Small-signal stability

1. It is the ability of P.S. networks to maintain synchronism when subjected to small disturbances. 2. It utilizes linearized analysis of dynamical system around an equilibrium operating point. Fundamental Concepts A dynamical system can be described by set of first order differential equations (in state space form as)
x = f ( X ,U , t )

For autonomous system

X = f ( X ,U )

(1)

along with output equations Y=g(X,U) Where X= [x1 , xn ]t are state variables Y= [ y1 ym ]T are the output variables, and U= f ( X 0 ) = 0 the control variables vectors At equilibrium or singular point
X = f (Xo) = 0

(2)

Linearized Analysis For a small disturbance(resulting in change in variables as X, Y, U), the system equations can be written in linearized form as, X =A X + C U Y = O X + F U
.

(3) (4)

Where , g g f f A=[ ], C = [ ],O=[ ] and F=[ ] U X X U All the derivatives are calculated at the initial equilibrium operating point. In the above linearized equations, A is the state or plant matrix. C is the control or input matrix. O is the output matrix. F is the feedforward matrix. It can be shown that the closed loop poles of the above system are the roots of the characteristic equation, det ( s I - A) = 0 These roots are called as the Eigen values of the state matrix A. (5)

EIGENVALUE ANALYSIS The eigen values (=1, 2......, n) of the state matrix A of size nxn can be obtained by finding the roots of the characteristic equation det ( A - I) = 0 (6) By looking at the eigenvalues i = i j i (which are given by the roots of the characteristic equation of system state matrix A) following conclusions on small -signal stability can be made, Properties of Eigenvalues 1. When all the eigenvalues have negative real parts, the system is asymptotically stable.

2. 3.

When at least one eigenvalue has positive real part, original system is unstable. When all the eigenvalues have negative real part except one complex pair having purely imaginary ( j values, system exhibits oscillatory motion. For a second order system
= n j n 1
2

Note:

(7)

= j where
= damping ratio n = Natural or undamped freq. Of osc. = Damped freq.of osc.

The damping ratio is given by:

= +2
2

(8)

The damping ratio determines the rate of decay of the amplitude of the oscillation.

Eigenvectors Associated with each eigenvalues, there are two eigen vectors known as 'Right eigen vector' and 'Left eigen vector'. Right eigenvector(REV) i ( n -column vector) associated with an eigenvalue i must satisfy the condition: Ai = i i i =
1i 2i ni

(9)

REV matrix is defined as = [1, 2,......., n] Left eigenvector (LEV) i (n-row vector) associated with the eigenvalue must satisfy the condition: i A = i i i i = [ i1, i2, ......, in] (10)

LEV matrix is defined as = [1, 2,......., n]T The above matrices are orthogonal matrices and are said to be in normalized form if . = . = I ( Identity Matrix). Participation factors Participation factors Pki are determined as, (11) Pki= ki ik where, ki is the element of k-th row and i- th column of the REV matrix (kth entry of REV i). ki measures the activity of xk in the i-th mode. ik is the element of i-th row and k- th column of the LEV matrix (k-th entry of LEV i). ik weighs the contribution of the activity of xk in the i-th mode. Pki is a measure of the relative participation of the k-th state variable(xk) in the i-th mode of oscillation (i). Participation matrix is defined as P= [ P1, P2.....,Pn] , where Pi = [P1i, P2i,...Pni]T

Single Machine Infinite Bus (Classical Model)

Swing equation (considering damping)
H d 2 + K D r = (Tm Te ) puTorque f dt 2

(12)

Linearizing the equation (12), we get

d r K D Ks + r + . = 0 dt 2 .H 2 .H

(13) (14)

and,

d = 0. r dt

Figure-1: Linearized model of a Syn. Machine Ks = synchronizing torque coefficient in pu torque/rad KD = damping torque coefficient in pu torque/pu speed deviation H = p.u. intertia constant in MW-.s/MVA r = speed deviation in pu = ( r 0 ) / 0 = rotor angle deviation in elec. Rad s = Laplace operator 0 = rated speed in elec.rad/s = 2f 0 = 314 or 377 for a 50 or 60 Hz systems, respectively The above gives a characteristic equation of second order with two eigen values and having Undamped natural frequency as
=
Ks

0
2H

rad/s

(15)

and the damping ratio as

=
1 KD 2 2 H n

(16)

KD 1 2 K s 2 H 0

As the synchronizing torque coefficient Ks increases, the natural frequency increases and the damping ratio decreases. An increase in damping torque coefficient KD increases the damping ratio, whereas and increase in inertia constant decreases both r and .

Detailed Linearized Model of SMIB System ( Heffron & Philips Model)

1. The linear model is derived considering the mechanical dynamics and one axis flux decay dynamics of synchronous generator. 2. The model employs six constants K1 to K6 to relate various quantities with rotor angle deviation () and air gap flux linkage deviation (fd) as, Te(s) = K1. (s) + K2. fd(s)
K3 fd ( s ) = .( E fd ( s ) K 4.. ) 1 + sT 3

(17) (18) (19)

Et(s) = K5. (s) + K6. fd(s)

Fig. Detailed linear model - SMIB system with Exciter (Ref. Kundur's book) In this model all constants assume positive value except K 5 which may become negative causing the damping coefficient to be negative. This happens when the external system reactance is higher and/or generator output is high. (Note: To calculate K s and K D , find expression for is K s and imaginary part the K D ).
Pe (s = j ). The real part

POWER SYSTEM STABILIZER It helps adding damping to rotor oscillations through auxiliary signal to excitation circuit. To produce damping, the stabilizer must produce a component of electrical torque in phase with the rotor speed deviation. It has three main blocks. 1. Gain: It should be computed at the frequency of oscillations. And should be enough to make Damping Coefficient Positive. 2. Phase Compensation: It provides appropriate phase-lead to compensate for the phase lag between the exciter input and generator electrical (airgap) torque. In practice, two or more first order blocks may be used to achieve the desired phase lead. 3. Washout circuit or Reset block: It is a high pass filter which blocks the interference of P.S.S. during regular function of exciter during steady state operation. Its time constant is large. It allows P.S.S. to act only during small frequency oscillations.
Terminal voltage transducer + Exciter

Et

1 1 + sTR

V1

Gex

Efd

Gain

Washout

Lead compensation

KSTAB

V2 sTW 1 + sTW

1 + sT1 1 + sT 2

Vs

Figure Excitation system with AVR and PSS. (Note: Limiters are put at the output of PSS to limit its signal output)

Figure Block diagram representation with AVR and PSS

An Example ( Ref. Kundur's book chapter-12)

The system condition in per unit on 2220 MVA, 24kV bases is as follows : P = 0.9 Q = 0.3 (overexcited) Et = 1.0<36o Eb = 0.995 < 00.

The generators parameters expressed in per unit on 2220 MVA, 24 kV base:

' = 0.3 Xd

H = 3.5 MW-s/MVA

Results without PSS but with exciter:

For the system under consideration, Table below summarizes the effect of the AVR on Ks and KD at = 10 rad/s for different values of KA KA 0.0 10.0 15.0 25.0 50.0 100.0 200.0 Ks=K1+ K s ( fd ) 1.5885 1.5831 1.5817 1.5812 1.5839 1.6692 1.8714

K s ( fd ) -0.0025 -0.0079 -0.0093 -0.0098 0.0029 0.0782 0.2804

K D ( fd ) 1.772 0.614 0.024 -1.166 -4.090 -8.866 -12.272

Results with AVR and PSS, The eigenvalues are

1 2,3 4 5,6

= = = =

-39.097 -1.005j6.607 -0.739 -19.797j12.822

(d=1.05 Hz, =0.15) (d=2.04 Hz, =0.84)

and the participation matrix (magnitudes only) is

0.004 0.004 0.188 0.908 0.012 0.300 1 0.528 0.525 0.035 0.013 0.013 r 0.528 0.528 0.035 0.013 0.013 0.073 0.073 0.002 0.984 0.984 fd 0.025 0.025 0.000 0.527 0.527 v 1 0.160 0.160 1.072 0.094 0.094 v 2 0.052 0.052 0.001 0.417 0.417 v s 2 3 4 5 6

The following table summarizes the frequency of rotor oscillation, damping ratio, KS and KD with different types of excitation control and with classical model. Model d KS KD Classical Model (KD=0) 1.02 Hz 0 0.757 0 Constant Efd 1.07 HZ 0.017 0.763 1.53 AVR only 1.15 Hz -0.07 0.976 -7.06 AVR and PSS 1.05 Hz 0.15 0.829 14.08

Simulation of Multi-machine System

For small signal stability studies of a practical system the detailed model of various components has to be written in state space form and then linearized equations are derived. These components may include the following.

1. + +

Speed governing system and turbine model. Synchronous generator model. Excitation system model Exciter model. Power system stabilizer model. Load model.

The linearized model will provide the state matrix. For building the state matrix, following two approaches are followed. 1. State matrix are built at a known operating point from finding the derivative of functions with respect to the state variables. 2. By using a perturbation approach around the known operating point. Eigenvalues of the state matrix provide the stability information of the system. The participation matrix can be formed corresponding to critical eigenvalue(s) after obtaining REV and LEV matrices. In order to know whether the particular mode of oscillation is a 'Tie line mode' or 'Plant(local) mode', plot the speed eigenvectors of each generator corresponding to that mode. If all the speed vectors in a control area are clustered together and are separated clearly from the cluster of vectors for other area generators, it is a case of 'Tie line mode'. If these vectors are mixed up, it is a 'Local mode'.

State Matrix Building

In power system involving differential and algebraic equations, it is convenient to perform a small perturbation analysis to numerically evaluate the partial derivatives. Starting from the initial condition, a small perturbation is applied to each state variable. The change in the rates of change of all the states divided by the magnitude of the perturbation gives a column of the state matrix corresponding to the disturbed state. The entries of the state matrices are obtained by partial derivatives, which are obtained by dividing the state derivatives and output variable increments by the perturbation. The program structure for State Matrix Building is shown on figure 2

Loadflow

Initialization

Components

List of State, Input and Output Variables For Each Variable

State Variable Matrix Generation

Perturb Variable Network Solution Dynamic Computation Build Matrices

Figure 2 Program structure for State Matrix Building