PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 3 - RELATIONSHIPS

THE FORMATION OF ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS

REWARD/NEED SATISFACTION THEORY

BYRNE & CLORE 1970
We are attracted to people who we find satisfying/gratifying to be with. Most stimuli in our lives can be viewed as being rewarding or punishing in some way. The sort of thing we find rewarding tend to reflect our unmet needs (e.g. the need for company, financial security, attractive partner) Mutual attraction occurs when each partner meets the other persons needs. REWARD/PUNSIHMENT - Rewarding stimuli produce positive feelings in us (make us happy) & punishing stimuli lead to negative feelings (unhappy) According to the principals of operant conditioning we are likely to repeat any behaviour that leads to a desirable outcome and avoid any that doesnt. BYRNE & CLORES theory therefore suggest that we enter into relationships because the presence of some individuals is directly associated with reinforcements which makes them more attractive to us. ATTRACTION THROUGH ASSOCIATION - We are attracted to people who are associated with pleasant events. They acquire positive value because of their association with something else that makes us happy. (classical conditioning) A relationship is likely to succeed when the positive feelings outweigh the negative feelings and likely to fail when negative outweigh the positive.

SIMILARITY THEORY
BYRNE, CLORE & SMEATON 1986
The essence of this view is that similarity promotes liking. According to this model, we first sort potential partners for dissimilarity, avoiding those whose personality/attitude is different from ours. Then from those remaining, we can then choose the ones who are most similar to ourselves. We are therefore, more likely to form relationships with people similar to ourselves. PERSONALITY: We are more likely to be attracted to others who have similar rather than dissimilar or complementary personality traits. (e.g. 2 people who are serious and hardworking are more likely to be attracted to each other than a serious, hardworking person and someone whose main interest are having fun and avoiding responsibility. Of course this isnt always the case) However, research suggests that similarity is more often the rule, particularly in long-term relationships. Caspi & Herbener (1990) found that married couples with similar personalities tend to be happier than couples with less similar personalities ATTITUDE: If partners attitudes towards important issues differ, the process of attitude alignments may occur, as one or both partners modify their attitudes to produce similarity. RESEARCH SUPPORT: Pairs selected based on attitudes; similar attitudes & dissimilar attitudes, the pairs went on a date Results: Highly similar pairs were more attracted to each other than dissimilar pairs

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OTHER FACTORS:

PROXIMITY Physical closeness we are social animals and need to be with others (affiliation) More likely to meet, so more likely to form a relationship. The more often people are exposed to an object, the more positively they evaluate that object: Humans like familiar things, they make us feel safe and happy which is rewarding. EXPOSURE/FAMILIARITY Proximity increases possibility of interaction (exposure) which leads to familiarity. We like familiar things and find them rewarding. Moreland & Beach, 4 women attended classes, 0, 5, 10 and 15 times. More classes she attended=more favourable her ratings. PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS According to the attractiveness stereotype (Dion et al 1972) we think attractive looking people have more attractive personalities, and we are rewarded with kudos of being with an attractive person. Teachers judge attractive students as more intelligent than unattractive students (Clifford & Walster, 1973),

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RESEARCH: (IDA) CULTURAL SIMILARITIES - Rosenbaum (1986) RESEARCH SUPPORT: R/NST - VEITCH & GRIFFITT 1976 Placed participants in a waiting room where they listened to either good or bad news with a stranger present. When they were asked to rate the Suggested that dissimilarity rather than similarity was the more important factor in determining whether a relationship will form. This dissimilarity-repulsion hypothesis stranger the degree of liking was related to the kind of news they has been listening to. has been tested in a number of cultures, e.g. Singh & Tan (1992) in Singapore, and Drigotas (1993) in the USA. These studies established that the participants were first RESEARCH SUPPORT: Attraction through association: GRIFFITT & GUAY attracted to each other because of similarity of attitudes, and that, as they got to Participants had to say how much they liked an onlooker. The onlooker was rated more highly in the condition where the performance of the know each other better, those who discovered more dissimilarities than similarities participant has been positively evaluated by the experimenter. In fact, participants rated both individuals (experimenter & onlooker) the same. became less attracted to each other.

CULTURAL/INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES (IDA) : The theory doesnt account for cultural and gender differences in the formation of relationships, suggesting that it is not a universal explanation of the formation of relationships. Lott (1994) suggests that in many cultures women are more focused on the needs of others rather than receiving reinforcement. MUNDANE REALISM: Most of the studies carried out in this area are laboratory studies, and therefore do not necessarily show that the principles of need satisfaction and similarity apply to real life. It does not account for unrewarding relationships and explaining why some individuals choose to stay or are attracted to those. Caspi & Herbener 1990 - However, some studies have been conducted on real-life couples, and have tended to support these claims The theory has face validity: is supported by everyday experiences i.e. happy, warm people with a good sense of humour have more friends. Accounts for research findings: The theory explains why factors such as proximity, similarity and physical attractiveness are important factors.

PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 3 - RELATIONSHIPS

THE MAINTENANCE OF ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS

SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY

THAIBAUT & KELLEY 1959

EQUITY THEORY
WALSTER ET AL 1978

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PROFIT & LOSS - Individuals attempt to maximise their rewards and minimise their costs. In our society, people
exchange resources with the expectation (or at least the hope) that they will earn a profit. Rewards include: being cared for, companionship and sex. Costs may include: effort, financial investment and time wasted. Commitment to a relationship is dependent on its profitability, with less profitable relationships being more vulnerable to termination.

INEQUITY & DISTRESS People strive to achieve fairness in relationships and feel
distressed if they perceive unfairness. Inequitable relationships exist when a person perceives that they ; give a great deal in a relationship and get little in return and receive a great deal and give little in return. Both are inequitable relationships and would leave them feeling dissatisfied. The greater the inequity the greater the dissatisfaction

COMPARISON LEVEL - which involves comparing the current relationship with a general expectation of how rewarding
relationships are. It is the product of experiences in previous relationships plus expectations of current relationships. If potential profit from new relationship exceeds our CL, the relationship will be judged as worthwhile and the person will be seen as attractive. If final result is negative (profit less than CL) the person seems less attractive.

RATIO OF INPUT & OUTPUT An equitable relationship is one where one partners
benefits minus their costs equals the other partners benefits minus their costs. Perception of inequality in a relationship motivates a person to try to restore it (e.g. by changing perceptions to relative inputs and outputs) or end the relationship.

Comparison level for alternatives (CLAlt) is where the person weighs up a potential increase in rewards from a
different partner, minus any costs associated with ending the current relationship.

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RESEARCH EXCHANGE RUSBULT & MARTZ (IDA), REAL WORLD APPLICATION explained why some people stay in abusive relationships. They argue than when investments are high (e.g. children, financial security) and alternatives are low (e.g. nowhere to live, no money) this might be considered a profit situation and so the woman might choose to stay in the relationship. RESERACH SUPPORT COMPARISON LEVEL SIMPSON ET AL. asked participants to rate members of the opposite sex in terms of attractiveness; those participants who gave lower ratings were already in a relationship. MAIN CRITICISM concerns the selfish nature of the theory, i.e. the claim that people are only motivated to maintain relationships out of selfish concerns. It is possible that the principles of social exchange theory apply only in individualists cultures, which are characterised more by individual concerns CULTURAL BIAS MOGHADDAM 1998, IDA - Argues that such economic theories only apply to western relationships. The more short term a relationship is the more relevance in being concerned with give and take. Long term relationships however, more likely to value security over profit! Suggests that SET doesnt represent a universal explanation of relationship maintenance. Theory doesnt explain why people leave relationships despite having no alternative, nor does it suggest how great the disparity in CL has to be for it to become unacceptable.

RESEARCH SUPPORT: STAFFORD & CANARY 2006 - Asked over 200 couples to complete questionnaire measuring relationship satisfaction. Satisfaction highest = couples who perceived their relationship as equitable. Followed by over benefited partners and lowest for under benefited. RESERACH SUPPORT HATFIELD 1972 - Interviewed over 500 students about equity in their relationships. Three months later the inequitable relationships were more likely to have ended. CLARK & MILLS argue that a concern for equity may only characterise relationships between colleagues or business associates rather than relationships between friends or lovers. They claim that romantic relationships are governed by a desire to respond to the needs of the partner rather than about any concerns of equity. GENDER DIFFERENCES- STEIL & WELTMAN (IDA) studied married working couples. Found that the woman generally rated their husbands careers as more important than their own. They concluded that because women tend to seek less for themselves in a relationship, this makes equity a less relevant explanation of relationship satisfaction in real-life relationships. Therefore, it challenges the universality of equity as a determinant of relationship satisfaction.

Argyle (1987) challenged this theory by saying that people only monitor this cost and reward system after they become dissatisfied with the relationship.

PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 3 - RELATIONSHIPS

RELATIONSHIP BREAKDOWN

REASONS FOR RELATIONSHIP BREAKDOWN DUCK 1999 3 MAIN REASONS FOR RELATIONSHIP BREAKDOWN
1. LACK OF SKILLS Some people lack interpersonal skills to make relationships mutually satisfying. These include being poor conversationalist and poor at indicating interests in others. Others then find them unrewarding because it leads your partner to perceive you as not being interested in maintaining the relationship and so the relationship breaks down. dissatisfied.

MODEL OF BREAKDOWN DUCK & ROLLIE 2006

BREAKDOWN One of the partners becomes distressed with the way the relationship is conducted and so they are INTRAPSYCHIC PROCESSES Characterised by brooding focus on the relationship. There is a social withdraw and

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some resentment. Nothing is said to the other partner, although the dissatisfied partner may express their dissatisfaction in other ways, e.g. diary, show lack of interest in sex. They think about the relationship and what they are dissatisfied with & consider the costs of ending the relationship, and the possible rewards. & possible alternative partners. 2. LACK OF STIMULATION DYDADIC PROCESSES People confront their partners and discuss their feelings and the future. Reassessment of goals There is evidence that boredom or belief that the relationship is not going anywhere is often the and commitments. At this stage the relationship may be saved. reason used when breaking up (Baxter 1994). SOCIAL PROCESSES going public as dissatisfaction spills over to third parties such as friends and family. Others may People expect relationships to develop and grow and when they do not this is enough cause to take sides, offer advice and support, or may help in mending any disputes between the 2 sides. The involvement of break it off. others may even speed the partners towards dissolution through revelations about 1 or other of the partners. 3. MAINTENANCE DIFFICULTIES GRAVE-DRESSING PROCESSES Partner construct a representation of the failed relationship that avoids putting them Although enduring romantic relationships can survive the strain of long distance relationships, in an unfavourable light. Tidying up memories. Both partners reflect on what happened, who was to blame, and decide evidence has dominantly shown that distance can put a strain on relationships (Shaver et al., 1985) on how they wish to view and communicate the reasons for the breakup to other people. Different people may be given Some circumstances (e.g. going away for university) make maintenance of relationships difficult to different versions of what happened in an attempt to gain sympathy and support, and to save face. manage because partners dont see each other often. This places a strain on relationships, which RESURRECTION PROCESSES -At this stage both partners start to prepare themselves for new relationships. They may may be responsible for their break-up. redefine themselves. They may also build on the mistakes that have been made in the previous relationship. They may also review the sort of relationship they want in the future. Partners attempt to re-establish their own individual sense of identity and self- esteem

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RSEARCH SUPPORT: BOEKHOUT ET AL. 1999 Found that extramarital affairs were typically a direct reaction to a perceived lack of skills and/or stimulation in the existing relationship. They asked undergraduates to rate various sexual & emotional reasons for men and women to be unfaithful in a committed relationship. They judged sexual boredom and the need for excitement as the main reasons for infidelity among males, and lack of attention and emotional dissatisfaction as the main reasons for infidelity among females. ROHLFING 1995 MAINTENANCE DIFFICULTIES Long distant romantic relationships (LDRR) & long-distance friendships (LDF) are more common than we think. One study found that 70% of students sampled had experienced at least 1 LDRR and 90% said they had experienced 1 LDF HOLT & STONE 1988 MAINTENANCE DIFFICULTIES Despite this long distant relationships are increasingly common in our society. They found there was little decrease in relationship satisfaction provided that lovers are able to reunite regularly. This suggests that people use different management strategies to successfully maintain long-distance relationships IDA REAL WORLD APPLICATION - The importance of social skills deficits in relationship breakdown has led to the development of training programmes to enhance relationship skills. Cina et al, compared couples who had had received relationship skill training with those who did not. The trained couples later reported much higher marital quality compared to couples in the control group.

ROLLIE & DUCKS model is supported by observations of real-life break-ups. GENDER DIFFERENCES Women are more likely to stress unhappiness and incompatibility as reasons for dissolution (BREHM & KASSIN) Men are more likely to cite sexual withholding RESERACH SUPPORT TASHIRO & FRAZIER surveyed undergraduates who have recently broken up with a romantic partner. They typically reported that they experienced emotional distress and personal growth. Breaking up with their partner had given them insights to themselves and a clever idea about future partners (resurrection process) MODEL IS IMPORTANT because it emphasises the value of communication in relationship breakdown. Paying attention to what people say and the ways in which they talk about their relationship gives a clue as to the stage they are at and therefore appropriate repair strategies that might be employed. ETHICAL ISSUES (IDA) Carrying out research in such a sensitive area raises significant ethical issues because participants may experience distress when revisiting the issues that led to the breakdown. This means the researcher faces the dilemma of pursing valuable information or terminating a study to prevent the participant experiencing further distress. HETREOSEXUAL BIAS (IDA) Models of relationships tend to be developed from the experience of white, middleclass, heterosexual participants, which may not represent the experience of other groups.

PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 3 - RELATIONSHIPS

SEXUAL SELECTION

INTER/INTRA SEXUAL SELECTION

NATURAL SELECTION = survival of the fittest
The gradual process by which individuals with characteristics that are most suited to the environment are more likely to survive and reproduce The genes that allowed the individuals to be successful are passed onto the offspring in the next generation.

SHORT-TERM MATING PREFERENCES

PARENTAL INVESTMENT
This theory claims that men evolved a greater desire for casual sex and would ideally seek sex earlier in a relationship. Female behaviour would not be subjected to the same evolutionary pressures. In contrast, to women, men appear to lower their standards in the context of short-term mating opportunities and show a marked decreases in attraction following sex (Buss) GENDER BIAS (IDA) PI theory predicts that men are more likely to have a preference for casual sex, GRELING & BUSS suggest that women may profit from short-term mating as a way of leaving a poor quality relationship or to produce more genetically diverse offspring

LONG-TERM MATING PREFERENCES

SEXUAL SELECTION should favour high levels of choosiness in BOTH sexes. Poor mate
choices is disadvantageous for both sexes who will have wasted valuable resources, but is particularly disastrous (unsuccessful/tragic) for women. WOMEN have an obligatory biological investment in their children, therefore are predicted to be very particular in heir choice of mate. Therefore women are attracted to men who: Are able to invest resources in her and any offspring Are able to protect her and any offspring Show promise as a good parent Are sufficiently compatible to ensure minimal costs to her and the offspring MEN are attracted to women who display signals of fertility, an indication of their reproductive value (e.g. youth and physical attractiveness)

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SEXUAL SELECTION = survival of the sexiest

Sexual selection is the process by which characteristics are selected because they attract the opposite sex. It is the selection of characteristics that increase mating success. These genes are passed on to offspring.

INTRASEXUAL SELECTION Members of one sex (usually males)

compete with other members of their own sex for access to members of the opposite sex (mate competition) Whatever traits lead to success in this competition will be passed on to the next generation.

INTERSEXUAL SELECTION Members of one sex (usually

females) show preferences for members of the opposite sex who possess certain characteristics (mate choice). These indicate the chances of the mate being able to give protection and support to offspring which makes them more attractive as a potential mate.

WAYNFORTH 2005 - Women were found to prefer men with a square jaw, ridged eyebrows, small eyes and a symmetrical face. BRICE & YOUNG (1998) - found that both sexes prefer symmetrical faces

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A NON-EVOLUNTIONRY EXPLANATION (IDA) Some critics reject sexual selection as an explanation for male preferences for younger women. An alternative explanation is based on social power; younger women are easier to control and therefore preferred as mates. KENRICK ET AL. rejected the claim that males consistently prefer younger women, finding that teenage males are most attracted to women that were actually five years older than them, even though the older woman show no interest in them REAL-WORLD APPLICATION (IDA) Many of the studies carried out in this area have been restricted to expressed mate preferences rather than real-life mate choice. BUSS 1989 Support from other research Buss (1989) studied actual marriages in 29 different cultures and found that men do choose younger women and that a man who divorced and remarried tended to choose a younger woman.

RESEARCH SUPPORT CLARK & HATFIELD Study to investigate differences in reproductive behaviour between men and women. Strangers on university campus approached by attractive experimenters and asked a series of questions (date/apartment/sex) Females agreed = 0 % Males agreed = 75 % RESEARCH SUPPORT BUSS & SCHMIDT Men appear to lower their standards in the context of short term mating success and then show a marked decrease in attraction following sex an evolved adaptation to bring about a hasty departure which prevents them spending too long with one woman.

RESEARCH SUPPORT BUSS I989 Explored mate preferences among males/females. Involved over 10,000 people from 37 different cultures, including a wide diversity of ethnic, religious, political & economic groups. Found: Women more than men desired mates who were good financial prospects (i.e. had resources & ambition) Men placed more importance on physical attractiveness in a mate because it provides wealthy cues to a womans fertility & reproductive value Men wanted mates who were younger, an indication that men value increased fertility in potential mates Both sexes valued intelligence in potential mates (linked to parenting skills), kindness & dependability. EVALUTION OF BUSS RESEARCH VALIDITY - the study indicates preferences rather than being a true reflection of real life. For example other people such as our friends and families can influence our choice of partner. SAMPLING Buss was criticised for misrepresenting rural and less educated individuals and the sampling methods to gain participants varied across cultures.

PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 3 - RELATIONSHIPS

PARENTAL INVSTMENT

SEX DIFFERENCES IN PARENTAL INVESTMENT

PARENTAL INVESTMENT - any investment by the parent in an individual offspring that increases the offsprings chance of surviving (and hence reproductive success) at the cost of the parents ability to invest in other offspring. (TRIVERS, 1972) PI includes the provision of resources (such as food, energy and time used in obtaining food and maintaining the home and territory), time spent teaching offspring, and risks taken to protect young. SEX DIFFERENCES Males can opt out of parental investment in a way that females cant. The investment made by females is much greater than that made by males.

MATERNAL INVESTMENT

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WHY DO FEMALES INVEST MORE? - Due to adaptive responses over time, brain size has increased (big headed babies). To compensate for this, childbirth in human occurs prematurely in comparison to most mammals. Therefore, human babies are more immature at birth than others mammals. Therefore the mother not only carries the baby for 9 months but also must breastfeed and care for the baby after. Resulting in prolonged care, both pre-natal and post-natal. COST OF MATERNAL INVESTMENT - The cost of childcare are especially high for females. Females = 9 months + labor + breastfeeding + years of additional care, making random mating more costly for them. Males = a few minutes of copulation and a teaspoon of semen (Symons, 1979)

PATERNAL INVESTMENT
MALES INVEST LESS The minimum obligatory investment made by human males is considerably less than females. A woman can produce only a limited number of offspring, whereas a male can potentially father an unlimited number of offspring. Females must carry the developing embryo inside them for nine months, whereas males can walk away after conception. PARENTAL INVESTMENT & CUCKOLDRY When males do invest parentally (time & resources) they are threatened by the concept of cuckoldry. Because human males invest considerably in their children they have a greater concern about their female partners cheating (Miler, 1998). Therefore they take extra care to ensure that they are not investing in offspring that is not their own. SEXUAL & EMOTIONAL JEALOUSY Men are likely to be jealous of sexual infidelity while woman are more likely to be jealous of emotional infidelity.

LOGIC OF SEXUAL SELECTION Being choosy requires time and energy, and the costs of mate choice can even impair survival in some cases. The rationale behind sexual selection is that random mating is essentially stupid mating. It pays to be choosy, as the genetic quality of a mate will determine half the genetic quality of any offspring. Low-quality mate (e.g. unattractive, un healthy) will be more likely to produce unattractive, unhealthy offspring. By joining forces with an attractive, high-quality mate, and offspring are higher quality an individuals genes are more likely to be passed on. The implication is that males should be unwilling to invest resources in offspring that are not their own. However a study by ANDERSON ET AL. challenges this. They found that men didnt discriminate financially between children born in to the current partner in a previous relationship and their own. It is possible that men would invest in their stepchildren to convince their partner that they are a good provider in order to promote future mating possibilities.

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SEXUAL & EMOTIONAL JEALOUSY - BUSS ET AL Found that when asked to imagine scenes of sexual or emotion infidelity involving their partner, males showed much higher physiological responses (e.g. increase in heart rate & EMG response) for sexual rather than the woman who showed higher responses for emotional.

How do evolutionary psychologists explain maternal neonaticide? More tricky still for evolutionary theory to explain is the case of the woman who kills her new-born baby (neonaticide). According to Pinker (1997), when such an act takes place in conditions of poverty, it could be regarded as an adaptationist response. The psychological module that normally induces protectiveness in mothers in their new-borns is switched off by the challenge of an impoverished environment. This means that both killing and protecting are explained by evolutionary selection. As Hilary Rose (2000) says, this explains everything and, therefore, nothing.

PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 3 - RELATIONSHIPS

THE INFLUENCE OF CHILDHOOD ON ADULT RELATIONSHIPS

PARENT CHILD RELATIONSHIP

ATTACHMENT, CAREGIVING & SEXUALITY SHAVER ET AL. (1988) claimed that what we experience as romantic love in adulthood is an integration of 3 behavioural
systems acquired in infancy attachment, care-giving & sexuality. ATTACHMENT The attachment system is related to the concept of the internal working model. Bowlby 1969 claimed that later relationships are a continuation of early attachment styles (secure or insecure) because the behaviour of the infants primary attachment figure promotes an internal working model of relationships which leads the infant to expect the same in later relationships. In some extreme cases a childs internal working model leads them to develop an attachment disorder. CARE-GIVING - The care giving system is knowledge about how one cares for others, based on the monotropic bond, learned by modelling the behaviour of the primary attachment figure. This is then reflected in their own behaviour as adults. SEXUALITY - The sexuality system is also a result of early attachments. In particular, attachment styles. For e.g. if you suffered form an avoidant attachment you are likely to hold the view that sex without love is pleasurable.

INTERACTION WITH PEERS

CHILDHOOD FRIENDSHIPS
QUALTER & MUNN 2005 found that children also learn from experiences with other children. This determines how the child thinks about him/herself. Through these interactions, children develop a sense of their own value, which determines how they approach adult relationships. The experience of having a friend to confide in promotes feelings of trust and acceptance, both important in adult relationships. NANGLE ET AL. (2003) Claim that childrens friendships are training grounds for important adult relationships. Close friendships are characterised by affection, a sense of alliance and intimacy, & the sharing of secrets & personal information. The experience of having a friend to confide in promotes feelings of trust, acceptance and a sense of being understood. These Characteristics are vital to adult relationships.

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EFFECTS OF CHILDHOOD ABUSE ON LATER RELATIONSHIPS ADOLESCENT RELATIONSHIPS PHYSICAL ABUSE in childhood has a number of negative effects on adult psychological functioning. These include increased rates Romantic relationships in adolescence help to redirect intense interpersonal energy away
of depression, anger & anxiety (SPRINGER ET AL) SEXUAL ABUSE in childhood is associated with psychological impairment in adulthood. Many victims have difficulties forming healthy adult relationships. Individuals who have experienced both forms of abuse develop a damaged ability to trust people and a sense of isolation from others (ALPERT ET AL), which inhibit the development of romantic attachments in adulthood. VAN DER KOLK & FISHER found that individuals who suffered childhood abuse were more likely to form disorganized attachments, which led to difficulty in regulating emotions. from parents and towards a romantic partner, and allow adolescents to experience an emotional and physical intimacy that is different from that experienced with parents. MADSEN some dating in adolescence is advantageous for adult relationship quality, but too much can be maladaptive.

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SIMPSON ET AL 2007 An ongoing longitudinal study spanning more than 25 years, 78 participants were studied at 4 key points - infancy, early childhood, adolescence and adulthood. Care-givers reported on their childrens attachment behavior at one year of age. At 6-8 years old, the childrens teachers were asked to rate how well the children interacted with their peers. At 16 years, participants were asked to describe their close friendship. As young adults, participants romantic partners were asked to describe their relationship experience. The findings of this study supported the claim that expression of emotions in adult romantic relationships can be related back to a persons attachment experiences during earlier social development. Researchers found that those participants that were Securely attached as infants were rated as having higher social competence as children. Children who were Socially competent at ages 6-8 were found to be closer to their friends at the age of 16. Those who were Closer to their friends at 16 were more emotionally expressive and attached to romantic partners RESEARCH SUPPORTS THE INFLUENCE OF CILDHOOD ABUSE ON ADULT RELATIONSHIPS BERENSON & ANDERSON They found that abused children have a difficult time developing adult relationships. Adult woman who were abused in childhood later displayed negative reactions towards people who reminded them of their abusive parents. This process of transference could lead individuals abused in childhood to use inappropriate behavioural patterns learned from their relationship with an abusive parent in subsequent interpersonal relationships. OTHER CAUSE - It is also possible that an individuals attachment type is caused by the current relationship, which is why happily married individuals tend to be securely attached. DETERMINISM IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ADULT RELATIONSHIPS (IDA) Research suggests that early experiences have a fixed effect on later adult relationships. However, researchers have found many examples where participants were experiencing happy adult relationships, despite not having been securely attached as infants. This suggests that an individuals past experiences do not determine the future course of their adult relationships

LINKS TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGICAL DISORDERS (IDA) Some children find any close relationship difficult. They may suffer from an attachment disorder, cause by early abuse or neglect. The resulting behaviour and emotions create a disturbed way of relating to others, which can interfere with subsequent adult relationships GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE NATURE OF PEER RELATIONSHIPS Research has demonstrated gender differences in childhood relationships. Richard & Schneider found that girls have more intimate friendships than boys. Other research (E.G ERWIN) has found hat boys relationships tend to be more competitive, a fact attributed to the greater emphasis on competitive play activities. In contrast, girls are more likely to engage in co-operative and sharing activities. HOWEVER ERWIN claims that sex differences in the experience of childhood relationships have been over-emphasised, and that the many similarities in male and female relationships in childhood tend to be overlooked. ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS IN ADOLSCENT CAN HAVE NEGATIVE EFFECTS HAYNIE: found that romantic involvement increased deviance in adolescents by as much as 35% and NEEMAN ET AL found negative effects on academic achievement.

PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 3 - RELATIONSHIPS

RELATIONSHIPS IN DIFFERENT CULTURES

WERSTERN & NON WESTERN RELATIONSHIPS

Hofstede (1984) carried out a longitudinal study in 50 countries and found that differences between countries could be accounted for based on; Individualist vs. Collectivist AND Voluntary vs. Involuntary

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VOLUNTARY OR NON VOLUNTARY RELATIONSHIPS

Western cultures are predominantly urban, ensuring relatively easy social and geographical mobility, and therefore interaction with a large number of people. This leads to a high degree of choice over whom people interact with on a voluntary basis as they have a greater pool of potential relationships. Non-Western cultures lack these urban setting, therefore people have less social and geographical mobility, and people therefore have less choice about whom they interact with on a daily basis.

INDIVIDUALIST OR COLLECTIVIST (group-based)

Attitudes in individualist cultures, is where they place great importance on the rights and freedom of the individual, with individual happiness and pleasure seen as fundamentally important. Their interests are more highly regarded than group goals or interests, are consistent with the formation of relationships based on freedom of choice, whereas collectivist cultures leads to relationships that may have more to do with the concerns of the family or group. Collectivist cultures are encouraged to be interdependent rather than independent.

MPORTANCE OF LOVE LEVINE ET AL compared 11 cultures using a questionnaire & found that a higher proportion of respondents from collectivist cultures than individualist cultures were willing to marry in the absence of love. This suggests that love is seen as a comparative luxury in collectivist cultures. CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN LONLINESS SEEPERSAD ET AL suggest that, compared to young adults in non-Western cultures, young adults in Western cultures would experience a greater degree of loneliness because of their high desire for romantic relationships. A strong emphasis on the importance of romantic relationships in Western cul tures may amplify individuals feelings of loneliness. SEEPERSAAD ET ALs study found that Koran students relied on family to satisfy their social network needs, whereas US students relied more on friends & significant others.

RESEARCH

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EPSTEIN found that in societies with reduced mobility, non-voluntary (arranged) marriages seem to work well, with low divorce rates and surprisingly high levels of love between the partners. MYERS ET AL. found no difference in marital satisfaction between Indian couples in arranged marriages and non-arranged marriages in the USA XIAOHE & WHYTE - found that women who had married for love were happier than women who were in arranged marriages. EVOLUNTIONARY EXPLANATIONS FOR UNIVERSAL LOVE (IDA) PINKER claims romantic love is a human universal that evolved to promote survival and reproduction among humans. JANKOWIAK & FISHER support this claim with their finding that romantic love existed in 90% of the 166 non-Western cultures they studied. LEVINE 1995 - Found a correlation between a cultures individualism and the perceived necessity of love for the establishment of marriage. In other words, the more individualistic the country, the more important love was perceived. These results may be due to the fact that arranged marriages are more common in collectivist cultures and so love is seen as less important than social status or family compatibility. VENKATARAMAIAH & SRINIVASULU 1992 - Compared preferences for arranged or love marriage in female Indian students from professional and non-professional backgrounds Both groups were happy with the idea of arranged marriages if the couples were giving their consent and or the parents approved of the choice. This shows the importance placed on the approval of the family in India which is a collectivist culture. GUPTA & SINGH - They investigated the amount of love in Indian marriages, half of which had been arranged, comparing these feelings in short term and long term marriages. They found that initially love in arranged marriages was lower than that in love marriages. However, love increased in arranged marriages and steadily declined in love marriages until marriages which had been together for ten years. After this, there was no difference in levels of love.

Much of cross cultural research is time-sensitive. SOCIAL CHANGE - Social changes such as the internet mentioned may be having a great effect on people, allowing individuals to be exposed to other ways of life, leading to cross cultural contamination. OUTDATED - Research carried out 20 years ago may already be out of date. Even within our own western culture, attitudes towards sex, sexuality and relationships have altered drastically within the last few decades. INDIVIDUALIST/COLELCTIVIST - A lot of cross cultural research has focused on the differences between individualistic and collectivist cultures. However it has been argued that such a distinction is artificial, and that some cultures can have elements of both. In so called individualistic cultures for example, there can still be social pressure which influences choice of marriage partner. METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES Research into cultural differences in relationships may be limited by the research method adopted. If any aspect of the methodology is interpreted differently in one culture than in another , than this creates a cultural bias that can invalidate any conclusions from a cross-cultural study. E.g. measures of love in Western cultures might not be valid in others INDOGENOUS PSYCHOLOGIES Kim & Berry, 1993 suggest that we should aim to develop more explanations and research methods that are not transported from other cultures and that are designed for one specific culture. This means that we could then study aspects of relationships that are seen as important/meaningful in one culture rather than imposing aspects from our own culture.

PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 3 - RELATIONSHIPS