller with step change in Speed and Torque
Several tests were performed to evaluate the performance of the Fuzzy logic controller based
vector control of the induction motor drive system. For determining the behavior of drive
using Fuzzy controller an additional step change signal is added in fig(4.1). By changing the
switch we can introduce the change in speed and torque from no-load to given step and can
observe the response. At the end of the simulation time, the system has reached its steady-
state. The final state vector can be saved by previously selecting 'Workspace I/O/Save to
workspace/Final state' in Simulation/Parameters window. Once the simulation is finished
save the xFinal variable into xInitial. Double click the two Manual Switch blocks to switch
from the constant wref and TL blocks to the Step blocks. (Reference speed wref changed
from 120 to 160 rad/s at t = 0.3 s and load torque changed from 0 to 200 N.m at t= 1.4s).
Restart the simulation and observe the drive response to successive changes in speed
reference and load torque.
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Fig 4.1: Indirect vector control using Fuzzy logic controller with Step Change in input
4.3 Simulation Results, Discussion and Comparison
Here in this section I am discussing first simulated performance results when some sudden
change in load occurs.
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Fig-4.2 Performance results of Induction Motor for Sudden Change in Load
As due to some sudden change in load at 2 sec all the associated parameter such as Torque,
Stator current, Power input and Shaft Power will change. Efficiency will decrease due to
sudden increase in load. After 2.2 sec a new steady state condition or equilibrium is achieved.
Torque and stator current will achieve a new steady state value at this time.
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Fig 4.3 Performance results of Induction Motor due to change in Load (a) Torque v/s Time (b) Stator Current
v/s Time (c) Air gap Power v/s Time (d) Efficiency v/s Time
Here Torque, stator current, Air gap Power, efficiency are plotted with respect to time
separately. Due to sudden increase in load at 2 sec, air gap power will increase and then settle
down to a new equilibrium state.
4.3.1 Comparison of Fuzzy and PI controllers during step change in command speed
Figures (4.4) and (4.5) show the speed responses of the drive system using the PI and FLC,
respectively, with a step change in the reference speed. The reference speed is changed from
120 rad/s to 160 rad/s at t = 0.3 sec for the fuzzy controlled system. But because the time
taken by the P-I controlled system to reach the steady state is comparatively too high, a step
change in reference speed has been done for P-I controlled system at t = 1.25 sec.
It is evident from Fig. (4.4(a)) and (4.5(a)) that the proposed FLC-based IM drive system can
follow the command speed without any overshoot and steady-state error. Thus, the
FLC-based drive system is not affected by the sudden change of the command speed. Thus, a
good tracking has been achieved for the FLC, whereas the PI-controller-based drive
system is affected with the sudden change in command speed.
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Fig [4.4(a)] Speed characteristics during step change in reference speed at t = 1.25 sec.
Fig [4.4(b)] Torque characteristics during step change in reference speed at t = 1.25 sec.
Fig [4.4(c)] Iabc characteristics during step change in reference speed at t = 1.25 sec.
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Fig [4.5(a)] Speed time characteristics during step change in reference speed at t=0.3 sec.
As the reference speed is changed from 120 rad/s to 160 rad/s at 0.3 sec. From the above
response we can say that used controller (FLC) is more accurate as compared to PI controller.
Fig [4.5(b)] Torque time characteristics during step change in reference speed at t=0.3 sec.
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Fig [4.5(c)] Iabc characteristics during step change in reference speed at t=0.3 sec.
Fig [4.5(d)] Error characteristics during step change in reference speed at t=0.3 sec.
Fig [4.5(e)] CE characteristics during step change in reference speed at t=0.3 sec.
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Fig [4.5(f)] Speed Torque characteristics during step change in reference speed at t=0.3 sec.
Fig [4.5(g)] Iq characteristics during step change in reference speed at t=0.3 sec.
Conclusion:
The PI controller is tuned at rated conditions in order to make a fair comparison. The above
figures show the simulated transient performance of the drive with PI and FLC based drive
systems, respectively. Although the PI controller is tuned to give an optimum response at this
rated condition, the fuzzy controller yielded better performances in terms of faster response
time and lower starting current. Fig. 4.4(a) and 4.5(a) shows the speed responses of the drive
system using the PI and FLC, respectively, with a step change in the reference speed [31]
[32].
It is evident from Fig. 4.4(a) and 4.5(a) that the proposed FLC-based IM drive system can
follow the command speed without any overshoot and steady-state error. Thus, the FLC-
based drive system is not affected by the sudden change of the command speed. Thus, a good
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tracking has been achieved for the FLC, whereas the PI-controller-based drive system is
affected with the sudden change in command speed [30].
4.3.2 Comparison of fuzzy and P-I controller during step change in load torque
Fig. [4.6] and [4.7] show the speed responses for step change in the load torque using the PI
and fuzzy controller, respectively.
The motor starts from standstill at load torque = 2 N.ms and, at t =0.3 s, a sudden full load of
200 Nms is applied to the system controlled by fuzzy controller but because the time taken by
the P-I controlled system to achieve steady state is much higher than fuzzy controlled system,
so the step change in load torque is applied at t = 1.25 sec. Maximum torque in the range of
1100 N-m.
The motor speed follows its reference with zero steady-state error and a fast response using a
fuzzy controller. On the other hand, the PI controller shows steady-state error with a high
starting current. It is to be noted that the speed response is affected by the load conditions.
This is the drawback of a PI controller with varying operating conditions. It is to be noted that
the fuzzy controller gives better responses in terms of over- shoot, steady-state error, and fast
response.
These figures also show that the FLC-based drive system can handle the sudden increase in
command speed quickly without overshoot, under- shoot, and steady-state error, whereas the
PI-controller-based drive system has steady-state error and the response is not as fast as
compared to the FLC. Thus, the proposed FLC-based drive has been found superior to the
conventional PI-controller-based system [25][32].
Fig [4.6(a)] Speed time characteristics during step change in load torque at t = 1.25 sec.
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Fig [4.6(b)] Torque characteristics during step change in load torque at t = 1.25 sec.
Fig [4.6(c)] Iabc characteristics during step change in load torque at t = 1.25 sec.
Fig [4.7(a)] Speed time characteristics during step change in load torque at t = 0.3 sec.
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Fig [4.7(b)] Torque characteristics during step change in load torque at t = 0.3 sec.
Fig [4.7(c)] Error characteristics during step change in load torque at t = 0.3 sec.
Fig [4.7(d)] CE characteristics during step change in load torque at t = 0.3 sec.
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Fig [4.7(e)] Vab characteristics during step change in load torque at t = 0.3 sec.
Fig [4.7(f)] Iabc characteristics during step change in load torque at t = 0.3 sec.
Fig [4.7(g)] Iq characteristics during step change in load torque at t = 0.3 sec.
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4.4 Conclusion
It is concluded from the above simulation that the speed responses for step change in the load
torque is better using fuzzy controller over PI control. The motor starts from standstill
without load and, at t=0.3 sec, a sudden full load is applied. The motor speed follows its
reference with zero steady-state error and a fast response using a fuzzy controller is obtained.
On the other hand, the PI controller shows steady-state error with a high starting current. It is
to be noted that the speed response is affected by the load conditions. This is the drawback of
a PI controller with varying operating conditions [30][31].
\
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CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
This thesis has considered control of an induction motor drive using fuzzy logic based
controller. This chapter briefly summarizes the main contributions and presents suggestions
for future work.
5.1 Conclusion Final Thoughts
Indirect Vector control is supposed to be one of the best controllers for driving any induction
motor. Its main principle have been introduced and deeply explained. It is also demonstrate in
this thesis that the method of indirect vector control also allows the independent and
decoupled control of motor torque and motor stator flux
This report gives a review of three branches of artificial intelligence, i.e., Expert System,
Fuzzy Logic and Neural Network. Though there are conventional controller but a
system/plant is like a black box where we dont know about its different parameter. There it
is very difficult to obtain robust and fine control. Second major issue is the non-linearity of
the system as system parameters are changing due to some sudden change in the load value or
due to some disturbance and traditional control schemes, which operate with large
uncertainty, typically depend on human intervention to function properly. However, human
intervention is unacceptable in many real time applications. There these conventional
controllers gives sluggish response and system will easily prone to instability. Therefore
automatic techniques for handling such uncertainty must be developed. It means control
should be such type that can be implemented in a highly non-linear environment where
conventional control are not good, without much mathematical or parameter information of
the system/plant and also capable to give better transient response for some change.
This we can achieve by implementing Intelligent Techniques with power electronics and
motor drives area. An intelligent or self-organizing control system can identify the model, if
necessary, and give predicated performance even with the wide range of parameter variation.
The recent availability of powerful computers, digital simulation tolls, micro-controllers,
digital signal processors are making the intelligent control and estimation more promising for
application to power electronics and drive system.
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The frontier of power electronics and motion control, which is already so complex and
interdisciplinary, will be definitely extended far and wide by the Artificial Intelligent
Techniques, and will provide a great challenge in the area of Robotics, Converters, Inverters
and also to the community of power engineer.
5.2 Future Development
All further work is summarized schematically in the following ideas:
1. Development of new fuzzy controllers to achieve better performance. The new fuzzy
controller should, at least, take into account the following ideas:
Develop a completely auto adaptive controller
The controller must be adaptive to any motor
Try to overcome the electrical noise, which appears in any power drive.
2. Study the torque ripple reduction not only with fuzzy modulators but also with
multilevel
converters.
3. Find optimum controllers, not only for torque ripple reductions, but also for reducing
EMI and for increasing energy saving from the mains.
4. Quantify the real saving of power obtained from the optimized stator flux reference
value.
5. Study and apply different fuzzy logic vector control schemes, not only to induction
motors as it has been done in the present thesis, but also to any electrical motor.
Future work includes developing an adaptive fuzzy control to increase the reliability and
robustness plus identify the onset of detuning.

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